18/02/26

Nucleus:-
It exists at the center of the atom, containing entire positive charge and almost whole of mass. The electron
revolve around the nucleus to form an atom. Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.
Protons and neutrons, together referred as Nucleons.
Representation of a nuclide is given by, "!𝑋
𝑍 = 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠, 𝐴 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑛 + 𝑝
𝑚# = 1.6726×10$%&𝑘𝑔 = 1.00727 𝑢
𝑚' = 1.6749×10$%&𝑘𝑔 = 1.00866 𝑢
𝑚( = 9.1×10$)*𝑘𝑔 = 0.0005 𝑢
Properties of Nucleus:-
(1) Nuclear Mass:
Since the mass of the electron is negligible so atomic mass is roughly equal to nuclear mass. Atomic
masses are measured in atomic mass unit (amu) and defined as 1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 1.6604×10$%&𝑘𝑔

𝑀𝑒𝑉
1 𝑢 = 931.5 & 𝑖𝑡 +𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝑐%

• The nuclide having same number of nucleons(A), but different number of protons are called Isobars.
• The nuclide having same number of neutrons(A-Z) are called as Isotones.
• The nuclide having same number of protons are called as Isotopes.

(2) Nuclear Charge:

Since nucleus contains positively charged protons and neutral neutrons so every nucleus has a net
positive charge.

(3) Nuclear radius:

The relation between the radius of nucleus and it’s mass number is given by
*
𝑅 ∝ 𝐴)
*
𝑅 = 𝑅,𝐴)
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑅, ≈ 1.2 𝑓𝑚

(4) Nuclear density:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑁𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚 𝐴𝑚#
⇒ 𝜌= =
4 ) 4 )
3 𝜋𝑅 3 𝜋𝑅, 𝐴
3𝑚#
𝜌= ≈ 10*& 𝑘𝑔/𝑚)
4𝜋𝑅,)

• Nuclear density is independent of A(mass number).

Vijay Sir 1
 18/02/26

Nuclear Forces:-
If only the electrostatic and gravitational forces existed in the nucleus, then it would be impossible to
have stable nuclei composed of protons and neutrons.
The gravitational forces are much smaller to hold the nucleons together compared to the electrostatic forces
repelling the protons. Since, stable atoms of neutrons and protons exist, there must be another attractive force acting
within the nucleus. This force is called the nuclear force.

Properties of nuclear force

• They are charge independent. The nuclear force between two protons is same as that between two neutrons or
between a neutron and proton.
• They may be repulsive may be attractive.
• It is a short range force. It’s radius of action is of order of 10-15 m.
• The nuclear force is of saturation character. Each nucleon in nucleus interacts with a limited number of nucleons.
• Nuclear force are much stronger than electromagnetic force or gravitational force. It is the strongest of all forces.
• Nuclear force is spin dependent. More force in parallel spin.
• Nuclear force is a non-central force.

Einstein’s mass energy equation:-

According to Einstein, mass can be converted into energy and energy into mass. This
relation is given by,
𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐

𝐸 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Mass Defect:-
It is observed that the mass of a nucleus is slightly less than the sum of the masses of constituent nucleons.
Mass of a proton, a neutron and the resulting nucleus are respectively mp, mn and M then mass defect is given by
Δ𝑚 = 𝑍𝑚# + 𝐴 − 𝑍 𝑚' − 𝑀

Binding Energy(Eb):-
To break a nucleus into its constituent nuclei some energy is required to be supplied. This energy is
called Binding energy Or the energy equivalent of the missing mass of nucleus is called the Binding energy.
𝐵𝐸 = Δ𝑚. 𝑐 %
𝐵𝐸 = Δ𝑚(𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑢)×931 𝑀𝑒𝑉
Binding Energy Per Nucleon:-
• Binding energy per nucleon is a measure of the stability of the nucleus.
• If there be n nucleons which is equal to A.
./'0/'1 ('(314 ..:.
=
5678(,' "
• Binding energy per nucleon has low value for both heavy and light nuclei.
• The intermediate nuclei have large value of binding energy per nucleon so
they are more stable.
• Binding energy per nucleon increases rapidly upto mass number 20 but
there are peaks corresponding to ;%𝐻𝑒, *%<𝐶, *<=𝑂 which indicates that these
nuclei are more stable than neighbours. Their mass number is divisible by
4 and considered as magic numbers.
• The minimum value of BE/A is 1.11 MeV for deuteron.
• The maximum value for iron ( ><
%<𝐹𝑒) which is 8.79 MeV.

Vijay Sir 2
 18/02/26

Nuclear Fission:-
The breaking of a heavy nucleus into two or more fragments of comparable mass, with the release of
tremendous energy is called as nuclear fission.
The most typical fission reaction occurs when slow moving neutrons strike 92𝑈 %)>, the following nuclear reaction takes
place.
92𝑈
%)> + 0𝑛* ⟶ 56𝐵𝑎*;* + 36𝐾𝑟 ?% + 30𝑛* + 200𝑀𝑒𝑉

Nuclear Fusion:-
The process in which two or more light nuclei are combined into a single nucleus with the release of
tremendous energy is called as nuclear fusion .
The most typical fusion reaction is the fusion of two deuterium nuclei into helium.

% % ;
1𝐻 + 1𝐻 ⟶ 2𝐻𝑒 + 21.6 𝑀𝑒𝑉
For the fusion reaction to occur, the light nuclei are brought closer to each other. This is possible only at very high
temperature and pressure to counter the repulsive force between nuclei.

Conservation laws in nuclear reaction:

• Conservation of charge
• Conservation of mass number or nucleons
• Conservation of (mass + energy).
• Conservation of linear and angular momentum

Q-value=[(total mass of reactants)-(total mass of products)] x C2

Q. Using the following plot of BE/nucleon v/s mass number, Q. In the sun about 4 billion kg of matter is converted to
mention the condition for which the energy is absorbed or energy each second. Find the power of the sun in watt?
released for the reaction? 𝑺𝒐𝒍.
"! + 𝑄 "" ⟶ 𝑃 "#
𝑍! 𝑃 𝑍" 𝑍# 𝑚
𝑩𝑬/𝑨 = 4×10?𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑡
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 %
𝐸"

𝐸# 𝐸 𝑚 %
⇒ = 𝑐
𝑡 𝑡
𝐸
𝐸!
⇒ = 4×10?×9×10*<
𝑡
𝐸
⇒ = 3.6×10%> 𝐽𝑠 $*
𝐴! 𝐴" 𝐴#
𝑨 𝑡
⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 3.6×10%> 𝑊
𝑺𝒐𝒍. Case-I:
𝑖𝑓 𝐴*𝐸* + 𝐴%𝐸% > 𝐴)𝐸)
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑

Case-II:
𝑖𝑓 𝐴*𝐸* + 𝐴%𝐸% < 𝐴)𝐸)
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑

Vijay Sir 3
 18/02/26

Pair Production:-
A 𝛾-photon of energy more than 1.02 MeV, when interact with a nucleus produces pair of electron (e-)
+
and positron (e ).
If energy of photon more than 1.02 MeV, then the extra energy divides approximately in equal amounts to each particle as
the kinetic energy.
𝐸BC − 1.02
𝐾. 𝐸. (& /(' = 𝑀𝑒𝑉
2

𝑖𝑓 𝐸BC < 1.02 𝑀𝑒𝑉, 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒

Pair Annihilation:-
When electron and positron combines they annihilates to each other and only energy is released in the
form of two gamma photons.

Radioactivity:-
𝜶 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔: These carry a charge of +2e and mass equal to 4mp. These are nuclei of helium atoms. They can be
deflected by electric and magnetic field and have lower penetrating power but high ionizing power.
𝜷 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔: These are fast moving electrons having charge equal to e and mass me. They can also be deflected by
electric and magnetic fields. They have low ionizing power but high penetrating power.
𝜸 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔: These are electro-magnetic waves of nuclear origin and of very short wavelength. They have no mass.
They have maximum penetrating power and minimum ionizing power. The energy released in a nuclear
reaction is mainly emitted in form of these 𝛾- radiations.

𝜶 − 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚:
" ⟶ 2𝐻𝑒 ; + !$%𝑌 -./
𝑍𝑋

• Released energy converts into kinetic energy of products.

𝐴−4
2𝐻𝑒
; 𝐾D = 𝑄 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑄 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑
4

𝜷 − 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚:
𝐢 𝑵𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝜷 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚 (𝜷. 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚) 𝐢𝐢 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝜷 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚 (𝜷0 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚)
Neutron inside nucleus is transformed into proton. Proton inside nucleus is transformed into Neutron.
𝑛⟶ 𝑝 + 𝑒$ + 𝜈 (𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜) 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑛 + 𝑒 F(𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛) + 𝜈 (𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜)
" "
" "
+ 𝑒 $ + 𝜈 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑍𝑋 ⟶ !$*𝑌 + 𝑒 F + 𝜈 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑍𝑋 ⟶ !F*𝑌

D M1 M2
234 230 230 230
90𝑇ℎ 88 𝑋 89𝑌 88𝑍

Neutrino and Anti-neutrino:

• It has zero electric charge, hence no electromagnetic interaction.
• Rest mass possibly zero but recent experiments shows that mass of neutrino is less than 7 ev/c2
• It shows very weak interaction with matter.

Vijay Sir 4