Data analysis

Data analysis is the process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming, and modeling data with the goal
of discovering useful information, informing conclusions, and supporting decision-making.[1] Data
analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of
names, and is used in different business, science, and social science domains.[2] In today's business
world, data analysis plays an important role in making decisions more scientific and helping
businesses operate more effectively.[3]

Data mining is a particular data analysis technique that focuses on statistical modeling and knowledge
discovery for predictive rather than purely descriptive purposes, while business intelligence covers
data analysis that relies heavily on aggregation, focusing mainly on business information. In statistical
applications, data analysis can be divided into descriptive statistics, exploratory data analysis (EDA),
and confirmatory data analysis (CDA).[4] EDA focuses on discovering new features in the data, while
CDA focuses on confirming or falsifying existing hypotheses.[5] Predictive analytics focuses on the
application of statistical models for predictive forecasting or classification, while text analytics applies
statistical, linguistic, and structural techniques to extract and classify information from textual
sources, a variety of unstructured data. All of the above are varieties of data analysis.[6]

Data analysis process

Data analysis is a process for obtaining raw
data, and subsequently converting it into
information useful for decision-making by
users.[1] Statistician John Tukey, defined data
analysis in 1961, as:

"Procedures for analyzing data,

techniques for interpreting the
results of such procedures, ways of
planning the gathering of data to
make its analysis easier, more
precise or more accurate, and all the
machinery and results of
(mathematical) statistics which Data science process flowchart from Doing Data Science,
apply to analyzing data."[7] by Schutt & O'Neil (2013)

There are several phases, and they are iterative, in that feedback from later phases may result in
additional work in earlier phases.[8]
Data requirements
The data is necessary as inputs to the analysis, which is specified based upon the requirements of
those directing the analytics (or customers, who will use the finished product of the analysis).[9] The
general type of entity upon which the data will be collected is referred to as an experimental unit (e.g.,
a person or population of people). Specific variables regarding a population (e.g., age and income)
may be specified and obtained. Data may be numerical or categorical (i.e., a text label for numbers).[8]

Data collection
Data may be collected from a variety of sources.[10] A list of data sources are available for study &
research. The requirements may be communicated by analysts to custodians of the data; such as,
Information Technology personnel within an organization.[11] Data collection or data gathering is
the process of gathering and measuring information on targeted variables in an established system,
which then enables one to answer relevant questions and evaluate outcomes. The data may also be
collected from sensors in the environment, including traffic cameras, satellites, recording devices, etc.
It may also be obtained through interviews, downloads from online sources, or reading
documentation.[8]

Data processing
Data integration is a precursor to data analysis:
Data, when initially obtained, must be
processed or organized for analysis. For
instance, this may involve placing data into
rows and columns in a table format (known as
structured data) for further analysis, often
through the use of spreadsheet(excel) or
statistical software.[8]

Data cleaning
Once processed and organized, the data may be
incomplete, contain duplicates, or contain
errors.[12] The need for data cleaning will arise The phases of the intelligence cycle used to convert raw
information into actionable intelligence or knowledge are
from problems in the way that the data is
conceptually similar to the phases in data analysis.
entered and stored.[12][13] Data cleaning is the
process of preventing and correcting these
errors. Common tasks include record matching, identifying inaccuracy of data, overall quality of
existing data, deduplication, and column segmentation.[14][15]

Such data problems can also be identified through a variety of analytical techniques. For example;
with financial information, the totals for particular variables may be compared against separately
published numbers that are believed to be reliable.[16] Unusual amounts, above or below
predetermined thresholds, may also be reviewed. There are several types of data cleaning that are
dependent upon the type of data in the set; this could be phone numbers, email addresses, employers,
or other values.[17] Quantitative data methods for outlier detection can be used to get rid of data that
appears to have a higher likelihood of being input incorrectly. Text data spell checkers can be used to
lessen the amount of mistyped words. However, it is harder to tell if the words are contextually (i.e.,
semantically and idiomatically) correct.

Exploratory data analysis

Once the datasets are cleaned, they can then begin to be analyzed using exploratory data analysis. The
process of data exploration may result in additional data cleaning or additional requests for data;
thus, the initialization of the iterative phases mentioned above.[18] Descriptive statistics, such as the
average, median, and standard deviation, are often used to broadly characterize the data.[19][20] Data
visualization is also used, in which the analyst is able to examine the data in a graphical format in
order to obtain additional insights about messages within the data.[8]

Modeling and algorithms

Mathematical formulas or models (also known as algorithms), may be applied to the data in
order to identify relationships among the variables; for example, checking for correlation and by
determining whether or not there is the presence of causality. In general terms, models may be
developed to evaluate a specific variable based on other variable(s) contained within the dataset, with
some residual error depending on the implemented model's accuracy (e.g., Data = Model + Error).[21]

Inferential statistics utilizes techniques that measure the relationships between particular
variables.[22] For example, regression analysis may be used to model whether a change in advertising
(independent variable X), provides an explanation for the variation in sales (dependent variable Y),
i.e. is Y a function of X? This can be described as (Y = aX + b + error), where the model is designed
such that (a) and (b) minimize the error when the model predicts Y for a given range of values of
X.[23]

Data product
A data product is a computer application that takes data inputs and generates outputs, feeding
them back into the environment.[24] It may be based on a model or algorithm. For instance, an
application that analyzes data about customer purchase history, and uses the results to recommend
other purchases the customer might enjoy.[25][8]

Communication
Once data is analyzed, it may be reported in many formats to the users of the analysis to support their
requirements.[27] The users may have feedback, which results in additional analysis.

When determining how to communicate the results, the analyst may consider implementing a variety
of data visualization techniques to help communicate the message more clearly and efficiently to the
audience. Data visualization uses information displays (graphics such as, tables and charts) to help
communicate key messages contained in the data. Tables are a
valuable tool by enabling the ability of a user to query and
focus on specific numbers; while charts (e.g., bar charts or line
charts), may help explain the quantitative messages contained
in the data.[28]

Quantitative messages
Stephen Few described eight types of quantitative messages Data visualization is used to help
that users may attempt to communicate from a set of data, understand the results after data is
including the associated graphs.[29][30] analyzed.[26]

1. Time-series: A single variable is captured over a period of

time, such as the unemployment rate over a 10-year
period. A line chart may be used to demonstrate the trend.
2. Ranking: Categorical subdivisions are ranked in
ascending or descending order, such as a ranking of sales
performance (the measure) by salespersons (the
category, with each salesperson a categorical subdivision)
during a single period. A bar chart may be used to show
the comparison across the salespersons.[31] A time series illustrated with a line chart
demonstrating trends in U.S. federal
3. Part-to-whole: Categorical subdivisions are measured as a
spending and revenue over time
ratio to the whole (i.e., a percentage out of 100%). A pie
chart or bar chart can show the comparison of ratios, such
as the market share represented by competitors in a
market.[32]
4. Deviation: Categorical subdivisions are compared against
a reference, such as a comparison of actual vs. budget
expenses for several departments of a business for a
given time period. A bar chart can show the comparison of
the actual versus the reference amount.[33]
5. Frequency distribution: Shows the number of observations
of a particular variable for a given interval, such as the
number of years in which the stock market return is
between intervals such as 0–10%, 11–20%, etc. A
histogram, a type of bar chart, may be used for this A scatterplot illustrating the correlation
analysis. between two variables (inflation and
unemployment) measured at points in
6. Correlation: Comparison between observations
represented by two variables (X,Y) to determine if they time
tend to move in the same or opposite directions. For
example, plotting unemployment (X) and inflation (Y) for a
sample of months. A scatter plot is typically used for this message.[34]
7. Nominal comparison: Comparing categorical subdivisions in no particular order, such as the sales
volume by product code. A bar chart may be used for this comparison.[35]
8. Geographic or geo-spatial: Comparison of a variable across a map or layout, such as the
unemployment rate by state or the number of persons on the various floors of a building. A
cartogram is typically used.[29]
Analyzing quantitative data in finance
Author Jonathan Koomey has recommended a series of best practices for understanding quantitative
data. These include:[16]

Check raw data for anomalies prior to performing an analysis;

Re-perform important calculations, such as verifying columns of data that are formula-driven;
Confirm main totals are the sum of subtotals;
Check relationships between numbers that should be related in a predictable way, such as ratios
over time;
Normalize numbers to make comparisons easier, such as analyzing amounts per person or
relative to GDP or as an index value relative to a base year;
Break problems into component parts by analyzing factors that led to the results, such as DuPont
analysis of return on equity.
For the variables under examination, analysts typically obtain descriptive statistics, such as the mean
(average), median, and standard deviation. They may also analyze the distribution of the key variables
to see how the individual values cluster around the mean.[16]

McKinsey and Company named a technique for breaking

down a quantitative problem into its component parts called
the MECE principle. MECE means "Mutually Exclusive and
Collectively Exhaustive".[36] Each layer can be broken down
into its components; each of the sub-components must be
mutually exclusive of each other and collectively add up to the
layer above them. For example, profit by definition can be
broken down into total revenue and total cost.[37] An illustration of the MECE principle used
for data analysis
Analysts may use robust statistical measurements to solve
certain analytical problems. Hypothesis testing is used when a
particular hypothesis about the true state of affairs is made by the analyst and data is gathered to
determine whether that hypothesis is true or false.[38] For example, the hypothesis might be that
"Unemployment has no effect on inflation", which relates to an economics concept called the Phillips
Curve.[39] Hypothesis testing involves considering the likelihood of Type I and type II errors, which
relate to whether the data supports accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.[40]

Regression analysis may be used when the analyst is trying to determine the extent to which
independent variable X affects dependent variable Y (e.g., "To what extent do changes in the
unemployment rate (X) affect the inflation rate (Y)?").[41]

Necessary condition analysis (NCA) may be used when the analyst is trying to determine the extent to
which independent variable X allows variable Y (e.g., "To what extent is a certain unemployment rate
(X) necessary for a certain inflation rate (Y)?").[41] Whereas (multiple) regression analysis uses
additive logic where each X-variable can produce the outcome and the X's can compensate for each
other (they are sufficient but not necessary),[42] necessary condition analysis (NCA) uses necessity
logic, where one or more X-variables allow the outcome to exist, but may not produce it (they are
necessary but not sufficient). Each single necessary condition must be present and compensation is
not possible.[43]

Analytical activities of data users

Users may have particular data points of
interest within a data set, as opposed to the
general messaging outlined above. Such low-
level user analytic activities are presented in the
following table. The taxonomy can also be
organized by three poles of activities: retrieving
values, finding data points, and arranging data
points.[44][45][46]

Analytic activities of data visualization users

 General Pro forma
# Task Examples
description abstract

- What is the mileage per gallon of the

Given a set of Ford Mondeo?
What are the values of
specific
attributes {X, Y, Z, ...} in
1 Retrieve Value cases, find
the data cases {A, B,
- How long is the movie Gone
attributes of with the Wind?
C, ...}?
those cases.

- What Kellogg's cereals have high

Given some fiber?
concrete
conditions on - What comedies have won
attribute Which data cases
2 Filter values, find satisfy conditions {A, B,
awards?
data cases C...}?
satisfying - Which funds underperformed
those the SP-500?
conditions.

- What is the average calorie content of

Given a set of Post cereals?
data cases,
compute an What is the value of
- What is the gross income of all
3 Compute Derived Value
aggregate aggregation function F stores combined?
numeric over a given set S of
representation data cases?
of those data
- How many manufacturers of
cases. cars are there?

- What is the car with the highest MPG?

Find data
cases - What director/film has won the
possessing an What are the
extreme value top/bottom N data
most awards?
4 Find Extremum
of an attribute cases with respect to
over its range attribute A? - What Marvel Studios film has
within the the most recent release date?
data set.

Given a set of
What is the sorted
data cases, - Order the cars by weight.
order of a set S of data
rank them
5 Sort cases according to - Rank the cereals by calories.
according to
their value of attribute
some ordinal
A?
metric.

- What is the range of film lengths?

Given a set of
data cases - What is the range of car
and an horsepowers?
What is the range of
attribute of
6 Determine Range values of attribute A in
interest, find
a set S of data cases?
the span of - What actresses are in the data
values within set?
the set.

7 Characterize Distribution Given a set of What is the distribution - What is the distribution of
data cases of values of attribute A carbohydrates in cereals?
and a in a set S of data
quantitative cases? - What is the age distribution of
attribute of shoppers?
interest,
 characterize
the
distribution of
that attribute's
values over
the set.

Identify any
anomalies
within a given - Are there exceptions to the
set of data Which data cases in a relationship between horsepower and
cases with set S of data cases acceleration?
8 Find Anomalies respect to a have
given unexpected/exceptional
- Are there any outliers in
relationship or values? protein?
expectation,
e.g. statistical
outliers.

Given a set of - Are there groups of cereals w/ similar

data cases, Which data cases in a fat/calories/sugar?
find clusters set S of data cases are
9 Cluster
of similar similar in value for
- Is there a cluster of typical film
attribute attributes {X, Y, Z, ...}? lengths?
values.

- Is there a correlation between

carbohydrates and fat?
Given a set of
data cases - Is there a correlation between
and two
country of origin and MPG?
attributes,
What is the correlation
determine
between attributes X
10 Correlate useful
and Y over a given set
- Do different genders have a
relationships preferred payment method?
S of data cases?
between the
values of
those - Is there a trend of increasing
attributes. film length over the years?

Given a set of
data cases,
Which data cases in a
find - Are there groups of restaurants that
set S of data cases are
11 Contextualization contextual have foods based on my current caloric
relevant to the current
relevancy of intake?
users' context?
the data to the
users.

Barriers to effective analysis

Barriers to effective analysis may exist among the analysts performing the data analysis or among the
audience. Distinguishing fact from opinion, cognitive biases, and innumeracy are all challenges to
sound data analysis.[47]
Confusing fact and opinion
Effective analysis requires obtaining relevant facts to answer
questions, support a conclusion or formal opinion, or test You are entitled to your own
opinion, but you are not
hypotheses.[48] Facts by definition are irrefutable, meaning that
entitled to your own facts.
any person involved in the analysis should be able to agree
upon them. The auditor of a public company must arrive at a
Daniel Patrick Moynihan
formal opinion on whether financial statements of publicly
traded corporations are "fairly stated, in all material
respects".[49] This requires extensive analysis of factual data and evidence to support their opinion.

Cognitive biases
There are a variety of cognitive biases that can adversely affect analysis. For example, confirmation
bias is the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's
preconceptions.[50] In addition, individuals may discredit information that does not support their
views.[51]

Analysts may be trained specifically to be aware of these biases and how to overcome them.[52] In his
book Psychology of Intelligence Analysis, retired CIA analyst Richards Heuer wrote that analysts
should clearly delineate their assumptions and chains of inference and specify the degree and source
of the uncertainty involved in the conclusions.[53] He emphasized procedures to help surface and
debate alternative points of view.[54]

Innumeracy
Effective analysts are generally adept with a variety of numerical techniques. However, audiences may
not have such literacy with numbers or numeracy; they are said to be innumerate.[55] Persons
communicating the data may also be attempting to mislead or misinform, deliberately using bad
numerical techniques.[56]

For example, whether a number is rising or falling may not be the key factor. More important may be
the number relative to another number, such as the size of government revenue or spending relative
to the size of the economy (GDP) or the amount of cost relative to revenue in corporate financial
statements.[57] This numerical technique is referred to as normalization[16] or common-sizing. There
are many such techniques employed by analysts, whether adjusting for inflation (i.e., comparing real
vs. nominal data) or considering population increases, demographics, etc.[58]

Analysts may also analyze data under different assumptions or scenarios. For example, when analysts
perform financial statement analysis, they will often recast the financial statements under different
assumptions to help arrive at an estimate of future cash flow, which they then discount to present
value based on some interest rate, to determine the valuation of the company or its stock.[59]
Similarly, the CBO analyzes the effects of various policy options on the government's revenue, outlays
and deficits, creating alternative future scenarios for key measures.[60]
Other applications

Analytics and business intelligence

Analytics is the "extensive use of data, statistical and quantitative analysis, explanatory and predictive
models, and fact-based management to drive decisions and actions." It is a subset of business
intelligence, which is a set of technologies and processes that uses data to understand and analyze
business performance to drive decision-making.[61]

Education
In education, most educators have access to a data system for the purpose of analyzing student
data.[62] These data systems present data to educators in an over-the-counter data format (embedding
labels, supplemental documentation, and a help system and making key package/display and content
decisions) to improve the accuracy of educators' data analyses.[63]

Practitioner notes
This section contains rather technical explanations that may assist practitioners but are beyond the
typical scope of a Wikipedia article.[64]

Initial data analysis

The most important distinction between the initial data analysis phase and the main analysis phase is
that during initial data analysis one refrains from any analysis that is aimed at answering the original
research question. The initial data analysis phase is guided by the following four questions:[65]

Quality of data
The quality of the data should be checked as early as possible. Data quality can be assessed in several
ways, using different types of analysis: frequency counts, descriptive statistics (mean, standard
deviation, median), normality (skewness, kurtosis, frequency histograms), normal imputation is
needed.[66]

Analysis of extreme observations: outlying observations in the data are analyzed to see if they
seem to disturb the distribution.[67]
Comparison and correction of differences in coding schemes: variables are compared with coding
schemes of variables external to the data set, and possibly corrected if coding schemes are not
comparable.[68]
Test for common-method variance. The choice of analyses to assess the data quality during the
initial data analysis phase depends on the analyses that will be conducted in the main analysis
phase.[69]
Quality of measurements
The quality of the measurement instruments should only be checked during the initial data analysis
phase when this is not the focus or research question of the study.[70] One should check whether
structure of measurement instruments corresponds to structure reported in the literature.

There are two ways to assess measurement quality:

Confirmatory factor analysis

Analysis of homogeneity (internal consistency), which gives an indication of the reliability of a
measurement instrument.[71] During this analysis, one inspects the variances of the items and the
scales, the Cronbach's α of the scales, and the change in the Cronbach's alpha when an item
would be deleted from a scale[72]

Initial transformations
After assessing the quality of the data and of the measurements, one might decide to impute missing
data, or to perform initial transformations of one or more variables, although this can also be done
during the main analysis phase.[73]
Possible transformations of variables are:[74]

Square root transformation (if the distribution differs moderately from normal)
Log-transformation (if the distribution differs substantially from normal)
Inverse transformation (if the distribution differs severely from normal)
Make categorical (ordinal / dichotomous) (if the distribution differs severely from normal, and no
transformations help)

Did the implementation of the study fulfill the intentions of the research design?
One should check the success of the randomization procedure, for instance by checking whether
background and substantive variables are equally distributed within and across groups. If the study
did not need or use a randomization procedure, one should check the success of the non-random
sampling, for instance by checking whether all subgroups of the population of interest are represented
in the sample.[75]
Other possible data distortions that should be checked are:

dropout (this should be identified during the initial data analysis phase)
Item non-response (whether this is random or not should be assessed during the initial data
analysis phase)
Treatment quality (using manipulation checks).[76]

Characteristics of data sample

In any report or article, the structure of the sample must be accurately described. It is especially
important to exactly determine the size of the subgroup when subgroup analyses will be performed
during the main analysis phase.[77]
The characteristics of the data sample can be assessed by looking at:

Basic statistics of important variables

 Scatter plots
Correlations and associations
Cross-tabulations[78]

Final stage of the initial data analysis

During the final stage, the findings of the initial data analysis are documented, and necessary,
preferable, and possible corrective actions are taken. Also, the original plan for the main data analyses
can and should be specified in more detail or rewritten. In order to do this, several decisions about the
main data analyses can and should be made:

In the case of non-normals: should one transform variables; make variables categorical
(ordinal/dichotomous); adapt the analysis method?
In the case of missing data: should one neglect or impute the missing data; which imputation
technique should be used?
In the case of outliers: should one use robust analysis techniques?
In case items do not fit the scale: should one adapt the measurement instrument by omitting
items, or rather ensure comparability with other (uses of the) measurement instrument(s)?
In the case of (too) small subgroups: should one drop the hypothesis about inter-group
differences, or use small sample techniques, like exact tests or bootstrapping?
In case the randomization procedure seems to be defective: can and should one calculate
propensity scores and include them as covariates in the main analyses?[79]

Analysis
Several analyses can be used during the initial data analysis phase:[80]

Univariate statistics (single variable)

Bivariate associations (correlations)
Graphical techniques (scatter plots)
It is important to take the measurement levels of the variables into account for the analyses, as special
statistical techniques are available for each level:[81]

Nominal and ordinal variables

Frequency counts (numbers and percentages)
Associations
circumambulations (crosstabulations)
hierarchical loglinear analysis (restricted to a maximum of 8 variables)
loglinear analysis (to identify relevant/important variables and possible confounders)
Exact tests or bootstrapping (in case subgroups are small)
Computation of new variables
Continuous variables
Distribution
Statistics (M, SD, variance, skewness, kurtosis)
Stem-and-leaf displays
 Box plots

Nonlinear analysis
Nonlinear analysis is often necessary when the data is recorded from a nonlinear system. Nonlinear
systems can exhibit complex dynamic effects including bifurcations, chaos, harmonics and
subharmonics that cannot be analyzed using simple linear methods. Nonlinear data analysis is closely
related to nonlinear system identification.[82]

Main data analysis

In the main analysis phase, analyses aimed at answering the research question are performed as well
as any other relevant analysis needed to write the first draft of the research report.[83]

Exploratory and confirmatory approaches

In the main analysis phase, either an exploratory or confirmatory approach can be adopted. Usually
the approach is decided before data is collected.[84] In an exploratory analysis no clear hypothesis is
stated before analysing the data, and the data is searched for models that describe the data well.[85] In
a confirmatory analysis, clear hypotheses about the data are tested.[86]

Exploratory data analysis should be interpreted carefully. When testing multiple models at once there
is a high chance on finding at least one of them to be significant, but this can be due to a type 1 error.
It is important to always adjust the significance level when testing multiple models with, for example,
a Bonferroni correction.[87] Also, one should not follow up an exploratory analysis with a
confirmatory analysis in the same dataset.[88] An exploratory analysis is used to find ideas for a
theory, but not to test that theory as well.[88] When a model is found exploratory in a dataset, then
following up that analysis with a confirmatory analysis in the same dataset could simply mean that the
results of the confirmatory analysis are due to the same type 1 error that resulted in the exploratory
model in the first place.[88] The confirmatory analysis therefore will not be more informative than the
original exploratory analysis.[89]

Stability of results
It is important to obtain some indication about how generalizable the results are.[90] While this is
often difficult to check, one can look at the stability of the results. Are the results reliable and
reproducible? There are two main ways of doing that.

Cross-validation. By splitting the data into multiple parts, we can check if an analysis (like a fitted
model) based on one part of the data generalizes to another part of the data as well.[91] Cross-
validation is generally inappropriate, though, if there are correlations within the data, e.g. with
panel data.[92] Hence other methods of validation sometimes need to be used. For more on this
topic, see statistical model validation.[93]
Sensitivity analysis. A procedure to study the behavior of a system or model when global
parameters are (systematically) varied. One way to do that is via bootstrapping.[94]
Free software for data analysis
Free software for data analysis include:

DevInfo – A database system endorsed by the United Nations Development Group for monitoring
and analyzing human development.[95]
ELKI – Data mining framework in Java with data mining oriented visualization functions.
KNIME – The Konstanz Information Miner, a user friendly and comprehensive data analytics
framework.
Orange – A visual programming tool featuring interactive data visualization and methods for
statistical data analysis, data mining, and machine learning.
Pandas – Python library for data analysis.
PAW – FORTRAN/C data analysis framework developed at CERN.
R – A programming language and software environment for statistical computing and graphics.[96]
ROOT – C++ data analysis framework developed at CERN.
SciPy – Python library for scientific computing.
Julia – A programming language well-suited for numerical analysis and computational science.

Reproducible analysis
The typical data analysis workflow involves collecting data, running analyses, creating visualizations,
and writing reports. However, this workflow presents challenges, including a separation between
analysis scripts and data, as well as a gap between analysis and documentation. Often, the correct
order of running scripts is only described informally or resides in the data scientist's memory. The
potential for losing this information creates issues for reproducibility.

To address these challenges, it is essential to document analysis script content and workflow.
Additionally, overall documentation is crucial, as well as providing reports that are understandable by
both machines and humans, and ensuring accurate representation of the analysis workflow even as
scripts evolve.[97]

Data analysis contests

Different companies and organizations hold data analysis contests to encourage researchers to utilize
their data or to solve a particular question using data analysis. A few examples of well-known
international data analysis contests are:

Kaggle competitions; the Kaggle platform is owned and run by Google.[98]

LTPP data analysis contest[99] held by FHWA and ASCE.[100]

See also
Actuarial science Analytics
 Augmented Analytics Machine learning
Business intelligence Multiway data analysis
Data presentation architecture Qualitative research
Exploratory data analysis Structured data analysis (statistics)
List of datasets for machine-learning research Text mining
List of data science software Unstructured data

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Further reading
Adèr, H.J. & Mellenbergh, G.J. (with contributions by D.J. Hand) (2008). Advising on Research
Methods: A Consultant's Companion. Huizen, the Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing.
ISBN 978-90-79418-01-5
Chambers, John M.; Cleveland, William S.; Kleiner, Beat; Tukey, Paul A. (1983). Graphical
Methods for Data Analysis, Wadsworth/Duxbury Press. ISBN 0-534-98052-X
Fandango, Armando (2017). Python Data Analysis, 2nd Edition. Packt Publishers. ISBN 978-
1787127487
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