INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION (22ESC143/243)

MODULE 4

Analog Communication Schemes

Modern communication system scheme
Information source and input
transducer Transmitter
Channel or Medium – Hardwired and Soft-wired
Noise
Receiver
Multiplexing
Types of communication
systems Types of modulation
AM, FM
Digital Modulation Schemes
Advantages of digital communication over Analog-
Communication
ASK, FSK, PSK
Radio signal transmission
Multiple access
techniques Review
questions
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION (22ESC143/243)
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION (22ESC143/243)

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Communication?

● Transfer of information from one point

to other (or) Exchange of Information
between two points.
● Electronic Communication: Sending data
or Information using electronic
devices. This allows rapid transfer
of goods, money and ideas
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Need for Communication

● Speedy transmission: Requires only few seconds to communicate through electronic media
due the technology available for quick transmission
● Wide Coverage: The whole world has become a global village and communication around
the globe requires just a second
● Low Cost: Cost of an SMS is cheaper than sending a letter by post
● Exchange of feedback : Instant exchange of feedback
● 24/7 accessibility: Can be accessed anytime

Message signal: The signal that consists information is called modulating signal. The
modulating signal is usually of low-frequency signal. (20 Hz – 20 KHz)

Carrier signal:
The signal which carries the information is called carrier signal. Carrier signal is a high frequency
signal which does not contains any information. The purpose of this signal is just to carry the
message signal. The range is in terms of Mega Hertz.

Type of Signals

Signals are functions that carry information. We use signals to convey information from place
to place. In electronics, signals are mainly in the form of varying voltages. There are two types of
signals.

Analog Digital
Signals Signals

Analog signal is continuous and time varying Digital signal have two or more states
(binary form)
Troubleshooting is difficult. Troubleshooting is easy.
Easily affected by the noise. These are stable and less prone to noise.
Analog signals use continuous values to represent Digital signals use discrete values to
the represent the
data, usually in the form of sine wave. data, usually in the form of square wave.
Accuracy may be affected by noise. Accuracy is immune from the noise.
Analog signals may be corrupted during data Digital signals are not corrupted during data
transmission. transmission.
Analog signals use more power. Digital signals use less power.
Examples: Temperature, Pressure, Flow Examples: Motor Start, Trip, etc.
measurements,
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etc.

Components like resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, Components like transistors, logic gates, and
Diodes micro-controllers are used in digital circuits.
are used in analog circuits.
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5.1.1 Modern Communication System scheme

General form of a basic communication system is shown in the fig.5.1(a). Illustration of video
communication system is shown in the fig. 5.1(b).

Fig.5.1(a) Illustration of Basic Communication System

Elements of Communication System

Information source and transducer
Transmitter
Channel or medium / Noise
Receiver
Output transducer and final destination
A communication system transmits information from an information source (message) to a
destination.
Examples: Voice, Live scenes (video), music, written text, and e-mail.
A transducer is a device that converts a physical signal into its corresponding electrical signal and
vice versa.
Examples of input transducers: Sound -
Microphone Picture - Camera
Text - Keyboard
Temperature/Pressure - Sensor with transducer

Fig.5.1(b) Illustration of video Communication System

(i) Information Source and Transducer

Message or information originates in the information source may be in the form of sound (human
speech), picture (image source), words (text). However, out of these messages, only the desired
message is selected and communicated.
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A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form. Generally, the input
transducer converts the non-electrical signal (Ex: sound signal or light signal) into an electrical
signal.
For example, in case of radio-broadcasting, a microphone converts the information or massage
which is in the form of sound waves into corresponding electrical signal.
(ii)Transmitter
The base band signal (electrical form), output from the input transducer is applied to the input of
the transmitter. The transmitter performs three operations: filtering, amplification and
modulation. The nature of processing depends on the type of communication system.
There are two options for processing signals prior transmission
)The baseband signal, which lies in the low frequency spectrum, is translated to a higher frequency spectrum
--- carrier communication system
In this process, modulation is the main function of the transmitter. In modulation, the message
signal is superimposed upon the high-frequency carrier signal. As the original message signal
cannot be transmitted over a longer distance because of their low frequency and amplitude, they
are superimposed with high frequency carrier signal.
(ii) The baseband signal is transmitted without translating it to a higher frequency spectrum ---
baseband communication system.

If the signal is to be transmitted through the space, then the transmitter will convert the electrical
signals into radio waves. If the signal is to be transmitted through the fiber optic cable then the
transmitter will convert the electrical signal into light or optical signal.

Typical Analog transmitter

Let s(t) be the baseband signal applied to the modulated stage as shown in the fig.5.1(c), to translate
(modulate) it from low to high frequency spectrum. That means, s(t) is superimposed upon the high-
frequency carrier signal c(t), which is generated by a high frequency carrier oscillator. The output of
the modulated stage is called the modulated signal, and is designated as x(t). This signal is then
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applied to amplifier stage. The voltage of the modulated signal is amplified to drive the power
amplifier stage. The power amplifier that
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amplifies the power of the modulated signal x(t) and thus it carries enough power to reach the
receiver stage of the communication system. Finally, the signal is passed to the transmission
medium or channel.

Fig.5.1(c) Block diagram of analog transmitter section

For example, in radio broadcasting the sound signal (message signal) is converted into the electrical
signal (baseband signal), by the input transducer. Then, it is modulated with the radio frequency
range carrier signals to produce radio signals. These radio signals are transmitted through
electromagnetic waves (open space), referred to as radio waves.
Radio Frequency (RF) bands spread in the range between 30 kHz and 300 GHz. Transmission
systems are operated in the RF spectrum range and its application in communication systems is
tabulated in the table-5.1.

Table 5.1: Frequency ranges and its application in communication systems

Frequency Name Frequency Range Application

Super high frequencies 3GHz-30GHz RADAR
Ultra high frequencies 300MHz-3GHz Satellite communication, cellular phones
Very high frequencies 30MHz-300MHz TV and FM
High frequencies 3MHz-30MHz Commercial short wave broadcast
Medium frequencies 300kHz-3MHz AM broadcast
Low frequencies 30kHz-300kHz Navigation, submarine communication
Very low frequencies 3kHz-30kHz Navigation, submarine communication
Voice frequencies 300Hz-3kHz Navigation ,submarine, audio
Extremely low frequencies 30Hz-300Hz Power transmission

(iii) Channel or medium

The term channel means the medium through which the message travels from the transmitter to
the receiver. The transmitted signal should have adequate power to withstand the channel noise.
The channel characteristics also impose constraints on the bandwidth.
Depending on the physical implementations, one can classify the channels in the following two
groups:
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a) Hardwired channels (Manmade structure)

Transmission lines: It is a conductive medium consisting of two or more conductors through
which electrical signal are transmitted from transmitting point to receiver point.
Example: i) Twisted pair cables used in telephony, in which two conductors are twisted together
for the purposes of improving electromagnetic compatibility.
ii) Coaxial cable used in TV transmission, to carry high-frequency electrical signals with low
losses. Waveguide: consisting of a hollow, metal tube of uniform cross-section used for
transmitting electro- magnetic waves. When signals entered the waveguides are reflected at the
metallic walls and propagate at the other end. The energy is in the form of electric field and
magnetic field which are perpendicular to each other.
Optical Fibre: consist of very thin hollow glass fibre through which signal is transmitted in the form
of light energy.
b) Soft-wired channels (no physical link between transmitter and
receiver) Natural resources which can be used as the transmission
medium for signals. Example: Air or Open space and Sea water.
The signals are transmitted in the form of electromagnetic (EM) waves also called radio waves.
8
Radio waves travel through open space at a speed equal to that of light (c = 3 x 10 m/s)
(iv) Noise
Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signal which do not have any useful information. Noise is
a highly undesirable part of a communication system, and has to be minimized. When noise is
mixed with the transmitted signal, it rides over it and deteriorates its waveform.

Noise calculation:
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) and Noise figure (F)

SNR is defined
as the ratio of signal power (S) to the noise power (N), often expressed in decibels (dB).
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(v) Typical Analog Receiver

The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the original message signal. This reproduction of
the original signal is accomplished by a process known as the demodulation or detection.

Fig.5.2 Block diagram of analog receiver section

Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation carried out in transmitter. Typical analog receiver
section is shown in the fig.5.2. The signal received by the receiver is r(t). Due to attenuation this
received signal r(t) is a weak signal. A voltage amplifier amplifies to make strong enough for further
processing. Next, this signal is applied to the demodulator. In demodulation, the baseband signal is
separated from the high-frequency carrier signal. After recovering the original baseband signal s’(t),
its voltage and power is amplified before send to the final destination block.

(vi) Destination
Destination is the final stage which is used to convert an electrical message signal into its original
form. For example in radio broadcasting, the destination is a loudspeaker which works as a
2 Types oftransducer that Systems
Communication converts the electrical signal to original sound signal.

● Communication Systems based on Physical Infrastructure

Based on physical infrastructure there are two types of communication systems:
i) Line communication systems: Uses power lines to transfer data from one point to another
point. There is a physical link, called a hardwire channel between the transmitter and the receiver
inline communication systems. Example: Land line telephony, Cable TV
ii) Radio communication systems: information is carried across space using
radio waves. Example: Radio broadcasting
● Communication systems based on Signal specifications
A. Based on Nature of baseband or information signal
Analog communication systems: Exchange of information between two points through analog signals. Ex:
Audio, video and pictures between two points using the analog signals.
)Digital communication systems: Exchange of information between two points through digital signals. Ex:
Audio, HDTV
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B. Based on Nature of the transmitted signal

Baseband communication system: Baseband signals are transmitted without translating (or amplified) to
higher frequencies. Ex: Land line, fax, etc
)Carrier communication system: The baseband signal (low frequency) is mixed with high frequency carrier
signal. Ex: Radio, voice messages and calls.
3 Multiplexing

Multiplexing is a process which allows more than one signal to be transmitted through a single channel.

Fig. 5.3 multiplexing various baseband signals

In multiplexing, each baseband signals are modulated with different carrier frequencies. At the
transmitter they can be mixes and transmitted as shown in the fig.5.3. At the receiver end, all
different transmitted signals can be easily separated by the known carrier frequencies by the
process of de-multiplexing and demodulation.
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Due to multiplexing it is possible to increase the number of communication channels so that more
information can be transmitted where it makes the communication system economical. The typical
.4 Types applications of multiplexing are telephone, satellite communication etc.
of Modulation

Modulation is the process in which any one of the parameters (amplitude, frequency or phase) of
the high frequency carrier signal is varied according to the instantaneous values of the low
frequency message signal, keeping other parameters constant.

Analog modulation is typically used for AM, FM radio, and short-wave broadcasting. Digital
modulation involves transmission of binary signals (0 and 1).

Amplitude Modulation (AM) is the process in

which the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied according
to the instantaneous values of the message signal, where as the frequency and phase are kept
constant. It is as shown in the below figure.
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The first figure is the carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information.
Denoted as
c(t) = Ac cos(2πfct)
The next one is the modulating wave, which is the message signal; (low frequency signal) contains
information. Denoted as m(t) = Am cos(2πfmt)
The last one is the resultant amplitude modulated wave. Mathematically, AM is

denoted as VAM = Vc sin ωc t + cos (ωc - ωm) t - cos (ωc +

ωm) t
In AM, most of the transmitted power is wasted in carrier, but used for longer distance communication.

Frequency Modulation is defined as a process in which the

frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the instantaneous values of the message
signal, where as the amplitude and phase are kept constant.
∆ f (frequency deviation)
Mathematically, FM wave is denoted as S (t) = A sin [2πfct + mf

)] Modulation index (depth of modulation) mf =

Carrier Swing = f(max) - f(min) = 2 f
In FM, all the transmitted power is useful, but used for short distance communication.
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DIGITAL MODULATION SCHEMES

5.3.1 Advantages of Digital Communication over Analog Communication

Most of the real time signals are analog in nature (speech, video, temperature, etc). Digital signals
are obtained from analog domain by the techniques viz, sampling, quantization and encoding. As
the signals are digitized, there are many advantages of digital communication over analog
communication, as listed below −
● Digital communication is lossless transmission.
● Internet and cyberspace could not exist without digital communication.
● Digital communication is fast, easier and cheaper.
● Digital communication system is more immune to noise, hence signal distortion is less.
● Digital circuits are more reliable (performance is better) and consume less power.
● Digital circuits are easy to design and cheaper than analog circuits.
● The hardware implementation is more flexible, easy to implement, less expensive, because
of the advancement in the IC technology, powerful microprocessors, bigger memory devices
etc.
● The occurrence of cross-talk is very rare in digital communication.
● Encryption allows the better security of data.
● Compression allows data to reduce to lesser in size; hence it can save and retrieve more
conveniently.
● The probability of error occurrence is reduced due to error detecting and error correcting
codes. In turn, it provides extreme accuracy and fidelity.
● Spread spectrum technique is used to avoid signal jamming.
● Multiplexing is quite easy (combining several digital signals using Time Division
Multiplexing is easier).
● Better voice quality over a long distance and an increased level of efficiency.
● Deliver more information with greater portability - a lot of data is sent from one computer to
another is faster.
● Simple to use - digital devices are easy to use with flexible features.
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● Digital communication enables use of wide band channels such as geostationary satellites,
optical fibre cables, co-axial cables etc.
● Greater dynamic range due to use of repeaters.
● It facilitates video conferencing and audio conferencing that saves time, money and effort
in real time applications.
● Digital communication is excellent in techniques like image processing, video processing,
data compression, channel coding and equalization etc.
● Digital signals can easily be stored, mixed, recording, review and retrieved in an accurate
and with less expensive.
● In digital circuits, noise, temperature and other parameter fluctuations have a minimal influence.
.2 Modulation Schemes

In digital communications, the modulating signal consists of binary data. When it is required to
transmit digital signals, the amplitude, frequency or phase of the sinusoidal carrier is varied in
accordance with the incoming digital data.
Digital modulation schemes are classified as
i)Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
ii)Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
iii)Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)
ASK represents digital data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave. ASK signal can be
generated when the incoming binary data and the sinusoidal carrier are applied to a product
modulator as inputs. See the figure given below.

FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)

In this technique digital signal is transmitted by switching between low frequency and high
frequency in order to represent 0’s and 1’s. The simplest FSK is Binary FSK (BFSK). It uses a pair of
discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information. See below figure.

15
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Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

The simplest form of PSK is binary phase shift keying (BPSK). In this case, the carrier phase is
shifted between two different phases (typically 0° and 180°) depending on whether 0-bit or 1-bit is
being transmitted. For example:
0- bit: the symbol transmitted is Vc cos (2πfc t)
1- bit: the symbol transmitted is Vc cos (2πfc t +180°) = − Vc cos(2πfc t)

Radio signal Transmission

From the fig.5.5, the wireless transmitter accepts four different binary streams of bits (00, 10, 11 and
01) from the application software. Further, these bits encoded on to a radio wave, known as a carrier
by adjusting its amplitude or phase. Transmitter operates in two stages. In the first stage, quadrature
phase shift keying (QPSK) modulator accepts the incoming binary bits and convert it to symbols
that represents the amplitude and the phase. Then, the symbols are passed over the analog
transmitter, which generates the radio wave.

Fig.5.5 Wireless communication transmitter

QPSK modulator takes two bits at a time and transmits them using a radio wave. Four different
o o o o
binary states have phases of 45 , 135 , 225 , and 315 as shown in the fig.5.5.
The distance of each state from the origin represents the amplitude of the transmitted wave, while angle
measured anti-clockwise from x-axis represents the phase as shown in the constellation diagram
fig.5.6(b).
Each symbol is conveniently represented by two components: in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q).
I = a cos Φ (real part)
and Q = a sin Φ (imaginary part)
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Fig.5.6 (a) QPSK representation (b) QPSK constellation diagram

Note: Radio works by transmitting and receiving electromagnetic waves. Radio signal uses specific radio frequency AM
is expressed in kilo Hertz, while FM radio is expressed in mega Hertz.

LT
E Modulation scheme
LTE (Long Term Evolution) is a standard for wireless broadband communication for mobile devices
(marketed as 4G). LTE uses four modulation schemes together as given below and shown in the
fig.7
i)Binary Phase Shift Keying – BPSK
ii)Quadrature Phase Shift Keying - QPSK
iii)16 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation -16 QAM
iv)64 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation – 64 QAM
o o
i) BPSK sends one bit at a time using two states (0 and 1) representing phases of 0 and 180 or
signal amplitudes of +1 and -1
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ii) QPSK sends two bits at iii) 16 - QAM sends four bits iv) 64 - QAM sends six bits
a time using 4 states (00, at a time using 16 states to at a time using 64 states to
01, 10 and 11) to represent represent amplitude and represent amplitude and
amplitude and phase by phase. phase.
o o o o
45 , 135 , 225 , and 315

Fig. 7 LTE Modulation scheme

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5.5 Multiple Access Techniques

Multiple access is a technique to provide communication service to multiple users over a single
channel. It allows multiple mobile users share the allotted spectrum in the most effective manner.
There are three types.
1) Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Available frequency band is split into smaller frequency channels, and different channels are
assigned to different users at same time. The carriers are separated by guard bands, which avoid the
interference between the users.
2) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Various users can transmit at the same frequency band at different times. Every user is permitted to
transmit only in specific time slots using a common frequency band.
GSM uses a combination of both TDMA and FDMA [Link] uses orthogonal FDMA techniques.

Fig.8 Multiple Access Techniques

3) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Mobiles receive signals on the same carrier frequency and at the same time. But the signals are
labeled by the use of codes, which allows a mobile to separate its own signal from the others.
CDMA is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built.

F
DD and TDD Modes
Duplexing:Allows users to send information simultaneously to the base station, while receiving
information from the base station. The wireless telephony applies duplexing technique where talking
and listening is enabled at a time.
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD): Base station and mobile will transmit and receive at the same time, but
using different carrier frequencies. FDD uses two separate frequency bands for every user. A
sufficient guard band needs to separate the transmitting and receiving channels, so they do not
interfere with one another. FDD is suitable for radio communication systems. It uses frequency for
uplink and down link.
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Down link: Base Station to mobile; Uplink: Mobile to Base Station]

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Time Division Duplexing

(TDD)- Base station and mobile will transmit and receive on the same carrier frequency but at different
times. Time slots could be dynamically allocated separated by a guard band. A guard period
ensures that UL and DL transmissions do not collide. TDD is more suitable for fixed wireless
systems. It uses time for uplink and down link.

Revi
ew Questions
1. Describe the blocks of the basic communication system.
2. Define the following terms: i) Carrier communication system ii) Baseband communication
system with neat and suitable waveforms.
3. Define and explain SNR, Noise Figure, channel types.
4. What is modulation? Define AM and FM. Explain types of analog modulation with the help
of waveforms.
5. With suitable waveforms explain digital modulation schemes.
6. Present the architecture of a wireless communication transmitter and its modulation
scheme QPSK with waveforms and constellation diagrams.
7. Discuss the transmission modes used in mobile communication system.
8. Discuss the various Multiple Access Techniques used in cellular network.