UNIT 2

Computer Types:
In the context of computer organization, computers can be broadly categorized into four main types
based on size and processing power: supercomputers, mainframe computers, minicomputers, and
microcomputers. Microcomputers are further categorized into desktop, laptop, tablets, and
smartphones. Additionally, computers can be classified based on their operating principles as digital,
analog or hybrid.
The characteristics of each of these are as follows:
Supercomputers: These are the most powerful and expensive computers, designed for complex
scientific and engineering calculations, such as weather forecasting, climate research, and nuclear
energy research.
Mainframe Computers: These are large, high-capacity computers used by large organizations to
manage massive amounts of data and support multiple users and programs simultaneously.
Minicomputers: These are mid-range computers that can support multiple users and are often used in
businesses, institutions, and departments for tasks like accounting, record management, and billing.
Microcomputers: Also known as personal computers (PCs), these are smaller, more affordable
computers designed for individual use. They include:
 Desktop computers: Stationary computers typically used in homes and offices.
 Laptop computers: Portable computers designed for on-the-go use.
 Tablets: Touchscreen-based portable computers, often used for entertainment and casual
computing.
 Smartphones: Mobile phones with advanced computing capabilities, used for communication,
internet access, and various applications.
Analog Computers: These computers use continuously variable physical phenomena (like electrical or
mechanical quantities) to model problems.
Hybrid Computers: These combine the features of both analog and digital computers

Functional units of a computer:

The functional components of a digital computer include the Input Unit, which takes in data; the CPU,
which processes data with its Control Unit (CU), Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), and Registers;
the Memory Unit, which stores data temporarily (RAM) or permanently (HDD/SSD); the Output
Unit, which displays results; and the Bus System, which connects and transfers data between
components. These parts work together to execute tasks and provide results.
Components and their functions are as follows :
Input Unit: This unit is used to capture data and instructions from users or external sources and
converts user input into binary signals that the computer can process. Some of input devices include:
Keyboard, Mouse, Touchscreens, Scanners, Sensors, Stylus pens, Voice Assistants (e.g., Siri, Alexa),
Biometric devices (face/fingerprint recognition), IoT-based inputs from smart devices
Central Processing Unit (CPU) - The Brain of the Computer: The CPU executes instructions and
controls all internal operations. Components of CPU include
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) : This unit is responsible for arithmetic operations (add, subtract,
multiply, divide), Handles logical operations (comparison, decision-making).
Control Unit (CU) is responsible and directs the operations of all computer parts. Decodes
instructions and coordinates data flow and sends control signals to memory and I/O devices.
Registers are High-speed memory locations within the CPU and temporarily store instructions,
addresses, and intermediate data. Examples: Accumulator, Instruction Register, Program Counter,
Address Register.
Memory / Storage Unit: The memory unit holds data and instructions before, during, and after
processing. Memory unit is categorized into:
Primary Memory (Main Memory): Main Memory include RAM (Random Access Memory) used
to Temporarily stores data during execution, ROM (Read-Only Memory) to Stores boot-up
instructions and firmware and Cache Memory which is a ultra-fast memory between CPU and
RAM.
Secondary Memory: Secondary Storage is used for long-term data storage. Examples include
SSDs, HDDs, flash drives, etc..
Output Unit : Output units Converts processed data (binary) into a form users can understand.
Examples include Monitors, Printers (Inkjet, Laser, 3D Printers) and Audio devices.
Operational Concepts
Instructions take a vital role for the proper working of the computer and an appropriate program
consisting of a list of instructions stored in the memory so that the tasks can be executed. Data which
is to be used as operands in the instruction are also stored in the memory. The memory brings the
individual instructions into the processor, which executes the specified operations. For example the
instruction Add LOCA, R0 execution is performed as follows. This instruction adds the operand at
memory location LOCA to the operand which will be present in the Register R0.
 The above-mentioned example can be written as follows:
Load LOCA, R1
Add R1, R0
 First instruction sends the contents of the memory location LOCA into processor Register R0,
and meanwhile the second instruction adds the contents of Register R1 and R0 and places the
output in the Register R1.
 The memory and the processor are swapped and are started by sending the address of the
memory location to be accessed to the memory unit and issuing the appropriate control
signals.
 The data is then transferred to or from the memory.
To analyze how processor and memory are connected, we must understand various registers
associated with the processor and their functions/purpose and other components of computer as shown
below diagram:
 Memory – Primary Memory which holds the instructions and data
 MAR – Memory Address Register holds the address of instruction/data to be retrieved
 MDR – Memory Data register hold the data that is retrieved from memory whose address is
specified in MAR. It contains the data to be written into or to be read out of the addressed
location.
 PC – Program counter holds the address of the instruction to be executed.
  IR – Instruction register holds the operation to be performed of the instruction that is
currently being executed and generates the timing signal that control the various processing
elements involved in executing the instruction
 General Purpose Registers – Holds the data and handle the data available in the instructions.
They store the data temporarily.
 Control Unit – controls the overall components of the computer(Brain)
 ALU – Arithmetic and Logic Unit performs the arithmetic and logical operations

While executing the instructions, address of each instruction to be exeucted will be held by program
counter(PC). This address will be assigned to MAR to retrive the instruction from memory unit.
The instruction will be decoded and operation to be perfomed and operands will be separated. If the
instructions includes an Arithmetic / Logical operation then the required operands are to be retrieved
from memory or general purpose registers basing on type of operand.
While fetching the operands the address of the operand will be assigned to MAR to retrieve the data
from the memory location and READ operation will be initiated. The data retrieved from memory is
stored in MDR and transferred to ALU. Once all the operands in the instruction are retrieved in this
fashion, the desired operation is performed by ALU.
To store the result of the operation in memory, the result will be transferred to MDR and address of
the memory location where the result is to stored is assigned to MAR and a WRITE operation will be
initiated.
While performing the instruction, the PC register value will be incremented to point to the next
instruction to be executed.
In addition to transfer data between memory and processor, some of the instructions may involve
receive / transfer the data to the Input / Output devices. These opeations are taken care by I/O
routines.

BUS Structure
A computer bus is a communication system used to transfer data between components within a
computer or between different computers. It plays a crucial role in minimizing the number of
connections needed by centralizing communication over shared pathways.
It consists of physical connections like wires, circuits, or cables connecting components like the CPU,
memory, and input/output (I/O) devices and simplifies data transfer and improves efficiency. There
are three main types of buses in a computer system which include :
Address Bus : A collection of wires used to identify particular location in main memory is
called Address Bus and transports memory addresses that wants to be accessed for read or write data.
It is unidirectional and the size of address bus determines how many unique memory locations can be
addressed.
o A system with 4-bit address bus can address 24 = 16 Bytes of memory.
 o A system with 16-bit address bus can address 216 = 64 KB of memory
Data Bus: A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a computer to
another is called Data Bus. It can be used to transfer the data between microprocessor to input/ output
devices or memory. The data bus is bidirectional because the data can flow in either direction from
CPU to memory(or input/output device) or from memory to the CPU. The size (width) of bus
determines how much data can be transmitted at one time (A 16-bit bus can transmit 16 bits of data at
a time)

Control Bus: The connections that carry control information between the CPU and other devices
within the computer is called Control Bus. The control bus transports orders and synchronization
signal coming from the control unit and travelling to all other hardware components. The Control bus
is bidirectional because the data can flow in either direction from CPU to memory(or input/output
device) or from memory to the CPU. This bus is used to indicate whether the CPU is reading from
memory or writing to memory.

Single and Multi-Bus Structure :

In computer organization, a single bus structure utilizes one shared bus for all communication
between components (like CPU, memory, I/O devices), while a multiple bus structure uses multiple
buses for parallel data transfer, potentially improving performance. Single bus structures are simpler
and more cost-effective, but can become a bottleneck, whereas multiple bus structures offer higher
performance but at a greater cost.
Single Bus Structure: A single shared bus serves as the communication pathway for all components in
the system. It is easier to design and implement and cost effectiveness. But it having disadvantages
like: only one transfer can occur at a time, limiting bandwidth and potentially slowing down
operations and slower execution speeds due to shared access.

Multiple Bus Structure: Multiple buses are used, allowing for concurrent data transfers and potentially
faster operations. Its advantages include parallel data transfers enhance speed and throughput and
alleviate the congestion of a single bus. Disadvantages include more complex design and more
hardware components increase the cost and more complex to design and manage.

 Single bus structures are suitable for simpler systems or applications where performance is
not the top priority.
  Multiple bus structures are better suited for systems requiring high performance and faster
data transfer rates.
Performance of a Computer System
Performance of a computer refers to the speed and efficiency at which a computer system can execute
tasks and process data. A high-performing computer system is one that can perform tasks quickly and
efficiently while minimizing the amount of time and resources required to complete these tasks.
Here are several factors that can impact the performance of a computer system, including:
 Processor speed: The speed of the processor, measured in GHz (gigahertz), determines how
quickly the computer can execute instructions and process data.
 Memory: The amount and speed of the memory, including RAM (random access memory)
and cache memory, can impact how quickly data can be accessed and processed by the
computer.
 Storage: The speed and capacity of the storage devices, including hard drives and solid-state
drives (SSDs), can impact the speed at which data can be stored and retrieved.
 I/O devices: The speed and efficiency of input/output devices, such as keyboards , mice,
and displays, can impact the overall performance of the system.
 Software: The efficiency of the software running on the system, including operating systems
and applications, can impact how quickly tasks can be completed.
Improving the performance of a computer system typically involves optimizing one or more of these
factors to reduce the time and resources required to complete tasks. This can involve upgrading
hardware components, optimizing software, and using specialized performance-tuning tools to
identify and address bottlenecks in the system.
Computer performance is the amount of work accomplished by a computer system. The word
performance in computer performance is "How well the computer is in doing the work it is intended
to do?". It basically depends on the response time, throughput, and execution time of a computer
system.
 Response time is the time from the start to completion of a task. This also includes: Operating
system overhead, Waiting for I/O and other processes, accessing disk and memory and Time
spent executing on the CPU or execution time.
 Throughput is the total amount of work done in a given time.
 Execution time is the total time a CPU spends computing on a given task. It also excludes
time for I/O or running other programs. This is also referred to as simply CPU time.
Performance is determined by execution time as performance is inversely proportional to
execution time.

RISC and CISC :

Reduced Instruction Set Architecture (RISC):
The main idea behind this architecture is to simplify hardware by using an instruction set composed of
a few basic steps for loading, evaluating, and storing operations just like a load command will load
data, a store command will store the data.
Characteristics of RISC
 Simpler instructions, hence simple instruction decoding.
 Instruction comes undersize of one word.
 Instruction takes a single clock cycle to get executed.
 More general-purpose registers.
 Simple Addressing Modes.
 Fewer Data types.
Advantages of RISC
 Simpler instructions: RISC processors use a smaller set of simple instructions, which makes
them easier to decode and execute quickly. This results in faster processing times.
 Faster execution: Because RISC processors have a simpler instruction set, they can execute
instructions faster than CISC processors.
 Lower power consumption: RISC processors consume less power than CISC processors,
making them ideal for portable devices.
Disadvantages of RISC
 More instructions required: RISC processors require more instructions to perform complex
tasks than CISC processors.
 Increased memory usage: RISC processors require more memory to store the additional
instructions needed to perform complex tasks.
  Higher cost: Developing and manufacturing RISC processors can be more expensive than
CISC processors.

Complex Instruction Set Architecture (CISC) :

The main idea is that a single instruction will do all loading, evaluating, and storing operations just
like a multiplication command will do stuff like loading data, evaluating, and storing it, hence it's
complex.
Characteristics of CISC
 Complex instruction, hence complex instruction decoding.
 Instructions are larger than one-word size.
 Instruction may take more than a single clock cycle to get executed.
 Less number of general-purpose registers as operations get performed in memory itself.
 Complex Addressing Modes.
 More Data types.
Advantages of CISC
 Reduced code size: CISC processors use complex instructions that can perform multiple
operations, reducing the amount of code needed to perform a task.
 More memory efficient: Because CISC instructions are more complex, they require fewer
instructions to perform complex tasks, which can result in more memory-efficient code.
 Widely used: CISC processors have been in use for a longer time than RISC processors, so
they have a larger user base and more available software.
Disadvantages of CISC
 Slower execution: CISC processors take longer to execute instructions because they have
more complex instructions and need more time to decode them.
 More complex design: CISC processors have more complex instruction sets, which makes
them more difficult to design and manufacture.
 Higher power consumption: CISC processors consume more power than RISC processors
because of their more complex instruction sets.

Distinguishing characteristics of RISC Vs CISC

RISC CISC

It focusses on software and uses It focus on hardware and uses both hardwired
only Hardwired control unit and microprogrammed control unit

Transistors are used for storing complex

Transistors are used for more registers
Instructions

It is having fixed sized instructions and can It is having Variable sized instructions and can
perform only Register to Register Arithmetic perform REG to REG or REG to MEM or
operations MEM to MEM

Requires more number of registers Requires less number of registers

Every instruction can fit in one word, Code size Instructions are larger than the size of one
is large, and an instruction executed in a single word, Code size is small, and Instruction takes
clock cycle more than one clock cycle

Simple and limited addressing modes, and the Complex and more addressing modes and the
number of instructions is less as compared to number of instructions is more as compared to
CISC. RISC.
 RISC CISC

It consumes the low power. It consumes more/high power.

Multiprocessor and Multi computers

A Multiprocessor system is an interconnection of two or more Processors / CPUs with
memory and input-output equipment. A processor in a multiprocessor environment may be a
CPU or an input-output processor. Normally a CPU with more IO processors is not treated as
a multiprocessor unless the IO processors are having more computational facilities as CPU.

A Multicomputer system the computers are interconnected with each other by means of
communication lines to form a network of systems and can communicate with each other.

But a multiprocessor system is controlled by one operating system that provides interaction
between processor and all the components of the system. The Multiprocessor organization
improves system performance in terms of performing
 Multiple independent jobs can be made to operate in parallel
 A Single job can be partitioned into multiple parallel tasks.
Multi-processing can improve performance by decomposing a program into parallel
executable tasks. This can be achieved
 The user can explicitly declare that certain tasks of the program be executed in
parallel executable segments.
 Provide a compiler with multiprocessor software that can automatically detect
parallelism in user’s program. This needs checking of data dependency in the program
(between program segments). Those segments which don’t have data dependencies
can be executed concurrently.

Von Neuman Architecture

Computer Organization is how a computer works internally. One of the most important models in this
field is the Von Neumann architecture, which is the foundation of most modern computers. This
architecture introduced the concept of storing both data and instructions in the same memory.
Historically there have been 2 types of Computers:
1. Fixed Program Computers - Their function is very specific, and they couldn't be
reprogrammed, e.g. Calculators.
2. Stored Program Computers - These can be programmed to carry out many different tasks,
applications are stored on them, hence the name.

The Von Neumann architecture popularized the stored-program concept, making computers more
flexible and easier to reprogram. This design stores both data and instructions in the same memory,
simplifying hardware design and enabling general-purpose computing.
The structure in the figure outlines the basic components of a computer system, particularly focusing
on the memory and processor. Here's a breakdown of the components:
 Memory: This is where data and instructions are stored. It is a crucial part of the computer
system that allows for the storage and retrieval of information.
 Control Unit: This component manages the operations of the computer. It directs the flow of
data between the CPU and other components.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations. It is
responsible for calculations and decision-making processes.
 Input: This refers to the devices or methods through which data is entered into the computer
system.
 Output: This refers to the devices or methods through which data is presented to the user or
other systems.
 Processor: The processor, or CPU, is the central component that carries out the instructions of
a computer program. It includes the ALU and Control Unit.
 Accumulator: This is a register in the CPU that stores intermediate results of arithmetic and
logic operations.
Von Neumann Architecture, which is a foundational design for modern computers in which both data
and instructions are stored in the same memory and share a common bus for communication.

Key Characteristics of Von Neumann Architecture

1. Single Memory for Data and Instructions: Both data and program instructions are stored in
the same memory.
2. Shared Bus: A single bus is used for transferring data, addresses, and control signals, which
can limit performance.
3. Sequential Execution: Instructions are executed one at a time in a sequential manner.
Advantages of Von Neumann Architecture
 Simplified Design: Uses a single memory for data and instructions, reducing hardware
complexity.
 Cost-Effective: Lower production costs due to fewer components.
 Flexibility: Can run various programs and makes it suitable for general-purpose computing.
 Ease of Programming: Unified memory structure simplifies software development.
 Widely Adopted: Forms the foundation of most modern computers hence, ensures widespread
compatibility.
Drawbacks of Von Neumann architecture:
 Whatever we do to enhance performance, as the instructions can only be done one at a time
and can only be carried out sequentially will restrict the competence of the CPU.