THE UPANISHADS

The concluding part of the Vedas are called as Upanishads. The Upanishads are also called
Vedanta. Literally, Vedanta means the end of Veda, Vedasya antah, the conclusion (Anta) as
well as the goal (Anta) of the Vedas. Chronologically they came at the end of the Vedic period.
As Upanishads contain difficult discussions of ultimate philosophical problems, they were
taught to the pupils at the end of their course. The chief reason why the Upanishads are called
the end of the Veda is that they represent the central aim of the Veda and contain the highest
and ultimate goal of the Veda as they deal with Moksha or Supreme Bliss.
Meaning of the word Upanishad
The word Upanishad has been derived from the root Sad (to sit), to which are added two
prefixes: Upa and Ni. The prefix Upa denotes nearness and Ni totality. Thus, this word means
sitting nearby devotedly. This no doubt refers to the pupil’s sitting down near his teacher at the
time of instruction. The word in course of time gathered round it the sense of secret teaching
or secret doctrine (Rahasya) which was imparted at such sittings. Due to secrecy and mystery
of the teachings, a teacher refuses to impart instruction to a student who has not proved his
worthiness to receive the instruction.
Number of the Upanishads
It is difficult to ascertain the exact number that should be regarded as authentic Upanishads.
Different estimates of their number have been given by scholars and they have been put by
some scholars at as many as 200. One hundred and eight Upanishads are enumerated in the
Muktikopanishad and a popular edition contains them. However, among these Upanishads, ten
Upanishads, the names of which have been mentioned in the Muktikopanishad, are considered
the most important Upanishads from the point of view of Vedantic Philosophy. Ten Principal
Upanishads known as Dashopanishad are: Isha, Kena, Katha, Prashna, Munda, Mandukya,
Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka.
Besides, Shvetashvatara, Kaushitaki and Maitrayaniya Upanishads are often listed in old
Upanishads.
Division of the Upanishads
According to the Muktikopanishad, 108 Upanishads are divided according to four Vedas are
as follows: 10 Upanishads from the Rigveda, 19 Upanishads from the Shukla-Yajurveda, 32
Upanishads from the Krishna-Yajurveda, 16 Upanishads from the Samaveda and 31
Upanishads from the Atharvaveda.
 The Principal thirteen Upanishads, related to the Vedas are:
(A) Upanishads of the Rigveda:
(1) Aitareya Upanishad,
(2) Kaushitaki Upanishad
(B) Upanishads of the Shukla-Yajurveda:
(3) Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,
(4) Isha Upanishad
(C) Upanishads of the Krishna-Yajurveda:
(5) Taittiriya Upanishad,
(6) Katha Upanishad,
(7) Shvetashvatara Upanishad,
(8) Maitrayaniya Upanishad
(D) Upanishads of the Samaveda:
(9) Chandogya Upanishad,
(10) Kena Upanishad
(E) Upanishads of the Atharvaveda:
(11) Mundaka Upanishad,
(12) Mandukya Upanishad,
(13) Prashna Upanishad.
Thirteen known Upanishads were composed from the middle of the 5th century through the
2nd century BC. The first five of these—Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Taittiriya, Aitareya,
and Kaushitaki—were composed in prose interspersed with verse.
The middle five—Kena, Katha, Isa, Svetasvatara, and Mundaka—were composed primarily
in verse. The last three—Prasna, Mandukya, and Maitri—were composed in prose.

Major Theme of the Upanishads

The Upanishads are religious and philosophical treatises. They constitute the last phase of the
Vedic revelation. They represent the knowledge of Brahman (Brahma-Vidya). What is this
world? Who am I? What becomes of me after death? – Such questions are asked and answered
in these Upanishads. The essential theme of the Upanishads is the nature of the world and God.
Already in the hymns of the Rigveda, we notice here and there a shift of emphasis from the
innumerable gods to the one Infinite. The doctrine of true knowledge and salvation are major
subjects of the Upanishadic philosophy.
 In the Upanishads, we get an intelligible body of verified and verifiable spiritual insights mixed
with a mass of myths and legends and cosmological speculations relating to the nature and
origin of universe. The principal contents of the Upanishads are philosophical speculations.
The spirit of their contents is anti-ritualistic. Although the subject-matter of most of the
Upanishads is almost the same, yet each Upanishad has its own unique ideas.
Importance of the Upanishads
1) The Upanishads occupy a unique place in the development of Indian philosophical thought.
They contain the highest authority on which the various systems of philosophy in India rest.
So, Vedanta Philosophy is directly related to the Upanishads. Not only the Vedanta philosopher
professes his faith in the ends and objects of the Veda, but the Sankhya, the Vaisheshika, the
Nyaya and Yoga philosophers, all pretend to find in the Upanishads some warranty for their
tenets.
2) The Upanishads are associated with the Vedas and make the entire range of Vedic knowledge
as complete. The Upanishads generally mention the Vedas and their study with respect. Certain
verses from the Vedas, such as the Gayatri, form the subject of meditation here.
3) Brahmavidya or the knowledge of Brahman, the Supreme Reality is the great kingdom of the
principal Upanishads. They give importance to Knowledge alone. Anyone having knowledge
may be Guru or Acharya. Even kings approached to them for the attainment of knowledge. The
story of Satyakama Jabala, who though unable to give his father’s name, was yet initiated into
spiritual life, shows this fact. In the Chandogya Upanishad (4.1-3) Raikva a Brahmana not by
caste but by his knowledge, instructed king Janashruti. This shows that for Upanishads
knowledgeable person is the most important and not the Brahmana, Kshatriya or anyone else.
4) Each of the Vedas has many Mahavakyas or great sayings. But four Mahavakyas found in the
Upanishads related to four Vedas are very important, thought-provoking and powerful. These
spells out the non-duality of the Jiva and the Brahman - Prajnanam Brahma-Rigveda, Aham
Brahmasm – Yajurveda, Tattvamasi – Samveda, Ayamatma Brahma – Aharvaveda
5) Without understanding the Upanishads, it is impossible to get an insight into Indian history and
culture. Every subsequent development of philosophy and religion in India has drawn heavily
on the Upanishads.
6) They are concerned with the contemplative-realizational rather than with the ritualistic-
ceremonial aspect of the spiritual life of the people.
7) The Upanisads gave the people a philosophy but not a religion.
 THE RAMAYANA
The Ramayana by the sage Valmiki is one of the great epics of the Sanskrit language. There
are many versions of Ramayana in Indian language beside Buddhist, Sikh, and Jain adaptation.
There are also Cambodian, Indonesian, Filipino, Thai, Lao, Burmese and Malaysian version of
tale. Ramayan narrates the life of Rama, Prince of legendary kingdom of kosala. Ramayana is
one of the largest ancient epics in world literature. It consists of nearly 24000 verses.
Origin
The original Ramayana written by the Sage Valmiki comprised of seven - Kandas or books.
1) Bala Kanda: - The Book of the Youth, the boyhood and adolescence of Rama.
2) Ayodhya Kanda: - The Book of Ayodhya, the court of Dasharatha and the scenes that set the
stage for the unfolding of the story, including the exchange between Dasharatha and Kaikeyi
and the exile of Rama.
3) Aranya Kanda: - The Book of the Forest, life in the forest during the fourteen-year exile and
the abduction of Sita by Ravana
4) Kishkindhya Kanda: - The Book of The Empire of Holy Monkeys, Rama’s residence in
Kishkindhya, the quest for Sita, and the slaying of Bali.
5) Sundara Kanda: - The Book of the Beautiful (Hanuman), sundara means beautiful, and this
portion of the book has passages of lyrical beauty; description of the landscapes over which
Rama roams, and the arrival of Rama and his allies in Lanka.
6) Yuddha Kanda: The Book of War, the defeat of Ravana, the recovery of Sita, the return to
Ayodhya, and the coronation of Rama and
7) Uttara Kanda: - The Book Beyond, the - later section, detailing Rama’s life in Ayodhya, the
banishment of Sita, the birth of Lava and Kusa, the reconciliation of Rama and Sita, her death
or return to the earth, and Rama’s ascent into heaven.
Ramayana: Lessons the epic taught us
This Hindu epic has given us number of lessons that we must not forget. These lessons help us
better ourselves and emerge as refined and reformed human beings with each passing day. The
basic teaching of Ramayana is that no matter how powerful evil is, it will always be defeated
by Good. Truth always wins. The win of good over evil is a universal fate. A person should
always have a noble heart and good values. That is how Lord Rama defeated the most
knowledgeable person Ravana.
1. Respect elders and be duty bound towards parents - Ram left for vanvas after his step-
mother expressed her desire to see biological son Bharat as the future king of Ayodhya.
2. Remain united with siblings even during the toughest of times - Bharat refused to
accept the throne after his father’s demise and waited for Ram to return from his vanvas.
Lakshman accompanied his brother Ram for the 14-year-long vanvas.
3. Be deeply committed to your duty - Besides being Sita’s husband, Ram was also the
King of Ayodhya. And the duty of the king is to keep his subjects happy. And hence, he
had to abandon his wife for the sake of the masses after they questioned her chastity. As a
husband, he was duty bound towards his wife. But as a King, he had to think of his subjects
wishes ahead of his personal ones.
4. Choose the path of righteousness - Vibhishana, younger brother of Ravana chose to not
support his sibling in the war against Ram. He knew his brother had committed a sin by
abducted someone - a married lady.
5. Remain humble no matter how powerful you become - Hanuman could have easily
rescued Sita from Ravana’s Ashoka Vatika. He had the power to single- handed fight
against Ravana’s army. But he chose to surrender to Lord Ram’s divinity and let him do
the needful.
6. Never consider anyone inferior - Mighty prince Ram took the help of Vanar sena
(monkey army) to build a bridge (Ram Setu) so that he could reach Lanka to free Sita. The
little monkeys not just helped him build the setu but also took part in the war against
Ravana.
7. All that glitters is not gold - Sita got attracted to a spotted deer that looked incredibly
beautiful. She wanted Ram to get the deer for her from the jungle. Actually, it wasn’t a
deer, but Mareech, Ravana’s accomplice in disguise of the animal.
8. Embrace all irrespective of caste, creed or colour - Prince Ram ate fruits that were
already tasted by Shabri, a poor old woman who had nothing much to offer but pure love.
9. Be loyal to your spouse - Ravana tried to lure Sita after abducting her. But Sita never let
him succeed in his attempts. Ram didn’t remarry after Sita was forcefully abandoned by
him even after conducting the Agni Pariksha. Being a King, he enjoyed the privilege of
having many queens, but he chose to remain loyal to his beloved wife – Sita.
10. Abandon the following - Kama (lust), Krodha (anger), Moha (desire), Lobha (greed),
Mada (pride), Ahankar (ego), Irshya (jealousy), Jaddata (insensitivity), Ghrina (hatred),
Bhaya (fear).
 THE MAHABHARATA
Mahabharata, (Sanskrit - Great Epic of the Bharata Dynasty) one of the two Sanskrit epic
poems of ancient India (the other being the Ramayana). The Mahabharata is an important
source of information on the development of Hinduism between 400 BCE and 200 CE and is
regarded by Hindus as both a text about dharma (Hindu moral law) and a history. Appearing
in its present form about 400 CE, the Mahabharata talks about the struggle for sovereignty
between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas (sons of Dhritarashtra, the descendant of Kuru)
and the Pandavas (sons of Pandu).
It is written by Ved Vyasa. The poem is made up of almost 100,000 couplets divided into 18
parvans, or sections, plus a supplement titled Harivamsha Genealogy of the God Hari i.e., of
Vishnu).

Influence
In its scope, the Mahabharata is more than simply a story of kings and princes, sages and
wisemen, demons and gods; its legendary author, Vyasa, said that one of its aims is elucidating
the four Purusarthas (goals of life): Kama (pleasure), artha (wealth), dharma (duty), and
moksha (liberation).
The Mahabharata includes large amounts of Hindu mythology, cosmological stories of the gods
and goddesses, and philosophical parables aimed at students of Hindu philosophy. Among the
principal works and stories that are a part of the Mahabharata are the following:
• Bhagavadgita (Krishna instructs and teaches Arjuna – Anusasanaparva)
• Damayanti (or Nala and Damayanti, a love story – Aranyakaparva)
• Krishnavatara (the story of Krishna, the Krishna Leela, which is woven through many chapters
of the story)
• Rama (an abbreviated version of the Ramayana – Aranyakaparva)
• Rishyasringa (also written as Rshyashrnga, the horned boy and rishi – Aranyakaparva)
• Vishnu sahasranama (the most famous hymn to Vishnu, which describes His 1000 names –
Anushasanaparva)

Modern interpretations
In the late 1980s, the Mahabharata was televised and shown on India’s national television
(Doordarshan), directed by B. R. Chopra and his son Ravi Chopra. It became the most popular
Indian TV series in history. When the Mahabharata was first broadcast in India, it shattered
 television records by reaching 97.8 percent viewership there. It also entered the Guinness Book
of World Records as having been watched by over 96 percent of the worldwide Indian
population. It was also shown in the UK by the BBC, where it achieved audience figures of 5
million, unheard of for a subtitled series being aired in the afternoon.
Important Life Lessons from The Mahabharata That Are Relevant Even Today
The epic tale Mahabharata is something everyone should read at least once in their life. Even
if you are not into mythology and religion, this book will still hold great value in your life.
There are plenty of life lessons one can learn from the Mahabharata.
1) Being kind, humble and generous is not enough to live life.
The way Karna’s life moved, we realised, more often than not, that the world is an evil place
to survive in. And to ace it, we must understand how it really works.
2) Bad company can ruin your life beyond imagination.
We all hate Shakuni mama, don’t we? He literally destroyed everything that the Kauravas
owned, and he influenced them to be negative. If it wasn’t for him, the war wouldn’t have
happened at all.
3) Unconditional support and loyal friends can take you places.
The Pandavas had Lord Krishna, and the Kauravas had Karna. Both of them always backed the
two parties, no matter what. In fact, Duryodhan was really weak without Karna.
4) You need to fight for what you think belongs to you.
The Pandavas never stopped fighting for what rightfully belonged to them. Their courage and
determination are definitely something to admire and learn from.
5) Being too emotional can be a bad idea.
Dhritrashtra’s love for his son was blind. Throughout the epic, he remained torn between his
principles and keeping his son happy. Somehow this made Duryodhan even more evil than
what he already was, leading to awful consequences and the war.
6) Learning throughout life is the best gift you can give yourself.
Arjun grasped whatever came his way. Not only did he learn the best of military science from
Drona, but he was also interested in learning about divine weapons from Indra. He learnt about
Pashupatastra from Mahadev as well. Additionally, he treated Yudhishter and Krishna as his
mentors too, and continued learning whatever they had to offer.
7) Sometimes, enemies come in the form of friends.
Although the Kauravas were more in number, their supporters were not really in favour of
them. Bheeshma, Vidura and Drona secretly admired the Pandavas. Especially Vidura, who
was the ultimate guide in everything the Kauravas did.
8) Respect Woman
Draupadi had five husbands. They were strong and wealthy, but they all became helpless when
she was disgraced by multiple other men. They had everything, but failed to show courage.
Draupadi’s anger and desire for revenge led to the war and downfall of the Kuru clan.
9) Half knowledge can be more dangerous than no knowledge
Abhimanyu wouldn’t have died. Although we remember him for his bravery and undying
courage, he ultimately lost his life.
10) You cannot be stopped if you are passionate about what you do.
Most of us know that Arjun was the greatest archer in the world. But Eklavya was even better
than him. He hid himself behind the trees and grasped everything that Drona taught Arjun. His
passion for archery and hunger for knowledge made him even better than Arjun at archery.
11) A good strategy is what you need to sail your boat.
If Pandavas didn’t have Krishna and his master plan, they wouldn’t have witnessed the victory
they did. Always have a plan.
 THE PURANAS
The Puranas are ancient Hindu texts that tell stories of the creation of the world, legends of the
gods, and explanations of how to perform religious rituals.
Purana is a Sanskrit word that means ancient or old. Puranas are encyclopaedic texts that cover
various topics such as cosmogony, cosmology, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine,
astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, theology and philosophy as well as the genealogies of gods,
goddesses, kings and sages.
The Puranas were written with the object of popularizing the truths taught in the Vedas by
presenting them in relation to specific personages and to the events of their lives. The main
value of the Puranas consists in amplifying, enforcing and illustrating the spiritual truths stated
in the Vedas in the form of injunctions and commands.
Puranas are traditionally defined as comprising five main topics –
1. Sarga (Creation)
2. Pratisarga (Dissolution and recreation)
3. Vamsa (Divine genealogies)
4. Manvantara (ages of Manus)
5. Vasmanuchari (Genealogies of Kings).

The purpose of the puranas was to bring people closer to the gods. All of the purana texts are
sectarian, dedicated to certain deities - some to gods, some to goddesses. Puranas also served
to give the common people access to and understanding of the essential teachings and complex
yogic philosophies of the ancient Vedic texts. Traditionally, there are 18 main puranas
(Mahapuranas) and 18 minor puranas (Upapuranas), which contain over 400,000 verses.

The Mahapuranas
Of the many texts designated Puranas the most important are the Mahapuraṇas. These are
always said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six.
1) Agni Purana (15,400 verses)
2) Bhagavata Purana (18,000 verses). One of the most celebrated and popular of the Puranas,
telling of Vishnu’s ten Avatars. Its tenth and longest canto narrates the deeds of Krishna,
introducing his childhood exploits, a theme later elaborated by many Bhakti movements.
3) Bhavishya Purana (14,500 verses)
4) Brahma Purana (24,000 verses)
5) Brahmanda Purana (12,000 verses; includes Lalita Sahasranamam, a text some Hindus recite
as prayer)
6) Brahma Vaivarta Purana (18,000 verses)
7) Garuda Purana (19,000 verses)
8) Kurma Purana (17,000 verses)
9) Linga Purana (11,000 verses)
10) Markandeya Purana (9,000 verses; includes Devi Mahatmyam, an important text for Shaktas)
11) Matsya Purana (14,000 verses)
12) Narada Purana (25,000 verses)
13) Padma Purana (55,000 verses)
14) Shiva Purana (24,000 verses)
15) Skanda Purana (81,100 verses), the longest Purana, it is an extraordinarily meticulous
pilgrimage guide, containing geographical locations of pilgrimage centers in India, with related
legends, parables, hymns and stories. Many untraced quotes are attributed to this text.
16) Vamana Purana (10,000 verses)
17) Varaha Purana (10,000 verses)
18) Vishnu Purana (23,000 verses)

The Mahapuranas are frequently classified according the three aspects of the divine Trimurti,
1) Brahma Puranas - Brahma Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana,
Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, The Brahma Purana is one of the eighteen major
Puranas, genre of Hindu texts in Sanskrit language. It is listed as the first Maha-Purana in all
the anthologies, and therefore also called Adi Purana. Another title for this text is Saura
Purana, because it includes many chapters related to Surya or the Sun god. The Brahma Purana
dedicates a majority of its chapter to describing the geography, temples and scenes around the
Godavari River.
2) Vishnu Puranas - Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Naradeya Purana, Garuda Purana,
Padma Purana, Varaha Purana, Vamana Purana, Kurma Purana, Matsya Purana. The Vishnu
Purana is one of the eighteen Mahapuranas, a genre of ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism.
It is an important Pancharatra text in the Vaishnavism literature corpus. Vishnu Purana, like
all major Puranas, attributes its author to be sage Veda Vyasa.
3) Shiva Puranas - Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana, Vayu Purana.
Shiva Purana is one of the eighteen major Puranas, a genre of Sanskrit texts in Hinduism, and
 part of the Shaivism literature corpus. It primarily centers around the Hindu god Shiva and
goddess Parvati, but references and reveres all gods.

According to the Padma Purana, the texts may be classified in accordance with the three
gunas or qualities; truth, passion, and ignorance:
1) Sattva ("truth; purity"): Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Naradeya Purana, Garuda
Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha Purana
2) Rajas ("dimness; passion"): Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya
Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vamana Purana, Brahma Purana
3) Tamas ("darkness; ignorance"): Matsya Purana, Kurma Purana, Linga Purana, Shiva
Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana

The Upapuranas
The Upapuraṇas are lesser or supplementary texts. These are sometimes also said to be
eighteen in number. They include: Sanat-kumara, Narasimha, Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya,
Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara,
Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesha, Mudgala, and Hamsa. The Ganesha and Mudgala
Puranas are devoted to Ganesha. The Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the goddess Durga,
has become (along with the Devi Mahatmya of the Markandeya Purana) a basic text for Devi
worshipers. There are many others all over the Indian subcontinent.

Sthala Puranas
This corpus of texts tells of the origins and traditions of particular temples or shrines—the word
sthala means "spot" in Sanskrit. There are numerous Sthala Puranas, most written in
vernaculars, some with Sanskrit versions as well. Some appear in Sanskrit versions in the
Mahapuranas or Upapuranas. Some Tamil Sthala Puranas have been researched by David Dean
Shulman.
Kula Puranas
These Puranas deal with a caste's origin myth, stories, and legends (the word kula means
"family" or "tribe" in Sanskrit). They are important sources for caste identity though usually
contested by rival castes. This subgenre is usually in the vernacular and may at times remain
oral. These have been little researched, though they are documented in the caste section of the
British Census of India Report and the various Gazetteers.
 KAUTILYA’S ARTHASHASHTRA
The Arthashastra is an Indian treatise on politics, economics, military strategy, the function
of the state, and social organization attributed to the philosopher and Prime Minister Kautilya
(also known as Chanakya, Vishnugupta) who was instrumental in establishing the reign of the
great king. Much of our knowledge about state policy under the Maurya comes from the
Arthashastra written by Kautilya, who was a Brahmin minister under Chandragupta Maurya.
The book, written in Sanskrit, discusses theories and principles of governing a state. The title,
Arthashastra, which means the Science of Material Gain or Science of Polity, does not leave
any doubts about its ends. Kautilya's philosophy is based on the principles of "Saam, Daam,
Dand, Bhed" (persuasion, temptation, punishment, and division) as various, different, and
sequential means to achieve an end. According to Kautilya, the ruler should use any means to
attain his goal and his actions required no moral sanction. Though the kings were allowed a
free rein, the citizens were subject to a rigid set of rules.
Arthashastra remains unique in all of Indian literature because of its total absence of specious
reasoning, or its unabashed advocacy of real politic, and scholars continued to study it for its
clear-cut arguments and formal prose till the twelfth century.
Kautilya’s Arthashashtra is an important treatise of the Mauryan times. Kautilya helped the
young Chandragupta Maurya, who was a Vaishya, to ascend to the Nanda throne in 321 BC.
Kautilya’s counsel is particularly remarkable because the young Maurya’s supporters were not
as well armed as the Nandas. Kautilya continued to help Chandragupta Maurya in his
campaigns and his influence was crucial in consolidating the great Mauryan empire. It reflects
the state of society and economy at that time and provides rich material for the study of ancient
Indian polity and economy.
HISTORY OF BUDDHIST AND JAIN LITERATURE: PALI, PRAKRIT AND
SANSKRIT
Buddhist Literature
The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was spoken in Magadha and South
Bihar. The Buddhist works can be divided into parts Tripitakas and Jatakas.
Tripitakas, that is, three baskets - Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
Vinaya Pitaka deals with rules and regulations of daily life. Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues
and discourses on morality and deals with Dharma while Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with
philosophy and metaphysics. It includes discourses on various subjects such as ethics,
psychology, theories of knowledge and mataphysical problems.
Jatakas - Jatakas are the most interesting stories on the previous births of the Buddha. It was
believed that before he was finally born as Gautama, the Buddha practising Dharma passed
through more than 550 births, in many cases even in the form of animals. Each birth story is
called a Jataka. The Jatakas throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions
ranging from the sixth century BC to the second century BC. They also make incidental
reference to political events in the age of the Buddha.

Sanskrit Buddhist literature

It refers to Buddhist texts composed either in classical Sanskrit, in a register that has been called
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit , or a mixture of the two. Several non-Mahayana Nikayas appear to
have kept their canons in Sanskrit, most prominent among which was the Sarvastivada. The
Mahayana Sutras are also in Sanskrit, with less classical registers prevalent in the gatha
portions. Buddhist Tantras too are written in Sanskrit, sometimes interspersed with
Apabhramsa, and often containing notable irregularities in grammar and meter (traditionally
ascribed to the esoteric nature of the texts)
Before the modern derivatives of Sanskrit existed, a group of languages known as the Prakrits
or Middle Indo Aryan languages evolved from India’s classical language. These were the
vernacular dialects of ancient times, and several of them became important literary vehicles in
their own right. The best known of this group is Pali, which still serves as the canonical
language of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Other Prakrit languages such as
Sauraseni, Maharastri, Magadhi and Gandhari embody various facets of the literatures of both
the Brahmanical/Hindu and Buddhist traditions.
Besides texts considered "Word of the Buddha" (Buddhavacana) by the traditions that
transmitted them, Buddhist authors have composed treatises and literary works in Sanskrit
dealing with Buddhist philosophy, logic, etc., but also with more worldly topics such as
gemology, erotics, literary aesthetics, etc
Sanskrit Buddhist literature is therefore vast and varied, despite the loss of a significant amount
of texts. A large number of works survive only in Tibetan and Chinese translations.

Rise of Sanskrit in Buddhism

While some hypotheses say that Buddhism was originally written in Prakrits, Sanskrit
gradually became the main language of Buddhist scriptures. It began with the north-western
Indian Buddhists of the Kushan empire (BC 375). The Sarvastivadin Piṭakas were mostly
transmitted in Sanskrit and many Mahayana sutras such as the Prajnaparamita sutra were
composed in different registers of Sanskrit. The Buddhist use of classical Sanskrit for literary
purposes possibly began with Asvaghoṣa (c. 100 CE), author of the Buddhacarita and one of
the earliest Sanskrit dramatists. Buddhist thinkers like Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Asanga,
Dharmakīrti, Bhaviveka, Candrakīrti, etc., also wrote in Sanskrit
 Jainism Literature
The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century AD in
Valabhi in Gujarat. The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, Chhedab
Sutras and Malasutras.
Among the important Jain scholars, reference may be made to Haribhadra Suri, (eighth century
AD) and Hemchandra Suri, (twelfth century AD). Jainism helped in the growth of a rich
literature comprising poetry, philosophy and grammar. These works contain many passages
which help us to reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Jain
texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders.
Jain literature begins with the last of the Tirthankara, Mahavir, who reorganized the old
Nirgrantha sect and revitalized its moral and religious zeal and activities. He preached his faith
of ahimsa (non-violence or harmlessness) and self-purification to the people in their own
language which was not Sanskrit, but Prakrit. The form of Prakrit which he is said to have
used was Ardha-Magadhi, by which was meant a language that was not pure Magadhi but
partook of its nature.
Twelve Angas
Mahavira’s teachings were arranged in twelve Angas (parts) by his disciples. These Angas
formed the earliest literature on Jainism
1) Acaranga laid down rules of discipline for the monks.
2) Sutrakrtanga contained further injunctions for the monks regarding what was suitable or
unsuitable for them and how they should safeguard their vows. It also gave an exposition of
the tenets and dogmas of other faiths
3) Sthananga listed in numerical order, categories of knowledge pertaining to the realities of
nature.
4) Samavayanga classified objects in accordance with similarities of time, place, number, and so
on
5) Vyakhya-prajnapti or Bkagavat explained the realities of life and nature in the form of a
catechism
6) Jnatrdhamakatha contained hints regarding religious preaching as well as stories and
anecdotes calculated to carry moral conviction
7) Upasakadhyayana or Upasaka-dasaka was meant to serve as a religious code for householders
8) Antakrddasaka gave accounts of ten saints who attained salvation after immense suffering
9) Anuttaraupapatika contained accounts of ten saints who had gone to the highest heaven after
enduring intense persecution
10) Prsnna-vyakarana contained accounts and episodes for the refutation of opposite views,
establishment of one’s own faith, promotion of holy deeds, and prevention of evil.
11) Vipaka-Sutra explained how virtue was rewarded and evil punished
12) Drstivada included the five sections namely Parikarmani contained tracts describing the
moon, the sun, Jambudvipa, other islands and seas, as well as living beings and nonliving
matter, Sutra gave an account of various tenets and philosophies numbering no less than 363,
Prathamanuyoga recounted ancient history and narratedthe lives of great kings and saints.
Purvagata dealt with the problems of birth, death, and continuity.

Jain literature in Sanskrit

The language of Jain literature was primarily the Prakrits which were prevalent amongst the
people at one time or the other in different parts of the country. But Sanskrit was not altogether
shunned. Amongst the Jains, the earliest work in Sanskrit devoted to religious writing is the
Tattvarthadhigama - Sutra of Umasvamin which epitomizes the whole Jain creed in about 375
sutras arranged in ten chapters. The work occupies a unique position in Jain literature as it is
recognized as authoritative equally by the Digambaras and the Svetambaras with a few
variations in the readings, and is very widely studied by both. It has been commented upon by
the most eminent authors of both the sects.
 INDIAN LITERATURE
Sanskrit Literature and Famous Authors
There are large numbers of books in Sanskrit dealing with various subjects like science, law,
medicine and grammar. The law books were called as the Dharmasutras and smritis, together
known as Dharmashastras. The Dharmasutras were compiled between 500 and 200 BC. These
lay down duties for different varnas as well as for the kings and their officials. They prescribed
the rules according to which property had to be held, sold and inherited. They also prescribe
punishments for persons guilty of assault, murder and adultery. The Manusmriti tells us about
the role of man and woman in society, their code of conduct and relationship with each other.
The works of Ashwaghosha, Bhasa, Shudraka, Kalidasa and Banabhatta provided us with
glimpses of the social and cultural life of northern and central India in times of the Guptas and
Harsha. The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on the works
of Panini and Patanjali. The Kushana kings patronised Sanskrit scholars. Ashvaghosha wrote
the Buddhacharitra which is the biography of the Buddha. He also wrote Saundarananda,
which is a fine example of Sanskrit poetry. India produced great literary works on subjects like
Maths, Astronomy, Astrology, Agriculture and Geography etc.
Books on medicine were written by Charak and on surgery by Sushruta. Madhava wrote a
book on pathology. Books written on astronomy by Varahamihira and Aryabhatta and on
astrology by Lagdhacharya had all achieved prominence. There is none that can compete with
Varahamihira’s Bhrihatsamhita, Aryabhatia and Vedanga Jyotisha.
The post-medieval period in northern India saw the rise of Sanskrit literature in Kashmir.
Somadeva’s Katha-sarit-sagar and Kalhan’s Rajatarangini are of historical importance. It
gives a vivid account of the Kings of Kashmir. The Geet Govinda of Jaidev is the finest poem
of Sanskrit literature of this period, besides numerous works on different aspects of art and
architecture, sculpture, iconography and related fields.

Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil Literature

There are four languages Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam developed their own literature. Tamil
being the oldest of these languages began writing earlier and produced the Sangam literature
the oldest literature in Tamil.

Telugu Literature
Telugu is one of the classical languages of India. It is the language of the Dravidian family.
Telugu literature consists of poems, short stories, novels, plays and song lyrics. Early Telugu
literature is religious in subject matter. Poets and scholars drew most of their material from
epics such as the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas. The Vijayanagar period was
the golden age of Telugu literature. Nachana Somnatha, a court poet, produced a poetical work
titled Uttaraharivansam. Krishna Dev Rai, the greatest of the Vijayanagar, was a poet of great
merit. His work Amukta Malyada is regarded as an excellent prabandhan in Telegu literature.
Eight Telugu literary luminaries, popularly known as ashtadiggajas adorned his court. Among
them, Allasani Peddana, the author of Manucharitram, was the greatest. The other seven poets
of the group were Nandi Timmana, the author of Parijathapaharanam, Madayagari Mallana,
Dhurjati, Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi, Pingali Surana, Ramaraja Bhushana and Tenali
Ramakrishna.

Kannada Literature
Apart from Telugu, Vijayanagara rulers extended their patronage to Kannada literature.
Kannada language developed fully after the tenth century AD. The earliest known literary work
in Kannada is Kaviraj written by the Rashtrakuta king, Nripatunga Amoghavarsha. Pampa,
known as the father of Kannada, wrote his great poetic works Adi Purana and Vikramarijiva.
In the thirteenth century new feats were achieved in Kannada literature. Harishvara wrote
Harishchandra kavya and Somanatha charita whereas Bandhuvarma wrote
Harivanshabhyudaya and Jiva Sambodhana.
Kannada literature flourished considerably between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries
under the patronage of the Vijayanagara kings. Poets of all religious groups made important
contribution to it. Kunura Vyasa wrote Bharata and Narahari wrote Tarave Ramayana. This is
the first Rama Katha in Kannada composed on the basis of Valmiki’s Ramayana. Lakshamisha
who lived in the seventeenth century wrote Jaimini Bharata.

Malayalam Literature
Malayalam is spoken in Kerala and the adjoining areas. The language of Malayalam emerged
around the eleventh century AD. The earliest known literary work in Malayalam is
Ramacharitam, an epic poem written by Cheeraman in 1198 AD. By fifteenth century
Malayalam was recognised as an independent language. Bhasa Kautilya, a commentary on
Arthashashtra and kokasandisan are two great works. Rama Panikkar and Ramanujam
Ezhuthachan are well known authors of Malayalam literature.
 Though it developed much later compared to other South Indian languages, Malayalam has
made a mark as a powerful medium of expression. Now a large number of journals, newspapers
and magazines are published in Malayalam.

Tamil or Sangama Literature

Tamil as a written language was known since the beginning of the Christian era. In ancient
times the association or academy of the most learned men of the Tamil land was called Sangam
whose chief function was promotion of literature. Poets in assemblies were patronised by kings
and chieftains produced the Sangama literature over a period of three to four centuries. Such
assemblies were called Sangamas, and the literature produced in these assemblies was called
Sangama literature.
Later Tamil writers mention the existence of three literary academies (Sangams) at different
periods. The last academy is credited with the corpus of literature now known as Sangam
Works. Naturalism and romanticism were the salient features of the poems of the Sangam
bards.
Tolkappiyam, the name signifying the ancient book or the preserver of ancient institutions, was
written by Tolkappiyanar and is the oldest extant Tamil grammar dating back to 500 B.C. It
lays down rules for different kinds of poetical compositions drawn from the examples furnished
by the best works then extant. Containing about 1,610 suttirams, Tolkappiyam is in three parts.
The first two parts are interesting from both linguistic and philological points of view, the third,
poruladhikdram, is most valuable as it gives a glimpse of the political, social, and religious life
of the people during the period when the author of this treatise lived.

NORTHERN INDIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE

We have already seen how languages evolved in India right up to the early medieval period.
The old apabhramsha had taken new forms in some areas or was in the process of evolving into
other forms. Languages were evolving at two levels:
1) The spoken language
2) The written language
The old Brahmi script of the Ashoka days had undergone a great change. The alphabets during
Ashoka’s period were uneven in size but by the time of Harsha, the letters had become of the
same size and were regular, presenting the picture of a cultivated hand. The studies have
indicated that all the scripts of present northern Indian languages, except that of Urdu, have
had their origin in old Brahmi.
If we compare the scripts of Gujarati, Hindi and Punjabi, we can easily understand this change.
There are over 200 languages or dialects spoken in India at present. Some are widely used
while others are limited to a particular area.
A large number of people speak Hindi in its different forms that include Braj Bhasha, and
Avadhi (spoken in Oudh region), Bhojpuri, Magadhi, and Maithili (spoken around Mithila),
and Rajasthani and Khadi Boli (spoken around Delhi). Rajasthani is another variant or dialect
of Hindi. This classification has been made on the basis of literature produced by great poets
over a length of time. Thus, the language used by Surdas and Bihari has been given the name
of Braj Bhasha; that used by Tulsidas in the Ramacharitamanasa is called Avadhi and the
one used by Vidyapati has been termed as Maithili. But Hindi, as we know it today is the one
called Khadi Boli. Though Khusrau has used Khadi Boli in his compositions in the thirteenth
century its extensive use in literature began only in the nineteenth century. It even shows some
influence of Urdu.

Persian and Urdu

• Urdu emerged as an independent language towards the end of the 4th century AD.
• Arabic and Persian were introduced in India with the coming of the Turks and the Mongols.
• Persian remained the court language for many centuries. Urdu as a language was born out of
the interaction between Hindi and Persian.
• Originally it was a dialect but slowly it acquired all the features of a formal language when
the authors started using Persian script.
• Urdu became more popular in the early eighteenth century. People even wrote accounts of
later Mughals in Urdu.
Urdu was patronised by the Nawabs of Lucknow, who held symposiums in this language.
Slowly it became quite popular as Persian was the language of the court, much of the literature
produced in this period was written in Persian. Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan Dehelvi wrote
superb poetry in Persian. Historians like Minhas-us-Siraj, Zia Barani and Ibn Batuta who came
to India during those days wrote accounts of rulers, important political events and incidents in
this language. In the medieval period, Persian was adopted as the court language. Several
historical accounts, administrative manuals and allied literature in this language have come
down to us. The mughal rulers were great patrons of leaning and literature. Babar wrote his
Tuzuk (autobiography) in Turkish language, but his grandson Akbar got it translated into
Persian. Akbar patronized many scholars. He got Mahabharata translated into Persian.
Jahangir’s autobiography (Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri) is in Persian and is a unique piece of literature.
It is said that Noorjahan was an accomplished Persian poetess. Quite a fair amount of Persian
literature has been produced by the courtiers of the Mughals. Abul Fazl’s Akbarnamah and
Ain-e-Akbari is a fine piece of literature. From there we get a good deal of information about
Akbar and his times. Faizi wrote beautiful Persian poetry. Several collections of letters of the
Mughal period (insha) have come down to us. Besides shedding light on Mughal history, they
indicate different styles of letter writing. Another name in prose and history writing is that of
Chandra Bhan, a writer of Shahjahan’s days. Similarly, we have a work named Tabqat i-
Alamgiri, shedding light on Aurangzeb. Badauni was another writer who belonged during
Akbar’s time. In the twentieth century, Iqbal wrote good Persian poetry. All this has now
become a part of Indian heritage and culture quite popular. Pakistan has adopted Urdu as the
state language.

Hindi Literature
The emergence of all these languages resulted in the decline of Sanskrit as they came to be
used as the medium through which the administrative machinery functioned. Prithviraj Raso is
supposed to be the first book in Hindi language. It is an account of exploits of Prithvi Raj
Chauhan. Hindi evolved during the Apabhramsha stage between the 7th AD and the 14th AD.
There was a tremendous growth of regional languages like Hindi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya,
Marathi and Gujarati. It was patronised by the Rajput rulers as it glorified chivalry and poetry.
The most famous figures from this period were Kabir and Tulsidas.
During the last 150 years, many writers have contributed to the development of modern India
literature, written in a number of regional languages as well as in English. One of the greatest
Bengali writers, Rabindranath Tagore became the first Indian to win the Nobel Prize for
literature (Geetanjali) in 1913. However, it is only with the beginning of nineteenth century
that Hindi prose came into its own. Bharatendu Harishchandra was one of the earliest to
produce dramas in Hindi which were basically translations of texts written in Sanskrit and other
languages. Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi was another author who wrote translations or made
adaptations from Sanskrit. Bankim Chandra Chatterji (l838-94) wrote novels originally in
Bangla. They came to be translated into Hindi and became very popular. Vande Mataram, our
national song, is an excerpt from his novel, Anand Math. Swami Dayanand’s contribution to
Hindi cannot be ignored. Originally a Gujarati and a scholar of Sanskrit, he advocated Hindi
as a common language for the whole of India. He started writing in Hindi and contributed
articles to journals essentially engaged in religious and social reforms. Satyartha Prakash was
his most important work in Hindi. Among other names that have enriched Hindi literature, is
that of Munshi Prem Chand, Surya Kant Tripathi Nirala, Sumitranandan Pant,
Ramdhari Singh Dinkar and Haribans Rai Bacchan. Mahadevi Verma is the first woman
writer in Hindi to highlight issues related to women. Maithili Sharan Gupt is another
important name. Jaishankar Prasad wrote beautiful dramas.

If we look at the above writers, we find that they all wrote with a purpose. Swami Dayanand
wrote in order to reform the Hindu society and rid it of false beliefs and social evils. Munshi
Prem Chand tried to draw the attention of the society to the miserable existence of the poor and
Mahadevi Verma recipient of Padma Vibhushan, highlighted the conditions of women in the
society. Nirala became the pioneer of awakening of Modern India.