UNIT II:

Network Layer (Layer 3):

Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP
address are placed in the header by the network layer.

The functions of the Network layer are:

1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely,
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are
placed in the header by network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device
uniquely and universally.
* Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.

** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

Introduction and IPv4 Datagram Header

The network layer is the third layer (from bottom) in the OSI Model. The network
layer is concerned with the delivery of a packet across multiple networks. The network
layer is considered the backbone of the OSI Model. It selects and manages the best
logical path for data transfer between nodes. This layer contains hardware devices such as
routers, bridges, firewalls, and switches, but it actually creates a logical image of the most
efficient communication route and implements it with a physical medium. Network layer
protocols exist in every host or router. The router examines the header fields of all the IP
packets that pass through it. Internet Protocol and Netware IPX/SPX are the most
common protocols associated with the network layer.
In the OSI model, the network layer responds to requests from the layer
above it (transport layer) and issues requests to the layer below it (data link layer).
Responsibilities of Network Layer:
Packet forwarding/Routing of packets: Relaying of data packets from one network
segment to another by nodes in a computer network

Connectionless communication(IP): A data transmission method used in packet-

switched networks in which each data unit is separately addressed and routed based on
information carried by it
Fragmentation of data packets: Splitting of data packets that are too large to be
transmitted on the network
 There are two types of network transmission techniques, circuit switched network
and packet switched network.

Circuit Switch vs Packet Switch:

In circuit switched network, a single path is designated for transmission of all the
data packets. Whereas in case of a packet-switched network, each packet may be sent
through a different path to reach the destination.
In a circuit switched network, the data packets are received in order whereas in a
packet switched network, the data packets may be received out of order.
The packet switching is further subdivided into Virtual circuits and Datagram.

IPv4:

 IPv4 is a connectionless protocol used for packet-switched networks.

 The IPv4 addresses are unique and universal.
 IPv4 uses 32-bit (4 byte) addressing, which gives 232 addresses. IPv4 addresses are
written in the dot-decimal notation, which comprises of four octets of the address
expressed individually in decimal and separated by periods, for instance,
[Link].

IPv4 Datagram Header

Size of the header is 20 to 60 bytes.

VERSION: Version of the IP protocol (4 bits), which is 4 for IPv4

HLEN: IP header length (4 bits), which is the number of 32 bit words in the header. The
minimum value for this field is 5 and the maximum is 15.

Type of service: Low Delay, High Throughput, Reliability (8 bits)

Total Length: Length of header + Data (16 bits), which has a minimum value 20 bytes
and the maximum is 65,535 bytes.

Identification: Unique Packet Id for identifying the group of fragments of a single IP

datagram (16 bits)

Flags: 3 flags of 1 bit each : reserved bit (must be zero), do not fragment flag, more
fragments flag (same order)

Fragment Offset: Represents the number of Data Bytes ahead of the particular fragment
in the particular Datagram. Specified in terms of number of 8 bytes, which has the
maximum value of 65,528 bytes.
Time to live: Datagram’s lifetime (8 bits), It prevents the datagram to loop through the
network by restricting the number of Hops taken by a Packet before delivering to the
Destination.

Protocol: Name of the protocol to which the data is to be passed (8 bits)

Header Checksum: 16 bits header checksum for checking errors in the datagram header

Source IP address: 32 bits IP address of the sender

Destination IP address: 32 bits IP address of the receiver

Option: Optional information such as source route, record route. Used by the Network
administrator to check whether a path is working or not.
IPv6: Header

[Image: IPv6 Fixed Header]

1
Version (4-bits): It represents the version of Internet Protocol, i.e. 0110.

2
Traffic Class (8-bits): These 8 bits are divided into two parts. The most significant 6 bits are
used for Type of Service to let the Router Known what services should be provided to this
packet. The least significant 2 bits are used for Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN).

3
Flow Label (20-bits): This label is used to maintain the sequential flow of the packets
belonging to a communication. The source labels the sequence to help the router identify that a
particular packet belongs to a specific flow of information. This field helps avoid re-ordering of
data packets. It is designed for streaming/real-time media.

4
Payload Length (16-bits): This field is used to tell the routers how much information a
particular packet contains in its payload. Payload is composed of Extension Headers and Upper
Layer data. With 16 bits, up to 65535 bytes can be indicated; but if the Extension Headers
contain Hop-by-Hop Extension Header, then the payload may exceed 65535 bytes and this field
is set to 0.

5
Next Header (8-bits): This field is used to indicate either the type of Extension Header, or if
the Extension Header is not present then it indicates the Upper Layer PDU. The values for the
type of Upper Layer PDU are same as IPv4’s.

6
Hop Limit (8-bits): This field is used to stop packet to loop in the network infinitely. This is
same as TTL in IPv4. The value of Hop Limit field is decremented by 1 as it passes a link
(router/hop). When the field reaches 0 the packet is discarded.

7
Source Address (128-bits): This field indicates the address of originator of the packet.

8
Destination Address (128-bits): This field provides the address of intended recipient of the
packet.

Extension Headers
In IPv6, the Fixed Header contains only that much information which is necessary, avoiding
those information which is either not required or is rarely used. All such information is put between the
Fixed Header and the Upper layer header in the form of Extension Headers. Each Extension Header is
identified by a distinct value.
When Extension Headers are used, IPv6 Fixed Header’s Next Header field points to the first
Extension Header. If there is one more Extension Header, then the first Extension Header’s ‘Next-
Header’ field points to the second one, and so on. The last Extension Header’s ‘Next-Header’ field
points to the Upper Layer Header. Thus, all the headers points to the next one in a linked list manner.
If the Next Header field contains the value 59, it indicates that there are no headers after this header,
not even Upper Layer Header.
The following Extension Headers must be supported as per RFC 2460:

The sequence of Extension Headers should be:

These headers:
 1. should be processed by First and subsequent destinations.
 2. should be processed by Final Destination.
Extension Headers are arranged one after another in a linked list manner, as depicted in the following
diagram:
Address Mapping
 The delivery of a packet to a host or router requires two levels of addressing
1. Logical and
2. Physical
 We need to map logical address to its corresponding physical address and vice versa.
 This can be done by static mapping and dynamic mapping
 Static mapping involves in the creation a table that associates a logical address with a
physical address. This address mapping table is stored in each device on the network.
 Static mapping has some limitations because physical addresses may change in the
following ways
1. A machine could change its Network Interface Card (NIC), which results in a new
Media Access Control(MAC) address
2. In some LANs such as Local Talk, the MAC address changes every time the
computer is turned on.
3. A mobile device can move from one physical network to another, which results in
a change in its MAC address
 To implement these changes, a static mapping table must be updated periodically. This
overhead could affect network performance.
 In dynamic mapping each time a device knows one of the two addresses (IP address or
MAC address)

Mapping Logical to Physical Address:ARP( Address Resolution Protocol)

 It is an Address Resolution Protocol.
 It is a network layer protocol used to address resolution or address mapping in TCP/IP protocol
suite
 The purpose of ARP is to find out MAC address of a device in LAN for corresponding IP
address, which network application is trying to communicate.
 ARP is never generated for the device of other network.

 ARP associates an IP address with its physical address on a typical physical network, such as
LAN, each device on a link is identified by physical address that is usually imprinted on the NIC.
ARP Packet format

 Hardware type. This is a 16-bit field defining the type of the network on which ARP is running.
Each LAN has been assigned an integer based on its type. For example, Ethernet is given type 1.
ARP can be used on any physical network.
 Protocol type. This is a 16-bit field defining the protocol. For example, the value of this field for
the IPv4 protocol is 080016, ARP can be used with any higher-level protocol.
 Hardware length. This is an 8-bit field defining the length of the physical address in bytes. For
example, for Ethernet the value is 6.
 Protocol length. This is an 8-bit field defining the length of the logical address in bytes. For
example, for the IPv4 protocol the value is 4.
 Operation. This is a 16-bit field defining the type of packet. Two packet types are defined: ARP
request (1) andARP reply (2).
 Sender hardware address. This is a variable-length field defining the physical address of the
sender. For example, for Ethernet this field is 6 bytes long.
 Sender protocol address. This is a variable-length field defining the logical (for example, IP)
address of the sender. For the IP protocol, this field is 4 bytes long.
 Target hardware address. This is a variable-length field defining the physical address of the
target. For example, for Ethernet this field is 6 bytes long. For an ARP request message, this
field is alIOs because the sender does not know the physical address of the target.
 Target protocol address. This is a variable-length field defining the logical (for example, IP)
address of the target. For the IPv4 protocol, this field is 4 bytes long.

Mapping Physical to Logical Address: RARP, BOOTP, and DHCP

RARP: (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)

It finds the logical address for a machine that knows only its physical
address
In ARP receivers MAC address is fetched through ARP (32-bit). IP
address mapped into (48-bit) MAC address whereas, In RARP,IP address is
fetched through server. Through RARP (48-bit) MAC address of 48 bits
mapped into (32-bit) IP address

BOOTP: The Bootstrap Protocol

The BOOTP protocol is a client/server protocol designed to provide

physical address to logical address mapping BOOTP is an application layer
protocol. The administrator may put the client & the server on the same network
or on different networks. BOOTP messages are encapsulated in a UDP packet
and the UDP packet itself is encapsulated in an IP packet.
 -
 Client determines its own hardware address.
 Client sends its hardware address in UDP datagram to server.
 After receiving datagram server looks up hardware address of client
 if client knows its own IP address
 if client does not know its own IP address
 use of ARP on server
 On replay BOOTP client record its own IP address & begin bootstrap process.
ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol

 ICMP is designed to overcome the following two problems in the IP protocol

 IP protocol has no error-reporting or error-correcting mechanism
 IP protocol also lacks a mechanism for host and management queries.
To overcome the above problem ICMP has been designed. ICMP is a
companion to the IP protocol
 This is a Network Layer protocol
 Types of Messages: There are two types if messages
 Error-reporting messages: Error Reporting messages report or a
host may encounter while processing of IP Packet.
 Query messages: It helps to get specific information from a router
or another host.

Message Format

Type(8 bits): Defines the type of the message.

Code(8 bits): The code field specifies the reason for the particular message type.

Checksum( 16 bits): The last common field is the checksum field which checks the error.

Rest of the header: The rest of the header is specific for each message type.

Data Section: The data section in error messages carries information for finding the
original packet that had the error. In query messages, the data section carries extra
information based on the type of the query.

Error Reporting:
ICMP always reports error messages to the original source. ICMP does not correct the errors.

Types of Error-reporting messages

 Query Messages: Types of Query Messages

DELIVERY
The delivery of a packet to its final destination is accomplished by using two different methods
of delivery,
 direct and
 indirect

Direct Delivery
In a direct delivery, the final destination of the packet is a host connected to the same
physical network as the deliverer. Direct delivery occurs when the source and destination of the packet
are located on the same physical network or when the delivery is between the last router and the
destination host.
The sender can easily determine if the delivery is direct. It can extract the network address of the
destination (using the mask) and compare this address with the addresses of the networks to which it is
connected. If a match is found, the delivery is direct.

Indirect Delivery
If the destination host is not on the same network as the deliverer, the packet is delivered
indirectly. In an indirect delivery, the packet goes from router to router until it reaches the one
connected to the same physical network as its final destination. Note that a delivery always involves one
direct delivery but zero or more indirect deliveries. Note also that the last delivery is always a direct
delivery.
UNICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS
A routing table can be either static or dynamic. A static table is one with manual entries.
A dynamic table is one that is updated automatically when there is a change somewhere in the internet

Intra- and Interdomain Routing

Today, an internet can be so large that one routing protocol cannot handle the task of updating the
routing tables of all routers. For this reason, an internet is divided into autonomous systems. An
autonomous system (AS) is a group of networks and routers under the authority of a single
administration. Routing inside an autonomous system is referred to as intradomain routing. Routing
between autonomous systems is referred to as interdomain routing. Each autonomous system can
choose one or more intradomain routing protocols to handle routing inside the autonomous system.
However, only one interdomain routing protocol handles routing between autonomous systems as
shown in below figure.
 Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is an implementation of the distance vector protocol. Open
Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an implementation of the link state protocol. Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP) is an implementation of the path vector protocol.

Distance Vector Routing

In distance vector routing, the least-cost route between any two nodes is the route with minimum
distance. In this protocol, as the name implies, each node maintains a vector (table) of minimum
distances to every node. The table at each node also guides the packets to the desired node by showing
the next stop in the route (next-hop routing).
Link State Routing
Link state routing has a different philosophy from that of distance vector routing. In link state routing, if each
node in the domain has the entire topology of the domainthe list of nodes and links, how they are connected
including the type, cost (metric), and condition of the links (up or down)-the node can use Dijkstra's
algorithm to build a routing table

Path Vector Routing

Distance vector and link state routing are both intradomain routing protocols. They can be used inside an
autonomous system, but not between autonomous systems. These two protocols are not suitable for
interdomain routing mostly because of scalability. Both of these routing protocols become intractable
when the domain of operation becomes large. Distance vector routing is subject to instability if there are
more than a few hops in the domain of operation. Link state routing needs a huge amount of resources to
calculate routing tables. It also creates heavy traffic because of flooding. There is a need for a third
routing protocol which we call path vector routing.

MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast:
A message can be unicast, multicast, or broadcast.

Unicasting
In unicast communication, there is one source and one destination. The relationship between the
source and the destination is one-to-one. In this type of communication, both the source and destination
addresses, in the IP datagram, are the unicast addresses assigned to the hosts.

A unicast packet starts from the source S1 and passes through routers to reach the destination D1. In
unicasting, when a router receives a packet, it forwards the packet through only one of its interfaces (the
one belonging to the optimum path) as defined in the routing table. The router may discard the packet if
it cannot find the destination address in its routing table.
In unicasting, the router forwards the received packet through only one of its interfaces.
Multicasting
In multicast communication, there is one source and a group of destinations. The relationship is
one-to-many. In this type of communication, the source address is a unicast address, but the destination
address is a group address, which defines one or more destinations. The group address identifies the
members of the group.

A multicast packet starts from the source S1 and goes to all destinations that belong to group G1.
In multicasting, when a router receives a packet, it may forward it through several of its interfaces .
In multicasting, the router may forward the received packet through several of its interfaces.

Broadcasting
In broadcast communication, the relationship between the source and the destination is
one-to-all. There is only one source, but all the other hosts are the destinations. The Internet does not
explicitly support broadcasting because of the huge amount of traffic it would create and because of the
bandwidth it would need. Imagine the traffic generated in the Internet if one person wanted to send a
message to everyone else connected to the Internet.

Unicast and Multicast Routing

In this section, we first discuss the idea of optimal routing, common in all multicast protocols.
We then give an overview of multicast routing protocols.

Optimal Routing: Shortest Path Trees

The process of optimal interdomain routing eventually results in the finding of the shortest path
tree. The root of the tree is the source, and the leaves are the potential destinations. The path from the
root to each destination is the shortest path. However, the number of trees and the formation of the trees
in unicast and multicast routing are different. Let us discuss each separately.

Unicast Routing In unicast routing, when a router receives a packet to forward, it needs to find
the shortest path to the destination of the packet. The router consults its routing table for that particular
destination. The next-hop entry corresponding to the destination is the start of the shortest path. The
router knows the shortest path for each destination, which means that the router has a shortest path tree
to optimally reach all destinations. In other words, each line of the routing table is a shortest path; the
whole routing table is a shortest path tree. In unicast routing, each router needs only one shortest path
tree to forward a packet; however, each router has its own shortest path tree.

Multicast Routing When a router receives a multicast packet, the situation is different from
when it receives a unicast packet. A multicast packet may have destinations in more than one network.
Forwarding of a single packet to members of a group requires a shortest path tree. If we have n groups,
we may need n shortest path trees. We can imagine the complexity of multicast routing. Two approaches
have been used to solve the problem: source-based trees and group-shared trees.