Chapter9 Relations
Chapter9 Relations
9
Chapter
Summary
Relations
and
Their
Properties
Representing
Relations
Equivalence
Relations
Partial
Orderings
Section
9.1
[Link]
Summary
Relations
and
Functions
Properties
of
Relations
Reflexive
Relations
Symmetric
and
Antisymmetric
Relations
Transitive
Relations
Combining
Relations
Binary
[Link]
Definition:
A
binary
relation
R
from
a
set
A
to
a
set
B
is
a
subset
R
⊆ A × B.
Example:
Let
A
=
{0,1,2}
and
B
=
{a,b}
{(0, a),
(0, b),
(1,a)
,
(2, b)}
is
a
relation
from
A
to
B.
We
can
represent
relations
from
a
set
A
to
a
set
B
graphically
or
using
a
table:
Relations
are
more
general
than
functions.
A
function
is
a
relation
where
exactly
one
element
of
B
is
related
to
each
element
of
A.
Binary
[Link]
on
a
Set
Definition:
A
binary
relation
R
on
a
set
A
is
a
subset
of
A
×
A
or
a
relation
from
A
to
A.
Example:
Suppose
that
A
=
{a,b,c}.
Then
R
=
{(a,a),(a,b),
(a,c)}
is
a
relation
on
A.
Let
A
=
{1, 2, 3, 4}.
The
ordered
pairs
in
the
relation
R
=
{(a,b)
|
a
divides
b} are
(1,1), (1, 2), (1,3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3), and (4, 4).
Binary
[Link]
on
a
Set
(cont.)
Question:
How
many
relations
are
there
on
a
set
A?
Binary
[Link]
on
a
Set
(cont.)
Question:
How
many
relations
are
there
on
a
set
A?
Solution:
Because
a
relation
on
A
is
the
same
thing
as
a
subset
of
A
⨉
A,
we
count
the
subsets
of
A
×
A. Since
A
×
A
has
n2
elements
when
A
has
n
elements,
and
a
set
| A|2
with
m
elements
has
2
subsets,
there
are
2
subsets
of
m
2
A
×
A.
Therefore,
there
are
2
relations
on
a
set
A.
| A |
Binary
[Link]
on
a
Set
(cont.)
Example:
Consider
these
relations
on
the
set
of
integers:
R1 =
{(a,b)
|
a
≤ b},
R4 =
{(a,b)
|
a
= b},
R2 =
{(a,b)
|
a
> b},
R5 =
{(a,b)
|
a
= b + 1},
R3 =
{(a,b)
|
|a|
= |b| },
R6 =
{(a,b)
|
a
+
b
≤ 3}.
Note
that
these
relations
are
on
an
infinite
set
and
each
of
these
relations
is
an
infinite
set.
For each of these pairs, determine to which relations it belongs
(1,1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, −1), and (2, 2)
Binary
[Link]
on
a
Set
(cont.)
Example:
Consider
these
relations
on
the
set
of
integers:
R1 =
{(a,b)
|
a
≤ b},
R4 =
{(a,b)
|
a
= b},
R2 =
{(a,b)
|
a
> b},
R5 =
{(a,b)
|
a
= b + 1},
R3 =
{(a,b)
|
a
= b or a = −b},
R6 =
{(a,b)
|
a
+
b
≤ 3}.
Note
that
these
relations
are
on
an
infinite
set
and
each
of
these
relations
is
an
infinite
set.
For each of these pairs, determine to which relations it belongs
(1,1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, −1), and (2, 2)?
Solution:
Checking
the
conditions
that
define
each
relation,
we
see
that
the
pair
(1,1) is in
R1,
R3, R4 , and R6: (1,2) is in
R1
and R6: (2,1) is
in
R2, R5,
and R6: (1, −1) is in
R2, R3,
and R6 : (2,2) is in
R1, R3,
and R4.
Reflexive
[Link]
Definition:
R
is
reflexive
iff
(a,a)
∊ R
for
every
element
a
∊ A. Written
symbolically,
R
is
reflexive
if
and
only
if
∀x[x∊A ⟶ (x,x) ∊ R]
Example:
The
following
relations
on
the
set
of
integers
are
reflexive:
If A = ∅
then
the
empty
relation
is
R1 =
{(a,b)
|
a
≤ b}, reflexive
vacuously:
The
empty
relation
on
an
empty
set
is
reflexive!
R3 =
{(a,b)
|
|a|
= |b| },
R4 =
{(a,b)
|
a
= b}.
The following relations are not reTlexive:
R2 =
{(a,b)
|
a
> b} (note that 3 ≯ 3),
R5 =
{(a,b)
|
a
= b + 1} (note that 3 ≠3 + 1),
R6 =
{(a,b)
|
a
+
b
≤ 3} (note that 4 + 4 ≰ 3).
Symmetric
[Link]
Definition:
R
is
symmetric
iff
(b,a)
∊ R
whenever
(a,b)
∊ R
for
all
a,b
∊ A.
Written
symbolically,
R
is
symmetric
if
and
only
if
∀x∀y [(x,y) ∊R ⟶ (y,x) ∊ R]
Example:
The
following
relations
on
the
integers
are
symmetric:
R3 =
{(a,b)
|
|a|
= |b|},
R4 =
{(a,b)
|
a
= b},
R6 =
{(a,b)
|
a
+
b
≤ 3}.
The following are not symmetric:
R1 =
{(a,b)
|
a
≤ b} (note that 3 ≤ 4, but 4 ≰ 3),
R2 =
{(a,b)
|
a
> b} (note that 4 > 3, but 3 ≯ 4),
R5 =
{(a,b)
|
a
= b + 1} (note that 4 = 3 + 1, but 3 ≠4 + 1).
[Link]
[Link]
Definition:A
relation
R
on
a
set
A
such
that
for
all
a,b
∊ A
if
(a,b)
∊ R
and
(b,a)
∊ R,
then
a
=
b
is
called
antisymmetric.
Written
symbolically,
R
is
antisymmetric
if
and
only
if
∀x∀y [(x,y) ∊R ∧ (y,x) ∊ R
⟶ x = y]
Example:
The
following
relations
on
the
integers
are
antisymmetric:
R1 =
{(a,b)
|
a
≤ b}, For
any
integer,
if
a
a
≤ b and
R2 =
{(a,b)
|
a
> b},
a
≤ b , then a = b.
R4 =
{(a,b)
|
a
= b},
R5 =
{(a,b)
|
a
= b + 1}.
The following relations are not antisymmetric:
R3 =
{(a,b)
|
|a|
= |b| }
(note that both (1,−1) and (−1,1) belong to R3),
R6 =
{(a,b)
|
a
+
b
≤ 3} (note that both (1,2) and (2,1) belong to R6).
[Link]
[Link]
Definition:
A
relation
R
on
a
set
A
is
called
transitive
if
whenever
(a,b)
∊ R
and
(b,c)
∊ R,
then
(a,c)
∊ R,
for
all
a,b,c
∊ A.
Written
symbolically,
R
is
transitive
if
and
only
if
∀x∀y ∀z[(x,y) ∊R ∧ (y,z) ∊ R ⟶ (x,z) ∊ R ]
Example:
The
following
relations
on
the
set
of
integers
are
transitive:
R1 =
{(a,b)
|
a
≤ b},
R2 =
{(a,b)
|
a
> b},
For
every
integer,
a
≤ b
R3 =
{(a,b)
|
|a|
= |b| },
and
b
≤ c, then b
≤ c.
R4 =
{(a,b)
|
a
= b}.
The following are not transitive:
R5 =
{(a,b)
|
a
= b + 1} (note that both (4,3) and (3,2) belong to R5, but
not (4,2)),
R6 =
{(a,b)
|
a
+
b
≤ 3} (note that both (2,1) and (1,2) belong to R6, but
not (2,2)).
Combining
[Link]
Given
two
relations
R1
and
R2,
we
can
combine
them
using
basic
set
operations
to
form
new
relations
such
as
R1
∪
R2,
R1
∩
R2,
R1
− R2,
and
R2
−
R1.
Example:
Let
A
=
{1,2,3}
and
B
=
{1,2,3,4}.
The
relations
R1
=
{(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)}
and
R2
=
{(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}
can
be
combined
using
basic
set
operations
to
form
new
relations:
R1
∪
R2 ={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2),(3,3)}
R1
∩
R2 ={(1,1)}
R1
− R2 ={(2,2),(3,3)}
R2
−
R1 ={(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}
[Link]
Definition:
Suppose
R1
is
a
relation
from
a
set
A
to
a
set
B.
R2
is
a
relation
from
B
to
a
set
C.
Then
the
composition
(or
composite)
of
R2
with
R1,
is
a
relation
from
A
to
C
where
if
(x,y)
is
a
member
of
R1
and
(y,z)
is
a
member
of
R2,
then
(x,z)
is
a
member
of
R2∘
R1.
[Link]
the
[Link]
of
a
[Link]
R1 m R2 w
a
x
n
b
y
o
c
p
z
[Link]
of
a
[Link]
with
itself
Definition:
Suppose
R
is
a
relation
on
a
set
A.
Then
the
composition
(or
composite)
of
R
with
R,
denoted
by
R∘
R,
is
a
relation
on
A
where
if
(x,y)
is
a
member
of
R
and
(y,z)
is
a
member
of
R,
then
(x,z)
is
a
member
of
R∘
R.
Example:
Let
R
be
the
relation
on
the
set
of
all
people
such
that
(a,
b)
is
in
R
if
person
a
is
parent
of
person
b.
Then
(a,
c)
is
in
(R∘
R)
iff
there
is
a
person
b
such
that
(a,
b)
is
in
R
and
(b,
c)
is
in
R.
In
other
words,
(a,
c)
is
in
R
if
and
only
if
a
is
a
grandparent
of
c.
Powers
of
a
[Link]
Definition:
Let
R
be
a
binary
relation
on
A.
Then
the
powers
Rn
of
the
relation
R
can
be
defined
recursively
by:
Basis
Step:
R1
=
R
Recursive
Step:
Rn+1
=
Rn
∘
R
The
powers
of
a
transitive
relation
are
subsets
of
the
relation.
This
is
established
by
the
following
theorem:
Theorem
1:
The
relation
R
on
a
set
A
is
transitive
iff
Rn
⊆
R
for
all
positive
integers
n.
(see
the
text
for
a
proof
via
mathematical
induction)
N-‐ary
[Link]
Definition:
Let
A1,
A2,
...,
An
be
sets.
An
n-‐ary
relation
on
these
sets
is
a
subset
of
A1
x
A2
x
...
x
An.
The
sets
A1,
A2,
...,
An
are
called
the
domains
of
the
relation
and
n
is
called
the
degree.
Example:
Let
R
be
the
ternary
relation
on
Z
x
Z
x
Z+
consisting
of
triples
(a,
b,
m)
where
a
≡ b(mod m)
Then
(-‐1,
9,
5),
(8,
2,
3)
and
(14,
0,
7)
belong
to
R,
but
(7,
2,
3)
does
not.
Example:
Let
R’
be
the
relation
consisting
of
5-‐tuples
(A,
N,
S,
D,
T)
representing
airplane
flights,
where
A
is
the
airline,
N
is
the
flight
number,
S
is
the
starting
point,
D
is
the
destination
and
T
is
the
departure
time.
The
degree
of
this
relation
is
5.
Databases
and
[Link]
Relations
are
often
used
to
represent
databases
Relations
used
to
represent
databases
are
also
called
tables,
because
they
are
often
displayed
as
tables
The
database
query
language
SQL
(Structured
Query
Language)
is
used
to
carry
out
operations
on
tables
Each
column
of
the
table
corresponds
to
an
attribute
The
natural
join
binary
operator
combines
two
tables
into
one,
when
these
tables
share
some
identical
fields.
The
result
of
the
natural
join
between
R
and
S
is
the
set
of
all
combinations
of
tuples
in
R
and
S
that
are
equal
on
their
common
attribute
names.
Natural
Join
Example
A
table
contains
fields
for
airline,
flight
number,
and
gate
A
second
table
contains
fields
for
flight
number,
gate,
and
departure
time.
One
can
use
natural
join
to
combine
these
two
relations
into
a
third
one
containing
fields
for
airline,
flight
number,
gate
and
departure
time.
The
matrix
representing
R
has
a
1
as
its
(i,j)
entry
when
ai
is
related
to
bj
and
a
0
if
ai
is
not
related
to
bj.
Examples
of
[Link]
[Link]
Using
Matrices
Example
1:
Suppose
that
A
=
{1,2,3}
and
B
=
{1,2}.
Let
R
be
the
relation
from
A
to
B
containing
(a,b)
if
a
∈
A,
b
∈
B,
and
a
>
b.
What
is
the
matrix
representing
R
(assuming
the
ordering
of
elements
is
the
same
as
the
increasing
numerical
order)?
Solution:
Because
R
=
{(2,1),
(3,1),(3,2)},
the
matrix
is
Examples
of
[Link]
[Link]
Using
Matrices
(cont.)
Example
2:
Let
A
=
{a1,a2, a3}
and
B
=
{b1,b2, b3,b4, b5}.
Which
ordered
pairs
are
in
the
relation
R
represented
by
the
matrix
Examples
of
[Link]
[Link]
Using
Matrices
(cont.)
Example
2:
Let
A
=
{a1,a2, a3}
and
B
=
{b1,b2, b3,b4, b5}.
Which
ordered
pairs
are
in
the
relation
R
represented
by
the
matrix
Solution:
Because
R
consists
of
those
ordered
pairs
(ai,bj)
with
mij
=
1,
it
follows
that:
R
=
{(a1,
b2),
(a2,
b1),(a2,
b3),
(a2,
b4),(a3,
b1),
{(a3,
b3),
(a3,
b5)}.
Matrices
of
[Link]
on
Sets
If
R
is
a
reflexive
relation,
all
the
elements
on
the
main
diagonal
of
MR
are
equal
to
1.
R
is
a
symmetric
relation,
if
and
only
if
mij
=
1
whenever
mji
=
1.
R
is
an
antisymmetric
relation,
if
and
only
if
mij
=
0 or mji
=
0 when i≠
j.
Example
of
a
[Link]
on
a
Set
Example
3:
Suppose
that
the
relation
R
on
a
set
is
represented
by
the
matrix
Is
R
reflexive,
symmetric,
and/or
antisymmetric?
Example
of
a
[Link]
on
a
Set
Example
3:
Suppose
that
the
relation
R
on
a
set
is
represented
by
the
matrix
Is
R
reflexive,
symmetric,
and/or
antisymmetric?
Solution:
Because
all
the
diagonal
elements
are
equal
to 1,
R
is
reflexive.
Because
MR
is
symmetric,
R
is
symmetric
and
not
antisymmetric
because
both
m1,2
and
m2,1
are
1.
Matrices
for
[Link]
of
[Link]
The
matrix
of
the
union
of
two
relations
is
the
join
(Boolean
OR)
between
the
matrices
of
the
component
relations
The
matrix
of
the
intersection
of
two
relations
if
the
meet
(Boolean
AND)
between
the
matrices
of
the
component
relations
The
matrix
of
the
composite
relation
(R∘
R)
is
the
Boolean
Product
between
the
matrix
representing
R
and
itself.
[Link]
[Link]
Using
Digraphs
Definition:
A
directed
graph,
or
digraph,
consists
of
a
set
V
of
vertices
(or
nodes)
together
with
a
set
E
of
ordered
pairs
of
elements
of
V
called
edges
(or
arcs).
The
vertex
a
is
called
the
initial
vertex
of
the
edge
(a,b),
and
the
vertex
b
is
called
the
terminal
vertex
of
this
edge.
An
edge
of
the
form
(a,a)
is
called
a
loop.
Example
7:
A
drawing
of
the
directed
graph
with
vertices
a,
b,
c,
and
d,
and
edges
(a,
b),
(a,
d),
(b,
b),
(b,
d),
(c,
a),
(c,
b),
and
(d,
b)
is
shown
here.
Examples
of
Digraphs
[Link]
[Link]
Example
8:
What
are
the
ordered
pairs
in
the
relation
represented
by
this
directed
graph?
Solution:
The
ordered
pairs
in
the
relation
are
(1, 3),
(1, 4),
(2, 1),
(2, 2),
(2, 3),
(3, 1),
(3, 3),
(4, 1),
and
(4, 3)
Determining
[Link]
of
a
[Link]
from
its
Digraph
Reflexivity:
A
loop
must
be
present
at
all
vertices
in
the
graph.
Symmetry: If
(x,y)
is
an
edge,
then
so
is
(y,x).
Antisymmetry:
If
(x,y)
with
x
≠ y
is
an
edge,
then
(y,x)
is
not
an
edge.
Transitivity: If (x,y)
and
(y,z)
are
edges,
then
so
is
(x,z).
Determining
[Link]
of
a
[Link]
from
its
Digraph
–
Example
1
a b
c
d
Determining
[Link]
of
a
[Link]
from
its
Digraph
–
Example
1
a b
c d
a
b
c
d
Determining
[Link]
of
a
[Link]
from
its
Digraph
–
Example
2
a
b
c
d
•
Reflexive?
No,
there
are
no
loops
•
Symmetric?
No,
there
is
an
edge
from
a
to
b,
but
not
from
b
to
a
•
Antisymmetric?
No,
there
is
an
edge
from
d
to
b
and
b
to
d
•
Transitive?
No,
there
are
edges
from
a
to
c
and
from
c
to
b,
but
there
is
no
edge
from
a
to
d
Determining
[Link]
of
a
[Link]
from
its
Digraph
–
Example
3
a
b
c
d
Determining
[Link]
of
a
[Link]
from
its
Digraph
–
Example
3
a
b
c
d
Reflexive?
No,
there
are
no
loops
Symmetric?
No,
for
example,
there
is
no
edge
from
c
to
a
Antisymmetric?
Yes,
whenever
there
is
an
edge
from
one
vertex
to
another,
there
is
not
one
going
back
Transitive?
Yes
Determining
[Link]
of
a
[Link]
from
its
Digraph
–
Example
4
b
a
c
d
Determining
[Link]
of
a
[Link]
from
its
Digraph
–
Example
4
b
a
c
d
•
Reflexive?
No,
there
are
no
loops
•
Symmetric?
No,
for
example,
there
is
no
edge
from
d
to
a
•
Antisymmetric?
Yes,
whenever
there
is
an
edge
from
one
vertex
to
another,
there
is
not
one
going
back
•
Transitive?
Yes
(trivially),
there
are
no
two
edges
where
the
first
edge
ends
at
the
vertex
where
the
second
edge
begins
Example
of
the
Powers
of
a
[Link]
a b a
b
d c d
c
R R2
a b b
a
d c d
c
R4 R3
The
pair
(x,y)
is
in
Rn
if
there
is
a
path
of
length
n
from
x
to
y
in
R
(following
the
direction
of
the
arrows).
Section
9.5
[Link]
Summary
Equivalence
Relations
Equivalence
Classes
Equivalence
Classes
and
Partitions
Equivalence
[Link]
Definition
1:
A
relation
on
a
set
A
is
called
an
equivalence
relation
if
it
is
reflexive,
symmetric,
and
transitive.
Definition
2:
Two
elements
a,
and
b
that
are
related
by
an
equivalence
relation
are
called
equivalent.
The
notation
a
∼ b
is
often
used
to
denote
that
a
and
b
are
equivalent
elements
with
respect
to
a
particular
equivalence
relation.
Strings
Example:
Suppose
that
R
is
the
relation
on
the
set
of
strings
of
English
letters
such
that
aRb
if
and
only
if
l(a)
=
l(b),
where
l(x)
is
the
length
of
the
string
x.
Is
R
an
equivalence
relation?
Solution:
Show
that
all
of
the
properties
of
an
equivalence
relation
hold.
Reflexivity:
Because
l(a)
=
l(a),
it
follows
that
aRa
for
all
strings
a.
Symmetry:
Suppose
that
aRb.
Since
l(a)
=
l(b),
l(b)
=
l(a)
also
holds
and
bRa.
Transitivity:
Suppose
that
aRb
and
bRc.
Since
l(a)
=
l(b),and
l(b)
=
l(c),
l(a)
=
l(c)
also
holds
and
aRc.
Congruence
Modulo
m
Example:
Let
m
be
an
integer
with
m
>
1.
Show
that
the
relation
R
=
{(a,b)
|
a
≡
b
(mod
m)}
is
an
equivalence
relation
on
the
set
of
integers.
Congruence
Modulo
m
Example:
Let
m
be
an
integer
with
m
>
1.
Show
that
the
relation
R
=
{(a,b)
|
a
≡
b
(mod
m)}
is
an
equivalence
relation
on
the
set
of
integers.
Solution:
Recall
that
a
≡
b
(mod
m)
if
and
only
if
m
divides
a
−
b.
Reflexivity:
a
≡
a
(mod
m)
since
a
−
a
=
0
is
divisible
by
m
since
0
=
0
∙ m.
Symmetry:
Suppose
that
a
≡
b
(mod
m).
Then
a
−
b
is
divisible
by
m,
and
so
a
−
b
=
km,
where
k
is
an
integer.
It
follows
that
b
−
a
=
(− k)
m,
so
b
≡
a
(mod
m).
Transitivity:
Suppose
that
a
≡
b
(mod
m)
and
b
≡
c
(mod
m).
Then
m
divides
both
a
−
b
and
b
−
c.
Hence,
there
are
integers
k
and
l
with
a
−
b
=
km
and
b
−
c
=
lm.
We
obtain
by
adding
the
equations:
a
−
c
=
(a
−
b)
+
(b
−
c)
=
km
+
lm
=
(k
+
l)
m.
Therefore,
a
≡
c
(mod
m).
Divides
Example:
Show
that
the
“divides”
relation
on
the
set
of
positive
integers
is
not
an
equivalence
relation.
Divides
Example:
Show
that
the
“divides”
relation
on
the
set
of
positive
integers
is
not
an
equivalence
relation.
Solution:
The
properties
of
reflexivity,
and
transitivity
do
hold,
but
there
relation
is
not
symmetric.
Hence,
“divides”
is
not
an
equivalence
relation.
Reflexivity:
a
∣ a for all a.
Not
Symmetric:
For
example,
2
∣
4,
but
4
∤ 2. Hence,
the
relation
is
not
symmetric.
Transitivity:
Suppose
that
a
divides
b
and
b
divides
c.
Then
there
are
positive
integers
k
and
l
such
that
b
=
ak
and
c
=
bl.
Hence,
c
=
a(kl),
so
a
divides
c.
Therefore,
the
relation
is
transitive.
Equivalence
Classes
Definition
3:
Let
R
be
an
equivalence
relation
on
a
set
A.
The
set
of
all
elements
that
are
related
to
an
element
a
of
A
is
called
the
equivalence
class
of
a.
The
equivalence
class
of
a
with
respect
to
R
is
denoted
by
[a]R.
When
only
one
relation
is
under
consideration,
we
can
write
[a],
without
the
subscript
R,
for
this
equivalence
class.
Note
that
[a]R
=
{s|(a,s)
∈
R}.
If
b
∈ [a]R,
then
b
is
called
a
representative
of
this
equivalence
class.
Any
element
of
a
class
can
be
used
as
a
representative
of
the
class.
The
equivalence
classes
of
the
relation
congruence
modulo
m
are
called
the
congruence
classes
modulo
m.
The
congruence
class
of
an
integer
a
modulo
m
is
denoted
by
[a]m,
so
[a]m
=
{…,
a−2m,
a−m, a+m, a+2m, … }.
For
example,
[0]4
=
{…,
−8, −4 , 0, 4 , 8 , …} [1]4
=
{…,
−7, −3 , 1, 5 , 9 , …}
[2]4
=
{…,
−6, −2 , 2, 6 , 10 , …} [3]4
=
{…,
−5, −1 , 3, 7 , 11 , …}
Equivalence
Classes
and
Par..ons
Theorem
1:
Let
R
be
an
equivalence
relation
on
a
set
A.
These
statements
for
elements
a
and
b
of
A
are
equivalent:
(i)
aRb
(ii)
[a]
=
[b]
(iii)
[a]
∩
[b]
≠
∅
Proof: We show that (i) implies (ii). Assume that aRb. Now
suppose that c ∈
[a].
Then
aRc.
Because
aRb
and
R
is
symmetric,
bRa.
Because
R
is
transitive
and
bRa
and
aRc,
it
follows
that
bRc.
Hence, c ∈
[b].
Therefore,
[a]⊆
[b].
A
similar
argument
(omitted
here)
shows
that
[b]⊆
[a].
Since
[a]⊆
[b]
and
[b]⊆
[a],
we
have
shown
that
[a]
=
[b].
(see
text
for
proof
that
(ii)
implies
(iii)
and
(iii)
implies
(i))
Par..on
of
a
Set
Definition:
A
partition
of
a
set
S
is
a
collection
of
disjoint
nonempty
subsets
of
S
that
have
S
as
their
union.
In
other
words,
the
collection
of
subsets
Ai,
where
i
∈
I
(where
I
is
an
index
set),
forms
a
partition
of
S
if
and
only
if
Ai ≠ ∅ for i
∈
I,
Ai
∩
Aj=∅ when
i
≠ j,
and
Show
that
for
every
set
S
and
every
positive
integer
n,
Rn
is
an
equivalence
relation
on
S.
Iden.fiers
in
C
programming
In
the
C
programming
language,
an
identifier
is
the
name
of
a
variable,
a
function
or
another
type
of
entity
Each
identifier
is
a
nonempty
string
of
characters:
each
character
is
lowercase/uppercase
English
letter,
a
digit,
or
underscore
and
the
first
character
is
a
lowercase/uppercase
English
letter.
Identifiers
can
be
of
any
length
However,
compilers
for
some
versions
of
C,
have
a
limit
on
the
number
of
characters
checked
when
two
names
are
compared
to
see
if
they
refer
to
the
same
thing
Iden.fiers
in
C
programming
Standard
C
compilers
consider
two
identifiers
the
same
when
they
agree
on
their
first
31
characters
Two
identifiers
are
the
same
if
they
are
in
relation
R31
(see
previous
slide)
which
is
an
equivalence
relation
What
are
the
equivalence
classes
of
each
of
the
identifiers
Number_of_tropical_storms
Number_of_named_tropical_storms
Number_of_named_tropical_storms_in_the_Atlantic_
in_2005
Section
9.6
[Link]
Summary
Partial
Orderings
and
Partially-‐ordered
Sets
Lexicographic
Orderings
[Link]
Orderings
Definition
1:
A
relation
R
on
a
set
S
is
called
a
partial
ordering,
or
partial
order,
if
it
is
reflexive,
antisymmetric,
and
transitive.
A
set
together
with
a
partial
ordering
R
is
called
a
partially
ordered
set,
or
poset,
and
is
denoted
by
(S,
R).
Members
of
S
are
called
elements
of
the
poset.
[Link]
Orderings
(con*nued)
Example
1:
Show
that
the
“greater
than
or
equal”
relation
(≥)
is
a
partial
ordering
on
the
set
of
integers.
Reflexivity:
a
≥
a
for
every
integer
a.
Antisymmetry:
If
a
≥
b
and
b
≥
a
,
then
a
=
b.
Transitivity:
If
a
≥
b
and
b
≥
c
,
then
a
≥
c.
These
properties
all
follow
from
the
order
axioms
for
the
integers.
(See
Appendix
1).
[Link]
Orderings
(con*nued)
Example
2:
Show
that
the
divisibility
relation
(∣)
is
a
partial
ordering
on
the
set
of
positive
integers.
[Link]
Orderings
(con*nued)
Example
2:
Show
that
the
divisibility
relation
(∣)
is
a
partial
ordering
on
the
set
of
positive
integers.
Reflexivity:
a
∣ a for all integers a. (see
Example
9
in
Section
9.1)
Antisymmetry:
If
a
and
b
are
positive
integers
with
a
|
b
and
b
|
a,
then
a
=
b.
(see
Example
12
in
Section
9.1)
Transitivity:
Suppose
that
a
divides
b
and
b
divides
c.
Then
there
are
positive
integers
k
and
l
such
that
b
=
ak
and
c
=
bl.
Hence,
c
=
a(kl),
so
a
divides
c.
Therefore,
the
relation
is
transitive.
(Z+,
∣)
is
a
poset.
[Link]
Orderings
(con*nued)
Example
3:
Show
that
the
inclusion
relation
(⊆)
is
a
partial
ordering
on
the
power
set
of
a
set
S.
[Link]
Orderings
(con*nued)
Example
3:
Show
that
the
inclusion
relation
(⊆)
is
a
partial
ordering
on
the
power
set
of
a
set
S.
Reflexivity:
A
⊆ A whenever A is a subset of S.
Antisymmetry:
If
A
and
B
are
positive
integers
with
A
⊆
B
and
B
⊆
A,
then
A
=
B.
Transitivity:
If
A
⊆ B
and
B
⊆
C,
then
A
⊆
C.
The
properties
all
follow
from
the
definition
of
set
inclusion.
Comparability
Definition
2:
The
elements
a
and
b
of
a
poset
(S,≼
)
are
comparable
if
either
a
≼
b
or
b
≼
a.
When
a
and
b
are
elements
of
S
so
that
neither
a
≼
b
nor
b
≼
a,
then
a
and
b
are
called
incomparable.
The
symbol ≼
is
used
to
denote
the
relation
in
any
poset.
Definition
3:
If
(S,≼
)
is
a
partially
ordered
set
and
every
two
elements
of
S
are
comparable,
S
is
called
a
totally
ordered
or
linearly
ordered
set,
and
≼ is
called
a
total
order
or
a
linear
order.
A
totally
ordered
set
is
also
called
a
chain.
Definition
4:
(S,≼
)
is
a
well-‐ordered
set
if
it
is
a
poset
such
that
≼
is
a
total
ordering
and
every
nonempty
subset
of
S
has
a
least
element.
Example:
(Z,
≤)
is
a
totally
ordered
set.
(Z,
|)
is
a
partially
ordered
but
not
totally
ordered
set.
(N,
≤)
is
a
well-‐ordered
set.
Lexicographic
Order
Definition:
Given
two
partially
ordered
sets
(A1,≼1)
and
(A2,≼2),
the
lexicographic
ordering
on
A1 ⨉
A2
is
defined
by
specifying
that
(a1,
a2)
is
less
than
(b1,b2),
that
is,
(a1,
a2) ≺
(b1,b2),
either
if
a1 ≺1 b1
or
if
a1 = b1
and
a2 ≺2 b2.
This
definition
can
be
easily
extended
to
a
lexicographic
ordering
on
strings
.
Example:
Consider
strings
of
lowercase
English
letters.
A
lexicographic
ordering
can
be
defined
using
the
ordering
of
the
letters
in
the
alphabet.
This
is
the
same
ordering
as
that
used
in
dictionaries.
discreet
≺
discrete,
because
these
strings
differ
in
the
seventh
position
and
e
≺
t.
discreet
≺
discreetness,
because
the
first
eight
letters
agree,
but
the
second
string
is
longer.