Chapter 1

Axiomatic System for Constructing

Geometry

1.1 Constructing geometry by the axiomatic method

1.1.1 The axiomatic method in geometry

Geometry, like other sciences, arose from the practical needs of humans, the needs for life,
labor, struggle, and social construction. Three to four thousand years before the Common
Era, mankind already possessed elementary knowledge of geometry.
Through the measurement of land, determining the capacity of containers, measuring dis-
tances, calculating construction projects, etc., geometric rules were gradually developed.
Through experience, based on observation and comparison of shapes in reality, human ge-
ometric knowledge became increasingly rich and precise. From the 5th to the 3rd century
BC, a series of geometry books by ancient Greek mathematicians emerged, recording the
geometric knowledge that mankind had accumulated.
However, as humanity developed, the need for extensive, fast, and accurate knowledge be-
came urgent. The path through experience could not satisfy those needs in life in general
and in calculation in particular. Moreover, calculation itself involved theoretical elements
rather than being a simple application of experience.
In general, when using reasoning, the results achieved are faster and more accurate. There-
fore, the content and method of studying shapes gradually shifted to the form of deduction,
and finally, it occupied a dominant position; that is, people only accepted results achieved
through reasoning. When speaking of "Geometry," it is usually understood as the science
that studies the relationships between "shapes" by logical reasoning methods rather than
through practical experience.
In the form of deduction, every concept introduced is defined, and every conclusion about
the properties of a concept is proven. However, to define a new concept, one must rely
on prior concepts, which must also be defined; to prove a conclusion (proposition), one
must rely on prior propositions that have already been proven. If this backward reasoning
2 Chapter 1. Axiomatic System for Constructing Geometry

continues, it will fall into a vicious circle that never ends if every concept is required to
be defined and every conclusion must be proven. Therefore, to reason, it is essential to
have a number of given concepts, undefined, with pre-stated properties that do not require
proof, taken as the basis for defining other concepts and proving other propositions. This
is precisely the non-exhaustive nature of the deductive form. These undefined concepts are
called primitive concepts; these unproven propositions are called axioms, and are regarded
as true propositions (truths). Every subsequently introduced concept is defined and called
a derived concept; every subsequent conclusion must be proven and is called a theorem,
proposition, or corollary.
This way of constructing geometry—that is, introducing a number of basic concepts along
with a system of axioms and then using logical deduction to define other concepts and prove
other propositions—is called the axiomatic method in geometry.

1.1.2 Euclid and the work "Elements"

The first person in history to gather and systematize human geometric knowledge into a
deductive subject was the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid1 . He lived around the year
300 BC. Euclid’s "Elements" was the first work of mankind to reconstruct geometry according
to the axiomatic method, based on several works by earlier ancient Greek mathematicians
such as: Pythagoras2 , Hippocrates3 ,... This work was a primary model for the rigorous
logical construction of geometry. For his era, the presentation in that work was so clear and
exemplary that for 2,000 years since "Elements" appeared, it remained the sole textbook on
geometry.
The content of "Elements" is similar to the basic content of elementary geometry in secondary
schools today, which is why school geometry is also called "Euclidean Geometry." In fact, until
the end of the 19th century, most secondary schools in the world taught geometry according
to the content and method of "Elements." The basic concepts and axioms that Euclid chose,
such as: point, line, plane, incidence, betweenness, ..., the axiom of two (distinct) points
determining a line, of three (non-collinear) points determining a plane, ... are still used in
many textbooks to this day.
Briefly about the work "Elements":
The "Elements" consists of 13 books. From Book I to Book IV and Book VI, Euclid wrote
about Plane Geometry. In these, he presented proofs for many results of plane figures, for
example: if a triangle has two equal angles, then the two sides opposite those angles are also
equal. Book V and Books VII through X discuss Arithmetic. There, numbers are represented
geometrically by the lengths of line segments. In particular, he introduced the concepts of
prime numbers, rational numbers, and irrational numbers, while presenting a proof of the
1
We have very little information about the mathematician Euclid of Alexandria. Sometimes he is even
confused with an ancient philosopher, Euclid of Megara.
2
Pythagoras of Samos (570-459 BC): ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician
3
Hippocrates of Chios (470-410 BC) was an ancient Greek mathematician. He is considered the first
person to write a book on mathematics. Note: do not confuse him with the ancient Greek physician
Hippocrates of Kos (460-370 BC) - the father of Western medicine.
1.1. Constructing geometry by the axiomatic method 3
√
infinitude of prime numbers and a proof that 2 is an irrational number. From Book XI to
Book XIII, Euclid wrote about Solid Geometry. One notable result therein is the 1:3 ratio
between the volume of a cone and a cylinder with the same base area and height.
In reality, in his "Elements," Euclid did not explicitly state the primitive concepts and axioms,
but the content of the work reflects the concepts and axioms he chose. At that time, these
concepts and axioms were considered self-evident and known to everyone. The axioms Euclid
chose were:

E1) To draw a straight line from any point to any point;

E2) To produce a finite straight line continuously in a straight line;

E3) To describe a circle with any center and distance;

E4) That all right angles are equal to one another;

E5) The parallel postulate: That, if a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the
interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if
produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which are the angles less than the two right
angles.

1.1.3 Subsequent Research and the Birth of Non-Euclidean Ge-

ometry
The axiomatic system proposed by Euclid was the first for geometry, but it was incomplete.
Later, many mathematicians discovered flaws, such as the number of primitive concepts and
axioms being both redundant and insufficient. For a long time, from when Euclid proposed
his axiomatic system until the end of the 19th century, many mathematicians focused on
ways to complete the Euclidean system. Some axioms were added that were later named
after their proposers, such as: Archimedes’ axiom 4 , Pasch’s axiom 5 , Cantor’s axiom 6 ,...
Some redundant axioms were removed, such as axiom E4) (that all right angles are equal).
During the process of mathematicians researching the completion of Euclid’s system, Euclid’s
fifth postulate was suspected to be redundant. Today, Euclid’s fifth postulate is stated in
the form: Through a point A outside a given line a, there is a unique line b in the same plane
4
Archimedes of Syracuse (287-212 BC) was an ancient Greek mathematician. He introduced the axiom
of linear continuity: Let A1 be a point on a line lying between two given points A, B on that line. On the
given line, take a sequence of points A2 , A3 , A4 ... such that A1 is between A and A2 , A2 is between A1 and
A3 , A3 is between A2 and A4 , ... Furthermore, assume the segments AA1 , A1 A2 , A2 A3 , ... are equal. Then
there exists a point An in the sequence A1 , A2 , A3 , ... such that B lies between A and An .
5
Moritz Pasch (1843-1930) was a German mathematician specializing in the Foundations of Geometry.
Pasch’s Axiom: Let A, B, C be three non-collinear points and let d be a line in plane (ABC) that does not
pass through any of the three points A, B, C. If d passes through a point of the segment AB, then d will also
pass through exactly one point of segment AC or segment BC.
6
Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor (1845-1918) was a German mathematician, regarded as the
father of set theory. Cantor’s Axiom: There exists a 1-1 correspondence between the set of points on a line
(infinite in both directions) and the set of real numbers.
4 Chapter 1. Axiomatic System for Constructing Geometry

as a that does not intersect a. Many mathematicians worldwide in different countries tried
to prove this postulate was redundant, but all failed. Notable examples include: Ptolemy7 ,
Proclus8 , Lambert9 , ... These failed proofs either occurred because of an error in reasoning by
assuming some proposition equivalent to the fifth postulate, or they encountered difficulties
and were abandoned.
Many mathematicians thought of an idea to prove Euclid’s fifth postulate was redundant by
replacing this postulate with its negation. If the fifth postulate were truly redundant, we
would have to arrive at contradictions. Those who pursued this idea include: Khayyám10 ,
Sacherri11 , Gauss12 , Lobachevsky13 and Bolyai14 . Among them, Gauss, Lobachevsky, and
Bolyai were the three mathematicians who conducted their research on this problem (inde-
pendently) almost simultaneously and left a mark on the history of geometry’s development.
After replacing the fifth postulate with its negation, not only did they fail to find any con-
tradictions, but they also obtained many new, strange results. Faced with this situation,
Gauss (the prince of mathematics at that time!) did not publish his work for fear that
contemporaries would not understand. Bolyai sent his work to Gauss, but it was ignored by
Gauss (!); later (1831), Bolyai published his research results as an appendix to a mathemat-
ics book by his father, Farkas Bolyai, but it received little attention. Lobachevsky handled
it differently. On February 23, 1826, he announced his results at the Department of Physics
and Mathematics, Kazan University, where he taught. Later, he wrote these results into a
paper titled "A concise outline of the foundations of geometry." This paper was published
in his university’s journal "Kazan Messenger" but was rejected when he submitted it to the
"St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences."
When Lobachevsky reported and wrote his results for publication, they were considered
utopian (he himself called this new geometry Imaginary Geometry!). The non-Euclidean
geometry developed by Lobachevsky was only recognized after his death, when Beltrami15
found a model for it—the pseudosphere model. This was also the confirmation of the inde-
pendence of Euclid’s fifth postulate. The non-Euclidean geometry developed by Lobachevsky
was later called Lobachevskian Geometry, or Hyperbolic Geometry, or Bolyai-Lobachevsky Ge-
ometry. In addition to the pseudosphere model, Beltrami also constructed and introduced
the Poincaré disk model and the Poincaré half-plane model16 .

7
Claudius Ptolemy (100-170): Egyptian mathematician
8
Proclus Lycaeus (412-485): ancient Greek philosopher
9
Johann Heinrich Lambert (1728-1777): Swiss mathematician
10
Omar Khayyám (1048-1131): Persian mathematician, philosopher, and astronomer.
11
Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri (1667-1733): Italian mathematician
12
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855): German mathematician
13
Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (1792-1856): Russian mathematician
14
János Bolyai (1802-1860): Hungarian mathematician
15
Eugenio Beltrami (1835-1900): Italian mathematician
16
For unknown reasons, these two models were named after the French mathematician and theoretical
physicist Henri Poincaré (1854-1912)
1.1. Constructing geometry by the axiomatic method 5

1.1.4 Works on the foundations of geometry in the second half of

the 19th century
After Lobachevsky, the perfection of the Euclidean axiomatic system continued with the
participation of many mathematicians such as Cantor, Hilbert17 , Weyl18 , Pasch, ... among
whom Hilbert’s contribution was the most prominent. Hilbert proposed an axiomatic system
that was a turning point for Euclidean Geometry and rigorously reconstructed it. Hilbert’s
work on the foundations of geometry was reflected in the famous book he wrote titled "Foun-
dations of Geometry." The axiomatic system proposed by Hilbert is widely used and is called
the Hilbert Axiom System.
In the midst of massive educational reforms worldwide, many mathematicians participated
in compiling new textbooks on Geometry to suit the development of modern mathematics.
In particular, mathematicians sought to rewrite the content of Euclidean Geometry to reflect
modernity and suit students’ comprehension. Many sets of Geometry textbooks emerged,
such as those by Russian mathematicians Kolmogorov (1903-1987), Pogorelov (1919-2002),
... Each of these geometry textbooks presents the axiomatic system of Euclidean geometry
with the individual flair of each author.

1.1.5 Axiomatic method

The axiomatic method is a method of constructing a scientific theory by stating a number
of basic, undefined concepts and stating a system of properties (called axioms) that the
basic concepts must satisfy. Thereafter, any new concept must be defined (called a derived
concept), and any new assertion must be proven (called a theorem).

Example 1.1.1. To illustrate, let us consider the axiomatic system of “General Topology"—a
highly developed branch of Mathematics:
- Basic concepts: set, open set.
- The axiomatic system of Topology consists of 3 axioms. Specifically, a set X and a family
τ of subsets of X, called open sets, is a topological space if the following axioms are satisfied:
+ Axiom 1: X and the empty set ∅ are open sets;
+ Axiom 2: The union of any family of open sets is an open set;
+ Axiom 3: The intersection of a finite number of open sets is an open set.
That is the entire axiomatic system of Topology. We can see that this axiomatic system is
very concise and “simple." However, from it, we can build a very large branch of mathematics.
We can state here some simple derived concepts and theorems of topology:
Definition: A subset A of X is called a closed set if X \ A is an open set.
Theorem: Let X be a topological space. Then: a) X and the empty set are closed sets; b)
The intersection of any family of closed sets is a closed set; c) The union of a finite number
of closed sets is a closed set.
17
David Hilbert (1862-1943): German mathematician. He was the inventor and developer of fundamental
ideas in many fields of mathematics such as Invariant Theory, Geometric Axiomatics, Hilbert Space Theory,
Functional Analysis, ... He was the author of 23 famous problems named after him.
18
Hermann Klaus Hugo Weyl (1885-1955): German mathematician, theoretical physicist, and philosopher.
 6 Chapter 1. Axiomatic System for Constructing Geometry

1.1.6 Model of an axiomatic system

Definition 1.1.2. A model of an axiomatic system is the assignment of specific content
to the basic concepts of that axiomatic system such that the assigned contents satisfy that
axiomatic system.

It should be noted that each axiomatic system of a scientific (Mathematical) theory can have
many different models. On each such model, every proven theorem obviously remains true,
without needing to be proven again. This helps us apply results obtained from theory to
specific models. Conversely, each result discovered on each of these models gives us a theorem
of the theory and, moreover, it will be true on all other models. This is the significance of
models and the power of the axiomatic method.
Example 1.1.3. We list here some models of topological spaces on the set X of points on
a line.

Model 1. The open sets are X and the empty set. This model is called the indiscrete topology
on X. This model can be constructed on any set X.
Model 2. The open sets are all subsets of X. This model is called the discrete topology on X.
This model can also be constructed on any set X.
Model 3. The open sets are arbitrary unions of open intervals (a, b) = {x ∈ X : a < x < b}.
Example 1.1.4. Below are some models of Group I (the group of incidence axioms) of
Hilbert’s axiomatic system of Euclidean geometry.

Model 1. The “tetrahedron" model, in which we call the vertices, edges, and faces of a tetrahedron
“points," “lines," and “planes," respectively. The incidence relation is understood in
the usual sense.
Model 2. This model is also constructed on a tetrahedron; however, in this one, we call the faces,
edges, and vertices of the tetrahedron “points," “lines," and “planes," respectively. The
incidence relation is understood in the usual sense.
Model 3. Let X = {a, b, c, d} be a set of four elements. We call each element of X a point, each
pair of two elements of X a line, and each set of three elements of X a plane. The
incidence relation is understood in the sense of the subset relation.

1.1.7 Three basic requirements for an axiomatic system

When constructing a scientific theory using the axiomatic method, the following three issues
arise naturally:

1. The first issue is consistency. That is, do the stated axioms contradict each other?
2. The second issue is the completeness of the axiomatic system. That is, we need to
answer whether the stated axioms are sufficient?
1.1. Constructing geometry by the axiomatic method 7

3. The third issue is the independence of the axioms. That is, resolving the question of
whether any stated axiom is redundant? In other words, is it possible to omit any
axiom?

To resolve these issues thoroughly, we need to use the model method. That is, we need to
build a specific model for the axiomatic system to examine the above issues.
An axiomatic system will be contradictory if, from that system, we can prove two contra-
dictory propositions: A is true and Ā is also true! Clearly, such an axiomatic system would
have no scientific meaning.
Definition 1.1.5. An axiomatic system S of some Mathematical theory T is called con-
sistent if from S, by logical deduction, one cannot simultaneously derive two contradictory
propositions A and Ā.

To resolve this issue, we construct a model M of S where the materials are taken from a
scientific theory T ′ already assumed to be consistent. If we can build such a model M , then
S will be consistent.
Example 1.1.6. To prove that Lobachevskian geometry is consistent, Poincaré’s model
of it was built using materials taken from Euclidean geometry (which is assumed to be
consistent). This construction was successful, which proves that if Lobachevskian geometry
were contradictory, Euclidean geometry would also be contradictory.

The second issue we need to care about is the completeness of the axiomatic system. First,
we will define this issue specifically.
Definition 1.1.7. An axiomatic system is called complete if from that system, by logical
deduction, we can prove every assertion about the concepts of the axiomatic system is true
or false—that is, prove every truth discovered on its models.

To resolve this issue, we also use the model method. We say two models M1 and M2 of
an axiomatic system S are isomorphic to each other if there exists a bijection between the
basic objects of M1 and M2 that preserves the basic correlations between those objects. An
axiomatic system S is complete if all its models are isomorphic to each other.
The final issue is the independence of the axioms in the system. Specifically
Definition 1.1.8. Axiom A in an axiomatic system S is called independent of the remaining
axioms (S \ A) if A cannot be derived from S \ A.

To prove that axiom A of system S is independent of the other axioms of S, we construct a

model M in a scientific theory T ′ assumed to be consistent such that M satisfies all axioms
of S except A. If such a model is successfully constructed, then A is independent of the
remaining axioms.
Example 1.1.9. To prove that the Euclidean axiom (the parallel postulate) is independent
in Hilbert’s system for Euclidean geometry, one can use the Poincaré model of Lobachevskian
geometry. In this model, all other axioms of Hilbert’s system are satisfied except for the
Euclidean axiom.
8 Chapter 1. Axiomatic System for Constructing Geometry

1.2 Hilbert’s axiom system for Euclidean geometry

1.2.1 Basic concepts and 5 groups of axioms

In Hilbert’s axiomatic system for Euclidean geometry, there are the following basic concepts:
+ Basic objects: points (denoted by letters A, B, C...); lines (denoted by letters a, b, c, ..);
planes (denoted by Greek letters α, β, γ, ..). Among these, points are called elements of linear
geometry; points and lines are called elements of plane geometry; points, lines, and planes
are called elements of solid geometry.
+ Basic relations (correlations): incidence, betweenness, parallel, congruence, continuity, ...
These relations are expressed in the axiomatic system.
Hilbert’s axiomatic system for Euclidean geometry is divided into 5 groups:
I, 1-7. Axioms of incidence;
II, 1-5. Axioms of order;
III. The parallel axiom (Euclidean axiom);
IV, 1-6. Axioms of congruence;
V. Axiom of continuity (Archimedes’ axiom).

1.2.2 Group I: Axioms of incidence

The incidence axioms determine the basic properties of the relative positions between basic
objects: points, lines, and planes. This group consists of the following 7 axioms:
I, 1. Two distinct points A and B always completely determine a line a. We write AB = a
or BA = a.
I, 2. Any two distinct points on a line completely determine that line; that is, if AB = a
and AC = a, with B ̸= C, then we also have BC = a.
I, 3. Three points A, B, C not on the same line always completely determine a plane α. We
write ABC = α.
I, 4. Any three points A, B, C in a plane α that are not on the same line completely determine
that plane.
I, 5. If two points A, B of line a lie in plane α, then every point of a lies in α.
I, 6. If two planes α and β have a common point A, then they have at least a second common
point B.
I, 7. On a line there are at least two points, in a plane there are at least three non-collinear
points, and in space there are at least four points not lying in the same plane.
Axioms I, 1-2 only involve the concepts of point and line—the basic concepts of plane geom-
etry. Therefore, we call these axioms the plane axioms of Group I. Axioms I, 3-7 are called
the space axioms of this group.
From axioms I, 3-7, we easily obtain the following theorems as corollaries.

Theorem 1.2.1. Two lines lying in a plane either have no common point or have one
1.2. Hilbert’s axiom system for Euclidean geometry 9

common point; two planes either have no common point or have a common line; a plane and
a line not lying in that plane either have no common point or have one common point.

Theorem 1.2.2. Through a line and a point not on that line, or through two lines having a
common point, one and only one plane is determined.

1.2.3 Group II: Axioms of order

The axioms of order19 express the properties of the relative positions of points on lines and
planes by introducing the basic concept of "lying between." This group consists of 5 axioms.
II, 1. If A, B, C are three points on a line and B lies between A and C, then B also lies
between C and A.
II, 2. If A and C are two points on a line, then there exists at least one point B lying
between A and C and at least one point D such that C lies between A and D.
II, 3. With any three points on a line, there is one and only one point lying between the
other two.
II, 4. With any four points A, B, C, D on a line, it is always possible to arrange them so
that B lies between A and C and also between A and D; furthermore, C lies between A and
D and also between B and D.

Definition 1.2.3. We call the system of two points A, B on a line a segment and denote
it as AB or BA. The points lying between A and B are called points of the segment AB
or points lying on segment AB. All other points on line AB are called points lying outside
segment AB. The two points A and B are called the two endpoints of segment AB.

II, 5. Let A, B, C be any three points not on the same line and let a be a line in plane ABC
that does not pass through any of the three points A, B, C. Then, if line a passes through a
point of segment AB, then a will pass through a point of segment AC or a point of segment
BC.
Axioms II, 1-4 only concern points on a line, so they are called the linear axioms of Group II.
Axiom II, 5 involves objects of plane geometry and is thus called the plane axiom of Group
II.

1.2.4 Some corollaries of the incidence and order axioms

From the four linear axioms II, 1-4, we can easily derive the following theorems:

Theorem 1.2.4. Between any two points lying on a line, there always exist an unlimited
number of points.

Theorem 1.2.5. If we are given a finite number of points on a line, then we can always ar-
range them into a sequence A, B, C, D, E, ..., K such that B lies between A and C, D, E, ..., K;
19
These axioms were first studied in detail by Pasch. In particular, axiom II, 5 is his.
10 Chapter 1. Axiomatic System for Constructing Geometry

C lies between A, B and D, E, ..., K; D lies between A, B, C and E, ..., K; .... Besides this
order of the sequence, the reverse order K, ..., E, D, C, B, A also has completely similar prop-
erties.
Theorem 1.2.6. Every line a lying in plane α divides the other points in that plane into two
regions with the following properties: every point A of one region determines with each point
B belonging to the other region a segment AB that has a point of line a. On the other hand,
any two points A, A′ of the same region determine a segment AA′ that does not contain any
point of a.

If A, A′ , O, B are four points of a line a, where O lies between A and B but not between A
and A′ , then we can say: the two points A, A′ lie on line a and are on the same side of point
O; the two points A, B on line a are on opposite sides of point O.
All points on the same side of O, combined together, are called the ray originating from
point O. Thus, each point on a line divides that line into 2 rays.
Under the assumptions of Theorem ??, we say: points A, A′ lying in plane α are on the same
side of line a; two points A, B lying in plane α are on opposite sides of line a.
Definition 1.2.7. A system of segments AB, BC, CD, ..., KL is called a broken line con-
necting point A and point L and is written as broken line ABCD...KL. The points lying on
the segments AB, BC, CD, ..., KL and the points A, B, C, D, ..., K, L are called points lying
on the broken line. In particular, if A coincides with L, then the broken line is called a poly-
gon and is written as polygon ABCD..K. The points A, B, C, D, ..., K are called the vertices
of the polygon; the sides AB, BC, CD, ..., KA are called the edges of the polygon. Polygons
with 3, 4, 5, ..., n vertices are called triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon, ..., n-gon in that order.
If the vertices of the polygon are distinct, no vertex lies on an edge of the polygon, and no
two edges have a common point, then the polygon is called a simple polygon.

From Theorem ??, we easily obtain the following theorems:

Theorem 1.2.8. Every simple polygon with vertices in plane α divides the points of plane
α that do not lie on the broken line formed by the edges of that simple polygon into two
regions, the interior and the exterior, with the following properties: if A is a point of the
interior (interior point) and B is a point of the exterior (exterior point), then every broken
line connecting A and B has at least one common point with the polygon. On the other
hand, if A, A′ are two interior points and B, B ′ are two exterior points, then there always
exists a broken line connecting A and A′ and a broken line connecting B and B ′ that have no
common point with the polygon. There exists a line lying in plane α that is entirely outside
the polygon, but there exists no line in plane α lying entirely inside the polygon.
Theorem 1.2.9. Every plane α divides space into two regions with the following properties:
Each point A in one region, together with every point B of the other region, forms a segment
AB having a common point with α. On the other hand, any two points A, A′ lying in the
same region form a segment AA′ that has no common point with α.

With the concepts from Theorem ??, we say: two points A, A′ in space lie on the same side
of plane α; two points A, B in space lie on opposite sides of plane α.
1.2. Hilbert’s axiom system for Euclidean geometry 11

1.2.5 Group III: Parallel axiom (Euclid’s axiom)

The introduction of this axiom greatly simplifies the basic principles of geometry and facili-
tates the development of geometry. This axiom can be stated as follows:
III. In a plane α, through a point A outside a line a, there can be drawn one and only one
line that does not intersect line a. This line is called the line parallel to a passing through
the given point A.
From this axiom, we easily obtain the following theorem:

Theorem 1.2.10. If two lines a, b lie in a plane and do not intersect a third line c also lying
in that plane, then they do not intersect each other.

1.2.6 Group IV: Axioms of congruence

IV, 1. If A, B are two points on a line a and if A′ is a point also belonging to a or to
another line a′ , then we can always find on a′ , on a given side of A′ , one and only one point
B ′ such that the segment AB (or BA) is congruent to the segment A′ B ′ . To express this
relationship, we write
AB ≡ A′ B ′ .
Every segment is congruent to itself; that is, we always have

AB ≡ AB.

IV, 2. If a segment AB is congruent to segment A′ B ′ and also congruent to segment A′′ B ′′ ,

then segment A′ B ′ is congruent to segment A′′ B ′′ . That is, if AB ≡ A′ B ′ and AB ≡ A′′ B ′′ ,
then A′ B ′ ≡ A′′ B ′′ .
IV, 3. Let AB and BC be two segments lying on the same line a such that they have no
common point other than B. Let A′ B ′ and B ′ C ′ be two segments also lying on a or on
another line a′ and also having no common point other than B ′ . Then, if AB ≡ A′ B ′ and
BC ≡ B ′ C ′ , then AC ≡ A′ C ′ .

Definition 1.2.11. Let α be an arbitrary plane, h, k be two rays in plane α both emanating
from a given point O in α. We call such a system of two rays h, k an angle, denoted by (h, [ k)
or (k,
[ h). From axioms II, 1-5, we see that the two rays h, k together with point O divide the
plane α into two regions. One of these two regions has the property: the segment connecting
any two points A, A′ of the region does not pass through O and has no common point with
the two rays h, k. A region with such a property is called the interior of the angle, the other
region is called the exterior of the angle, the two rays h, k are called the sides of the angle,
and the point O is called the vertex of the angle.

IV, 4. Let (h, k) be an angle in a given plane α, and a′ be any line in a given plane α′ .
Suppose that we pre-determine one side of the line a′ in plane α′ . Let h′ be a ray lying on a′
emanating from a given point O′ . Then, in plane α′ , there is one and only one ray k ′ such
12 Chapter 1. Axiomatic System for Constructing Geometry

that angle (h, k) or (k, h) is congruent to angle (h′ , k ′ ) and all points of the interior of angle
(h′ , k ′ ) lie on the chosen side of line a′ . To express this relationship, we write

(h,
[ k) ≡ (h
\′ , k ′ ).

Every angle is congruent to itself; that is, we always have

(h,
[ k) ≡ (h,
[ k) or (h,
[ k) ≡ (k,
[ h).

IV, 5. If an angle is congruent to two other angles, then those two other angles are congruent
to each other. That is, if (h,
[ k) ≡ (h
\′ , k ′ ) and (h,
[ k) ≡ (h
\′′ , k ′′ ), then (h
\′ , k ′ ) ≡ (h
\′′ , k ′′ ).

Given a triangle ABC. Let h, k be the two rays emanating from A and passing through B, C
respectively. Then angle (h, k) is called the angle opposite side BC of triangle ABC. This
angle contains the interior points of triangle ABC and is denoted as BAC,
[ or A. b

IV, 6. If two triangles ABC and A′ B ′ C ′ have

AB ≡ A′ B ′ , AC ≡ A′ C ′ and BAC ′ A′ C ′
[ ≡ B\

thì ta cũng có
′ B ′ C ′ and ACB
[ ≡ A\
ABC ′C ′B′.
[ ≡ A\

Axioms IV, 1-3 are called the linear axioms of Group IV; axioms IV, 4-6 are called the plane
axioms of Group IV.
The primitive concept congruence is also known as the concept of equality. From this concept,
we can define the concepts of supplementary angles; right angles; straight angles; equality
between two triangles; circles; ...
The axioms of congruence have many corollaries. For example, using the axioms of congru-
ence, we can prove the cases of congruence of two triangles (SSS; ASA); prove that all right
angles are equal; ...

1.2.7 Group V: Continuity Axiom (Archimedes’ Axiom)

V. Let A1 be a point lying on a line and located between two given points A, B. Take points
A2 , A3 , A4 , ... such that A1 is between A and A2 , A2 is between A1 and A3 , A3 is between A2
and A4 , ... Assume further that the segments

AA1 , A1 A2 , A2 A3 , A3 A4 , ...

are pairwise congruent. Then, in the sequence of points taken, there always exists a point
An such that B lies between A and An .
1.3. Pogorelov’s Axiom System for Euclidean Geometry 13

1.2.8 Note on the Completeness Axiom

In addition to the five groups of axioms mentioned above, theoretically, Hilbert added another
axiom affirming the completeness of the basic objects and the system of five groups of axioms.
Completeness Axiom: It is impossible to add another object besides points, lines, and
planes to form an extended system that satisfies all five groups of axioms stated. In other
words, the basic objects of geometry form a system that cannot be extended to satisfy the five
groups of axioms mentioned.

1.2.9 Some properties equivalent to the Euclidean Axiom

Geometric theory where the results are constructed from axioms excluding the Euclidean ax-
iom (parallel postulate) is called Absolute Geometry. Some theorems of Euclidean geometry
below are equivalent to the Euclidean axiom.
Theorem 1.2.12. A line that is perpendicular to and intersects one side of an acute angle
always intersects the other side.
Theorem 1.2.13. The sum of the interior angles of any triangle is equal to 180 degrees.
Theorem 1.2.14. There exist two similar triangles that are not congruent.
Theorem 1.2.15. An inscribed angle in a circle is equal to one-half the central angle sub-
tending the same arc.
Theorem 1.2.16. The side of a regular hexagon inscribed in a circle is equal to the radius
of the circle.
Theorem 1.2.17 (Pythagorean Theorem). In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse
is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.

1.3 Pogorelov’s Axiom System for Euclidean Geome-

try
- Basic concepts: point, line, plane, length of a segment, measure of an angle.
- Basic relations: incidence, betweenness, equality.
This axiom system can be divided into the following eight groups:
Group I. Incidence Axioms
I, 1. For any two (distinct) points, there is always one and only one line passing through
those two points.
I, 2. On each line, there are at least two points. There exist three points not lying on the
same line.
Group II. Order Axioms
14 Chapter 1. Axiomatic System for Constructing Geometry

II, 1. Among any three points on a line, there is one and only one point lying between the
other two.
Definition 1.3.1 (Segment). Segment AB is the set of all points lying between A and B.
Two points A and B are called the endpoints of that segment.

For convenience, we will denote [AB] for segment AB and (AB) for line AB.
II, 2. If line a lies on plane α, then a divides the remaining points of plane α into two
parts, each called a half-plane, such that: the segment connecting any two points belonging
to the same half-plane does not intersect line a, and the segment connecting any two points
belonging to different half-planes always intersects a.
Definition 1.3.2 (ray). A half-line or ray AB is the set of all points X on line (AB) such
that X and B lie on the same side of A. Point A is called the origin of ray AB. We use
the notation [AB) for ray AB with origin A and B as another point on the ray. If two rays
belong to the same line and have a common origin, we say the two rays are opposite.
Definition 1.3.3 (Triangle). A triangle is a figure consisting of three points not lying on
the same line and the three segments connecting those points pairwise. The points are called
vertices, and the segments are called sides of the triangle.

From axiom II, 2, we can derive the following theorem, which is accepted as an axiom in
Hilbert’s system (Pasch’s axiom):
Theorem 1.3.4. If a line does not pass through any vertex of a triangle but intersects one
of the sides of that triangle, then it also intersects one of the other two sides.

Group III. Axiom of Segment Length: Every segment has a determined length greater
than zero. If point C lies between A and B, then the length of segment [AB] is equal to the
sum of the lengths of segments [AC] and [CB].
Definition 1.3.5 (Equality of two segments). If two segments [AB] and [CD] have the same
length, we say the two segments are equal and write AB = CD.
Definition 1.3.6 (Angle). An angle is a figure consisting of two rays, called sides, sharing
a common origin, called the vertex. If the sides of the angle are two opposite rays, we say
the angle is a straight angle.

If an angle has sides a and b, we write (ab). A ray c is said to be lying between two sides of
angle (ab) if it has its origin at the vertex of the angle and it intersects some segment with
endpoints lying on the two sides of angle (ab).
Group IV. Axiom of Angle Measure: Every angle has a measure in degrees determined
to be greater than zero; a straight angle has a measure of 180o ; if ray c lies between two
sides of angle (ab), then the measure of angle (ab) equals the sum of the measures of the two
angles (ac) and (cb).
Definition 1.3.7 (Equality of two angles). Two angles are said to be equal if they have the
same measure.
1.3. Pogorelov’s Axiom System for Euclidean Geometry 15

Definition 1.3.8 (Equality of two triangles). We say two triangles ABC and A′ B ′ C ′ are
equal if Ab = A b =B
c′ , B b =C
c′ , C c′ , BC = B ′ C ′ , CA = C ′ A′ and AB = A′ B ′ . In this case, we
write ∆ABC = ∆A B C .′ ′ ′

Group V. Axiom of existence of a triangle equal to a given triangle: Suppose ABC

is a given triangle and a is an arbitrary ray. Then, there exists a triangle A′ B ′ C ′ equal to
triangle ABC, where A′ coincides with the origin of ray a, vertex B ′ lies on ray a, and vertex
C ′ lies in a given half-plane determined by the line containing ray a.
From axiom V, we can derive the following two theorems:
Theorem 1.3.9. On a given ray, from its origin, one and only one segment equal to a given
segment can be laid off.
Theorem 1.3.10. From a given ray and on a given half-plane determined by the line con-
taining the given ray, one and only one angle having its vertex at the origin of the ray and
equal to a given angle can be laid off.

Group VI. Axiom of existence of a segment of given length: Given a positive real
number d, there exists a segment with length d.
Below are some corollaries of axiom VI:
Theorem 1.3.11. On a ray, from its origin, we can lay off one and only one segment of
given length.
Theorem 1.3.12. Given a positive real number θ < 180o , from a given ray a, in a given
half-plane determined by the line containing ray a, one and only one angle (ab) having its
measure in degrees equal to θ can be laid off.
Definition 1.3.13 (Parallel Relation). Two lines in a plane are called parallel if they have
no common point.

Group VII. Parallel Axiom: In a plane, through a point not lying on a given line a, no
more than one line can be drawn parallel to the given line.
From the parallel axiom, we derive:
Theorem 1.3.14. The parallel relation of lines is transitive.
Theorem 1.3.15. If a line intersects one of two parallel lines, it also intersects the other.

Group VIII. Space Axioms

VIII, 1. For any plane, there exists a point belonging to and a point not belonging to that
plane.
VIII, 2. If two planes have a common point, then they have a common line.
VIII, 3. If two distinct lines have a common point, then one and only one plane can be
constructed passing through them.
Below are some corollaries of the space axioms:
16 Chapter 1. Axiomatic System for Constructing Geometry

Theorem 1.3.16. Through a line and a point not belonging to the given line, one and only
one plane can be constructed.

Theorem 1.3.17. If a line has two points belonging to the same plane, then it belongs to
that plane.

Theorem 1.3.18. Through three non-collinear points, one and only one plane can be con-
structed.

In Hilbert’s axiom system, Theorem ?? is accepted as an axiom.

1.4 Weyl – Neumann Axiom System

The Weyl – Neumann axiom system consists of 5 groups of axioms with two basic concepts:
point and vector.

Axioms of Linear Space

We call a non-empty set a linear space if its elements, called vectors, are equipped with two
operations: vector addition and multiplication of a vector by a real number, satisfying the
following three groups of axioms:
Group I: Addition Axioms
I, 1. Each pair of vectors (⃗a, ⃗b) determines a vector, denoted ⃗a + ⃗b, called the sum of vector
⃗a and vector ⃗b.
I, 2. Vector addition is commutative; that is, for any two vectors ⃗a, ⃗b, we always have

⃗a + ⃗b = ⃗b + ⃗a.

I, 3. Vector addition is associative; that is, for any three vectors ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c, we always have

(⃗a + ⃗b) + ⃗c = ⃗a + (⃗b + ⃗c).

I, 4. There exists a zero vector ⃗0 such that for any vector ⃗a, we have

⃗a + ⃗0 = ⃗a.

I, 5. For each vector ⃗a, there exists a vector, denoted −⃗a, called the opposite vector of vector
⃗a, such that
⃗a + (−⃗a) = ⃗0.

From axioms I, 1-5, we see that the set of vectors together with the vector addition operation
is an abelian group. It is not difficult to prove that the zero vector is unique and the opposite
vector of each vector is unique. For two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b, the sum ⃗a + (−⃗b) is denoted ⃗a − ⃗b.
1.4. Weyl – Neumann Axiom System 17

Group II: Axioms of multiplication of a vector by a number

II, 1. Each vector ⃗a and each real number (also called a scalar) k determines a vector,
denoted k⃗a, called the product of vector ⃗a by the number k.
II, 2. For every vector ⃗a, we have 1.⃗a = ⃗a.
II, 3. Multiplication of a vector by a number is distributive with respect to the addition of
numbers, i.e.,
(k + l)⃗a = k⃗a + l⃗a, for all ⃗a, and for every pair of numbers k, l.

II, 4. Multiplication of a vector by a number is distributive with respect to vector addition,

i.e.,
k(⃗a + ⃗b) = k⃗a + k⃗b, ∀k, ∀⃗a, ⃗b.

II, 5. k(l⃗a) = (kl)⃗a, ∀k, l, ⃗a.

Linear dependence and independence of vectors
Definition of linear combination: Given a system of vectors ⃗a, ⃗b, ..., ⃗c. Each expression
of the form
k⃗a + l⃗b + · · · + m⃗c,
where k, l, ..., m are coefficients, is called a linear combination of the given system of vectors.
Definition of linear dependence: A system of vectors ⃗a, ⃗b, ..., ⃗c is called linearly dependent
if there exist coefficients k, l, ..., m not simultaneously zero such that
k⃗a + l⃗b + · · · + m⃗c = ⃗0.

Definition of linear independence: A system of vectors ⃗a, ⃗b, ..., ⃗c is called linearly inde-
pendent if it is not linearly dependent.
Group III. Dimension Axioms
III, 1. There exist n linearly independent vectors.
III, 2. Every set consisting of n + 1 vectors is linearly dependent.
Definition 1.4.1 (Linear Space). A system of vectors satisfying the axioms belonging to the
three groups above is called an n-dimensional linear space, or n-dimensional vector space;
the number n is called the dimension of that space.

Group IV. Affine Space Axioms

−→
IV, 1. Each ordered pair of points (A, B) determines a vector ⃗a, we write ⃗a = AB.
−→
IV, 2. For every point A and every vector ⃗a, there exists a unique point B such that AB = ⃗a.
IV, 3. For any three points A, B, C, we have
−→ −−→ −→
AB + BC = AC.
Definition 1.4.2 (Affine Space). The set of points and vectors satisfying axioms I-IV is
called an n-dimensional affine space.
18 Chapter 1. Axiomatic System for Constructing Geometry

Group V. Euclidean Space Axioms

V, 1. Every two vectors ⃗a, ⃗b determine a number k, written k = ⃗a.⃗b, called the dot product
(inner product) of ⃗a and ⃗b.
V, 2. The dot product is commutative, i.e., ⃗a.⃗b = ⃗b.⃗a.
V, 3. The dot product is distributive with respect to vector addition, i.e.,

⃗a(⃗b + ⃗c) = ⃗a⃗b + ⃗a⃗c.

V, 4. For every number k and every pair of vectors ⃗a, ⃗b we have

(k⃗a)⃗b = k(⃗a⃗b).

V, 5. For every vector ⃗a we have ⃗a2 = ⃗a⃗a ≥ 0 and ⃗a2 = 0 ⇔ ⃗a = ⃗0.

Definition 1.4.3 (Euclidean Space). The set of points and vectors satisfying axioms I − V
is called an n-dimensional Euclidean space.

1.5 Relationships between Axiom Systems

A. The difference between the axiom systems lies in the group of axioms regarding congru-
ence (equality), motion, or distance; that is, they differ in how they "metricize" Euclidean
space, although these approaches are equivalent. Indeed, if we take one of these three basic
concepts as a starting point, we can define the remaining concepts.
If congruence (equality) is taken as the starting point, then a motion is a one-to-one mapping
transforming pairs of points A, B into pairs A’, B’ such that AB is congruent to A’B’, while
distance (or segment length) is a non-negative number such that the length of a segment
equals the sum of its component lengths.
If motion is taken as the initial concept, then two figures are congruent if there is a motion
transforming one figure into the other, and distance is considered an invariant of the motion.
If distance is the starting concept, then motion is a one-to-one mapping preserving distance,
while two congruent segments are those having the same distance (length).
B.

1. Currently, in universities and schools in many countries, the Hilbert axiom system is
no longer used to present Euclidean geometry because:

• It encounters many insurmountable difficulties in extending the dimension of

space, whereas the study of multi-dimensional geometry is a practical require-
ment.
• Hilbert did not yet use knowledge of the real number field, so he faced many
difficulties when presenting continuity.
1.6. Axiom Systems for School Geometry Construction 19

2. Using the concept of motion as a fundamental idea to present Euclidean geometry still
has drawbacks like Hilbert’s system, but it offers two advantages:

• It reflects the group perspective in geometry, especially the group of motions.

• It proves elementary geometry theorems in a unified way using motions.

3. Using the Weyl-Neumann axiom system has the advantage:

• Students grasp the model of vector space.

• It is easy to extend the dimension of space.
• It is convenient for constructing other types of spaces.

However, it also has the disadvantage of less development of spatial imagination and
geometric intuition. It can be said that the Weyl-Neumann system is the most modern
axiom system for constructing Euclidean geometry.

1.6 Axiom Systems for School Geometry Construction

1.6.1 Plane Geometry Axiom System

Two basic figures: Point, Line.
Two basic relations: Point belonging to a line, point lying between two other points.
Two basic measures: Length of a segment, measure (degree) of an angle.

I. Incidence Axioms

• I1 . Every line has points belonging to it and points not belonging to it.
• I2 . Through two distinct points, there is one and only one line.

II. Axioms related to the concept of betweenness

• II1 . Among three collinear points, there is one and only one point lying between
the other two.
• II2 . Any line a in a plane is the common edge of two opposite half-planes. Line a
intersects a segment with endpoints lying on two opposite half-planes (not on a),
line a does not intersect a segment with endpoints on the same half-plane (not on
a).
• II3 . Any point on a line is the common origin of two opposite rays. Point O lies
between two points belonging to two opposite rays (distinct from O).

III. Axioms related to the concept of segment length

• III1 . Every segment has a determined length greater than 0.

• III2 . If point M lies between two points A and B, then M A + M B = AB.
20 Chapter 1. Axiomatic System for Constructing Geometry

• III3 . For any number m > 0, on ray Ox there is defined one and only one point
M such that OM = m.

IV. Axioms related to the concept of angle measure

• IV1 . Every angle has a determined measure greater than 0; the measure of a
straight angle is 180◦ .
• IV2 . If ray Oy lies between two rays Ox, Oz then xOy + yOz = xOz.
• IV3 . For any number m such that 0 < m < 180, in a given plane with edge Ox,
there is defined one and only one ray Oy such that xOy = m◦ .

V. Axiom of two equal triangles

If two triangles ABC, A’B’C’ have  = Â′ , AB = A′ B ′ , AC = A′ C ′ then the two
triangles are equal.

VI. Euclidean Axiom

Given point A outside line a. The line through A parallel to line a is unique.

1.6.2 Solid Geometry Axiom System

Basic concepts are the same as in plane geometry, with the addition of the "plane" concept.
Solid geometry is built on the following 6 axioms:

1. There are at least four points not belonging to the same plane.

2. There is one and only one plane passing through three given non-collinear points.

3. If a line passes through two distinct points of a plane, then every point of the line
belongs to that plane.

4. If two planes have a common point, they have another common point.

5. On each plane, known results of plane geometry are true.

6. Every segment in space has a determined length.