11 River landscapes

11.1 Changes in rivers and their valleys

On this spread you will find out how rivers and their valleys change shape with
distance downstream

What is a drainage basin?

Diagram A shows a typical drainage basin, an area of land drained by a river and its
tributaries. Make sure you are familiar with the key terms on this diagram, as you
will need to remember them.

Source – the A
Drainage basin – start of a river
an area of land Tributary – a small V-shaped
drained by a river stream that joins valley
and its tributaries a larger river

Valley: steep-sided, V-shaped

A River: narrow, shallow, turbulent
B

Floodplain
B
Confluence – Valley: wider, flat floor
where a River: wider and deeper
tributary joins
C a larger river
C Levées

Watershed – the edge Mouth – the end of a river, usually Valley: very wide and flat
of a river basin where a river joins the sea River: wide, deep, with large sediment load

A Drainage basin and cross profiles

How does the long profile of a river
11.01a GCSE Geog AQA Student Book
change
Barking Dog downstream?
Art
Source
Imagine that you were on a raft floating down the
Steep gradient
river in diagram A.
● In the mountains your speed (velocity) would Very gentle
gradient
vary considerably. Where the water is shallow Gentle gradient
Elevation

and turbulent there is friction with the bed Mouth

and banks, slowing the rate of flow. But if you Upper Sea
encounter rapids, where the channel narrows course Middle
course Lower course
and the river becomes deeper, you would move
much faster.
Distance
● Further downstream, the river’s channel is
B The long profile of a river
much deeper due to the tributaries bringing
additional water. Now less water is in contact
with the bed and banks and the velocity
increases, even though the gradient is less 11.01b GCSE Geog AQA Student Book
Barking Dog Art
steep than in the mountains. You would now
be floating faster.

128 Unit 1 – Living with the physical environment

 River landscapes

If you plotted your journey as

a line graph it would look like
diagram B. This is called the
long profile of a river. Notice
that the river has a steep
gradient in its upper course
and a much gentler gradient in
its lower course. This concave
shape is an ideal profile. In
most cases, a river’s long
profile will vary because, for
example, of the river crossing
bands of tough and weak
rock. A waterfall, for example,
creates a step in the long
profile of a river.
C The River Tees in County Durham
How does the cross profile of a river and its valley
change downstream?
A cross profile is an imaginary ‘slice’ across a river channel and its valley at
Skills
a particular point. Diagram A shows the cross profile of both a river and its
valley downstream. The river channel becomes wider and deeper, with the Draw a labelled sketch cross
river valley becoming wider and flatter. Its sides are less steep compared profile of the River Tees
with its V-shaped appearance further upstream. and its valley (photo C).
Suggest which cross profile
In reality there will be variations in places. For example, river management (diagram A) best represents
can alter the shape of a river channel, and different types of rock or human this stretch of the river.
activities such as quarrying can affect the cross profile of a valley. Explain your decision.
These changes downstream are due to the amount of water flowing in the
river. As tributaries bring water from other parts of the drainage basin the
river becomes bigger. With more water and more energy it is able to erode
its channel, making it wider and deeper.
The changes to the valley cross profile are mainly due to channel erosion
broadening and flattening the base of the valley. Together with weathering
and mass movement, these processes make the sides of the valley less steep.

Activities Practice question

1 a Copy the long profile (diagram B). Describe how the cross profile of a river
b Locate the three cross profiles shown in diagram A on your valley changes downstream. (4 marks)
diagram. Draw each cross profile and add labels to describe the Tips
changing shape of the river valley.
• You should focus on the river valley.
2 Photo C shows the River Tees in County Durham.
You do not need to refer to the river
a Describe the cross profile of the river valley. channel.
b How would you expect the cross profile of this valley to change • The question requires you to
with distance downstream? ‘describe’, so there is no need to
explain why the changes occur.
Extension • You may want to use simple
annotated diagrams to support
Suggest how more frequent extreme rainfall events and rising sea levels your answer.
associated with climate change may affect a river’s long and cross profile.

Section C – Physical landscapes in the UK 129

11.2 Fluvial (river) processes
On this spread you will find out how rivers erode, transport and deposit
sediment

What are the processes of erosion?

Photo A shows a small river on Exmoor in south west
England. There is very little water in the river and
very little is happening! It is like this for much of the
year. The river is using all its energy to overcome
friction and just transport water downstream.
It is only after heavy rainfall that the river has enough
energy to erode and enlarge its channel and the river
valley. It is possible to identify two types of erosion:
● vertical erosion (downwards)
● lateral erosion (sideways).
These combine to cause the downstream changes to
the river channel and the river valley described on
pages 128–129. A An Exmoor river at low flow during the late summer

River courses

Upper course – mostly erosion landforms, e.g. waterfalls

Middle course – mostly erosion and deposition landforms, e.g. meanders, and transportation

Lower course – mostly deposition landforms, e.g. levées

Erosion Transportation

Solution Suspension – small

(dissolved load) sediment held in the river
Deposition
Solution Sediment is deposited on
the bed and banks of the
river and at the mouth,
where velocity falls
Hydraulic
action Attrition Traction – large Saltation – ‘bouncing’
particles rolled on of particles too heavy
Abrasion the river bed to be suspended

B River courses and fluvial processes

Diagram B shows
11.02b GCSE Geogthe
AQAfour processes
Student Book of erosion that take place in a river:
Barking Dog Art
● Hydraulic action – the force of the water hitting the ● Attrition – when stones carried by the river knock
river bed and banks. This is most effective when the against each other, gradually making the stones
water is moving fast and when there is a lot of it. smaller and more rounded.
● Abrasion – when the load carried by the river ● Solution – when the river flows over limestone or
repeatedly hits the bed or banks dislodging particles chalk, the rock is slowly dissolved. This is because it
into the flow of the river. is soluble in mildly acidic river water.

130 Unit 1 – Living with the physical environment

 River landscapes

What are the processes of

transportation?
The material transported by a river is called its
load. Diagram B shows the four main types of
transportation that occur in a river:
● traction
● saltation
● suspension
● solution.
The size and total amount of load that can be
carried will depend on the river’s rate of flow –
its velocity. After a rainstorm rivers often look
very muddy because they are flowing fast and
transporting a large amount of sediment (photo
C). At low flow, when rivers are usually clearer, very
little sediment is being transported (photo A).

When does deposition take place?

Deposition occurs when the velocity of a river decreases C A river in high flow
(photo D). It no longer has enough energy to transport its
sediment so it is deposited.
● Larger rocks tend to be deposited in the upper course
of a river.

FPO
They are only transported for very short distances,
mostly by traction, during periods of very high flow.
● Finer sediment is carried further downstream, mostly <add new photo: see brief>
held in suspension. This material will be deposited on
the river bed or banks, where velocity is slowed by
friction.
● A large amount of deposition occurs at the river mouth,
where the interaction with tides, along with the very D Sediment deposited in an area of low
gentle gradient, greatly reduces the river’s velocity. velocity at the edge of a river

Activities
1 Draw your own summary diagram (based on
diagram B) to describe the four processes of river
Practice question
erosion. Explain how rivers erode their channels. (4 marks)
2 Under what river flow conditions would you expect
hydraulic action to be most effective? Explain why.
Tips
3 Which process does not directly erode a river • In your answer, focus on erosion only. You do not
channel? need to refer to transportation or deposition.
• Using the correct geographical terminology,
‘explain’ how the different types (vertical and
Extension lateral) and processes of erosion erode the river
channel.
Using photos A, C and D, explain how river flow (low flow • You may find it helpful to use a simple annotated
and high flow) affects fluvial processes. diagram to support your answer.

Section C – Physical landscapes in the UK 131

11.3 River erosion landforms
On this spread you will find out how river erosion forms distinctive fluvial
landforms

What are the distinctive river Interlocking V-shaped valley

spurs
landforms?
Diagram A shows a typical river from source to mouth
and its distinctive landforms. Waterfall
Floodplain
● In the river’s upper course, erosion dominates
Tributary
to form landforms such as interlocking spurs,
waterfalls and gorges. Gorge
● Further downstream, erosion and deposition
combine to form meanders and ox-bow lakes.
● As the river nears the sea, deposition dominates to Meander Levées
form a floodplain, levées and the river estuary.
You need to be able to recognise these features and Ox-bow lake River
describe how they form. estuary

Of course, not all rivers are ‘typical’ and it’s possible Sea
to find landforms of erosion and deposition at various
points along the course of a river.
A River landforms from source to mouth

Distinctive river erosion landforms 11.03a GCSE Geog AQA Student Book
Barking Dog Art
Interlocking spurs
Notice in photo B how the Welsh mountain stream weaves its way through the
V-shaped valley and around the ‘fingers’ of land that jut out. These are called
interlocking spurs. The river is near its source, and is not powerful enough to cut
through the ‘spurs’ of land, so has to flow around them.

B Blaen Taff Fawr

mountain stream,
V-shaped valley
Wales

Interlocking spurs

132 Unit 1 – Living with the physical environment

 River landscapes

Waterfalls Hard rock overhang will Former position of

eventually collapse and waterfall which has
As it makes its way from source to mouth a River waterfall retreats retreated and
river often flows over a variety of different rock formed a gorge

types. Tougher, more resistant rocks are less Harder rock

easily eroded than weaker rocks and they will Very turbulent
form ‘steps’ in the long profile of a river. These Softer rock water
steps form waterfalls (diagram C).
Waterfalls are most commonly formed when
a river flows over a relatively resistant band
Pebbles, stones and boulders
of hard rock. When the river plunges over Undercutting of softer rock by
a waterfall it forms a deep and turbulent hydraulic action and abrasion

plunge pool. Here the processes of erosion,

particularly hydraulic action and abrasion, are active and they combine C Formation of a waterfall
to undercut the waterfall. Eventually the overhanging rock collapses and
the waterfall retreats upstream. Over many years the retreating waterfall
will leave behind a steep-sided gorge (diagram A).
Waterfalls can also form when a drop in sea level causes a river to cut
down into its bed creating a step in the long profile of a river. This step
is called a knick point and it is marked by the presence of a waterfall.
Waterfalls can also be found in glacial hanging valleys (see page 151).
D Formation of a gorge
Gorges
Position of waterfall
A gorge is a narrow steep-sided valley that is after retreat
usually found immediately downstream of a
Gorge formed by
waterfall. It is formed by the gradual retreat of waterfall retreat
a waterfall over hundreds or even thousands of
years (diagram D).
Gorges may sometimes form in other ways. At
the end of the last glacial period, around 8000
years ago, huge quantities of water from melting
glaciers poured off upland areas to form gorges
such as Cheddar Gorge in Somerset. More rarely,
some gorges form on limestone as a result of the
Original position of waterfall
collapse of underground caverns.

Activities Practice question

1 What causes a waterfall to form in a river valley?
Explain how a waterfall changes over time to form a
2 Make a copy of diagram C. Add labels to describe the gorge. (4 marks)
processes of erosion responsible for the waterfall
retreating upstream. 11.03d GCSE GeogTips
AQA Student Book
Barking Dog Art
3 Using diagram D, explain how a gorge is formed when • In your answer, focus on explaining how a waterfall
a waterfall retreats. changes over time to form a gorge.
• Refer to fluvial processes in your answer using the
correct geographical terminology.
Extension
• Consider using a simple annotated diagram to
Use online research to find photos of UK examples of support your answer.
an interlocking spur, a waterfall and a gorge. Annotate • You should write your answer in about four–five
each photo to describe the main characteristics of each minutes.
landform.

Section C – Physical landscapes in the UK 133

11.4 River erosion and deposition landforms
On this spread you will find out about river landforms resulting from erosion
and deposition

Landforms resulting from erosion

and deposition
Meanders
Meanders are the wide bends of a river found mainly
in lowland areas (photo A). They are the most
efficient channel for a heavily laden river as it flows
over fine sediment on very gentle slopes. Meanders
are constantly changing their shape and position.
This is a result of the processes of lateral (sideways)
erosion and deposition in the river channel.
Diagram B shows the main features and processes
taking place in a meandering river. The thalweg is the A Meanders on the River Cuckmere, East Sussex
line of fastest flow (velocity) within the river.
It swings from side to side causing erosion Pool B' River cliff
on the outside bend and deposition on Thalweg
the inside bend. Over time this process of
erosion and deposition causes meanders to A'
Riffle
migrate across the valley floor. C'
B
Slip-off A
slope or
Pools and riffles point bar
Meandering streams carrying coarse
C
sediment may develop alternating deep
sections (called pools) and shallow
sections (called riffles). Pools are usually
found on the outside bends of meanders
A A' B B'
where, during periods of high flow, the
faster flow erodes a deep channel.
B Processes and landforms
Riffles result from the deposition of coarse sediment, also at times of high flow, of a meandering river
and are characterised by more turbulent slower-flowing
11.04b GCSE Geogwater. During
AQA Student low-flow
Book
conditions, however, water tends to flow more slowly through a pool section,
Barking Dog Art
depositing fine muddy sediment. Under these low-flow conditions, water may
flow slightly faster in a riffle section, accounting for the lack of fine sediment
here. This is what you are most likely to see when conducting fieldwork.

1 The neck of the meander 2 Water now takes the 3 Meander is cut off,
Ox-bow lakes is gradually eroded. shortest (steepest) route. forming an ox-bow lake.
Over time, as meanders migrate across Thalweg
Thalweg
the valley floor, they may start to
erode towards each other (diagram C).
Gradually the neck of the meander Deposition
seals off the
narrows until it is completely broken old meander
through (usually during a flood) to
form a new straighter channel. The old Thalweg
The meander neck
meander loop is cut off by deposition is cut through
to form an ox-bow lake. C Stages in the formation of an ox-bow lake completely

134 Unit 1 – Living with the physical environment

 River landscapes

Landforms resulting Floodplain

from deposition Bluff (the edge of
the floodplain) Meander erodes laterally,
Floodplains and levées widening the floodplain
A floodplain is a wide, flat area of marshy land
on either side of a river, found in the middle and
lower courses. Floodplains are made of alluvium, a
sediment (silt) deposited when a river floods, and
are used for farming as the soils are very fertile. Levées (raised
river banks)
There are two processes responsible for the
Layers of alluvium
formation of a floodplain (diagram D). deposited during floods
Fine Coarse
● Meanders migrate across the floodplain due to Velocity slows and deposition sediment sediment
lateral erosion. When they reach the edge of the takes place on river banks Flooding
floodplain they erode the valley side (bluff). This
explains why floodplains are very wide. Levées
● When the river floods it deposits silt, creating a very
flat floodplain. Layer upon layer builds up over many
years to form a thick deposit of fertile alluvium. D The formation of
A levée is a raised river bed (levé in French means ‘rise’) found alongside floodplains and levées
a river in its lower course (diagram D). It is formed by flooding over many
years. A ridge of sediment is deposited naturally to build up the levée.
During low-flow conditions deposition takes place, raising the river bed and
reducing the capacity of the channel. When flooding occurs, water flows over the
sides of the channel. Here the velocity of the river decreases rapidly leading to
deposition of sediment on the river banks. First the coarser sands are deposited
and then the finer silt and mud. Gradually after many floods the height of the banks
can be raised by as much as 2 m.
Estuaries
In the UK most river mouths form wide tidal estuaries, especially in areas where
sea levels have risen (photo E). Estuaries are transitional zones between river and
coastal environments and are affected by wave action as well as river processes.
The main process operating in estuaries is deposition. During a rising tide river
water is unable to be discharged into the sea. The river’s velocity falls and sediment E The River Torridge estuary,
is deposited. At low tide these fine deposits form extensive mudflats. Over time, North Devon
mudflats develop into important natural habitats called saltmarshes.

Activities Practice question

1 Define a meander. Explain how processes of erosion and
2 a Sketch a cross profile of the meander C–C’ in diagram B. deposition cause river meanders to
change over time. (6 marks)
b Draw and label: thalweg, deposition, lateral erosion, river cliff,
slip-off slope (or point bar). Tips
c Explain how lateral erosion and deposition cause meanders to • Refer to the processes of erosion
change their shape. and deposition responsible for
3 Draw a sequence of labelled diagrams to show the formation of an the changing shape of meanders.
ox-bow lake. Highlight the roles of erosion and deposition. • You may find it helpful to use
simple annotated diagrams to
Extension support your answer.

Using diagram D, assess the role of river flooding in the formation of river
deposition landforms.

Section C – Physical landscapes in the UK 135

 11.5 River landforms on the River Tees
On this spread you will find out about river landforms on the River Tees,
County Durham

Where is the River Tees? Watershed of River Tees

EXAMPLE

Cross
Fell Cauldron Snout drainage basin North
The River Tees is a large river in the north Sea
High Force
east of England. Its source is high in the
Pennine Hills near Cross Fell (893 m). From Cow Green
Reservoir
there it flows roughly east for about 130 km Barnard
Castle Middlesbrough
to reach the North Sea at Middlesbrough
Darlington
(map A). Look back to page 105 to locate R. Tees Yarm
the River Tees on the atlas map of the UK.

Upper Tees in the

N
Pennine Hills 0 20 km
Key Height (metres)
301+ 61–300 0–60
The high moorlands of the Pennine Hills
act like a giant sponge absorbing the high
A The course of the River Tees in north east England
levels of rainfall (over 1500 mm per year).
Water seeps out of the peaty wetlands to create
small streams which merge to form the River Tees.
In its upper course, the turbulent waters of the River
Tees carve a steep-sided valley, forming rapids and
small waterfalls, such as Cauldron Snout (photo B).
Notice in photo B the distinctive interlocking spur in
the middle distance to the right of the river.
Cow Green Reservoir (photo C) was formed by the
construction of a large dam between 1967 and 1971
to supply water to heavy industries on Teesside. In
addition, the reservoir helps to moderate river flow
downstream, storing water to reduce the risk of
flooding and releasing it during periods of drought.
B Cauldron Snout waterfall, Upper Teesdale
High Force waterfall and gorge
High Force on the River Tees is one of the UK’s most
impressive waterfalls (photo D). It is located close to
Forest-in-Teesdale in the river’s upper course. The
river drops 20 m as a single sheet of water into the
foaming and turbulent plunge pool below. It then
continues its course through a spectacular gorge.
The waterfall is formed by a resistant band of igneous
rock (formed from cooled magma) called dolerite,
which crosses the valley. This is the lighter grey rock
at the top of the waterfall in photo D. Unable to erode
this tougher band of rock, the river has formed a
‘step’ in its long profile. It is this ‘step’ that now forms
High Force waterfall.
C Cow Green Reservoir, Upper Teesdale

136 Unit 1 – Living with the physical environment

 River landscapes

The underlying darker layers of rock shown in photo D are less-

resistant limestones and sandstones, types of sedimentary rocks
(formed from layers of sediment). As the water plunges over the
waterfall, it readily erodes the weaker rocks forming an overhang of
the more resistant dolerite. Eventually the overhang collapses and
the waterfall gradually retreats upstream to leave behind a steep-
sided gorge. You can see this either side of the waterfall in photo D.

Meanders, levées and floodplains near

Darlington
Darlington is about half way along the course of the River Tees. Here
the widening river occupies a broad and largely flat river valley. In
response to the low gradient, the river forms sweeping meanders D High Force waterfall on the River Tees
with distinctive levées.
Photo E shows the town of Yarm, which has developed in a
meander of the Tees. Meanders provided defensive advantages for
settlements.

River estuary at Teesside

Where the River Tees flows into the North Sea just north of
Middlesbrough, it forms a wide tidal estuary up to 1 km across
(photo F). River deposition has created extensive areas of mud
deposits (mudflats) that have been reclaimed for industrial
developments such as oil refineries and chemical works.
Middlesbrough is home to the giant multinational chemical
company ICI.
E The town of Yarm is located within a
meander of the River Tees
Activities
1 Write three facts about the location and course of the River Tees.
2 Draw a sketch of photo B. Add labels to identify and describe the
landforms of erosion.
3 Using photo D, draw a simple diagram or sketch to show the main
characteristics of High Force waterfall. Use the text to help you draw
and identify the resistant dolerite and the less resistant bands of
limestone and sandstone.

Practice question
Using an example of a river valley in the UK, describe landforms of
erosion. (4 marks)
Tips F The River Tees estuary
• In your answer, you need to refer specifically to at least two erosion
landforms on the River Tees, such as interlocking spurs, waterfalls
(Cauldron Snout and High Force) and the gorge at High Force.
Extension
• In describing the landforms consider their location, characteristics
and dimensions. You do not need to explain their formation. Using online photo research,
• You may find it helpful to use simple annotated sketches to support describe the distinctive landforms of
your answer. deposition in the River Tees valley.

Section C – Physical landscapes in the UK 137

 11.6 Natural Hazards
Photos and OS maps
What are
On this spread natural
you will use an aerial hazards?
photo and an OS map (1:25 000) to study
river deposition landforms on the River Tees
SKILLS FOCUS

Skills
● Using OS map skills, including grid references, direction
and distance
● Interpreting river landforms on an OS map
● Using an aerial photo alongside an OS map
● Drawing a sketch map from an OS map

What are the river deposition landforms on the River Tees?

Map A is a 1:25 000 extract from an OS map of the River Tees just north of Yarm (see map A on
page 136). Here the river is flowing from south to north between the settlements of Egglescliffe
(Eaglescliffe) and Ingleby Barwick (map A).
Photo B is an oblique aerial photo showing this stretch of the River Tees (4214). Locate the golf
course in the centre of the photo. This is Eaglescliffe Golf Club. Notice that most of the land
adjacent to the river is used for farming.
Locate Eaglescliffe Golf Club on map A. Look closely at the river here. Notice that the land is very
flat and low-lying (can you see the 3m spot height?). The broad white area of the map either side
of the river bounded by the 5-metre contour line is the river’s floodplain. Notice to the north of the
map extract there is a levée (low embankment) at 435155.

16

15
© Crown copyright

14
42 43 44
N
4 cm = 1 km

A OS 1:25 000 map extract of the River Tees near Stockton-on-Tees

138 Unit 1 – Living with the physical environment

 River landscapes

Skills
X
1 Locate the River Tees on map A.
a Draw a sketch map of the four squares Y
shown in diagram C. Use the same scale
as the map, where each grid square is
4 cm across.
b Carefully draw the course of the river
onto your sketch map.
c Draw the 5 m contour line either side
of the river to indicate the edge of the
floodplain.
d Locate Eaglescliffe Golf Club and draw
and label the main areas of settlement.
e Carefully label the following river
landforms:
B Aerial photo of the River Tees at Egglescliffe (Eaglescliffe)
● a meander
● the floodplain
● the direction of river flow Analysis
● a levée.
1 Locate the sweeping meander in 4315. Suggest
f Complete your map by adding a scale,
how the shape of this meander might change in the
north arrow and a title.
future. Use a simple sketch to support your answer.
2 Using map A and photo B, describe the range of land
16
uses found in the River Tees valley. Refer to named
examples and give grid references to support your
answer.
15 8 cm 3 In no more than 100 words, describe the landforms
resulting from river deposition in map A.

Evaluation
14
42 43 44 C Sketch map
1 Suggest advantages and disadvantages of using
8 cm area for Skills
activity 1 1:25 000 OS maps when studying river landforms.
2 How does an oblique aerial photo (photo B)
2 Study photo B alongside map A. support the use of a 1:25 000 OS map (map A) when
a In what direction is the photo looking? studying river landforms?
b Give the six-figure grid reference for Eaglescliffe
Golf Club club house, marked with an X on Practice question
photo B. Draw a sketch from photo B to show the course of the
c Measure the distance (to the nearest 50m) River Tees. Label the River Tees, a meander and the
between Eaglescliffe Golf Club club house and floodplain. (4 x 1 marks)
Barwick, across the floodplain.
d Using the map, identify the type of woodland at
Eaglescliffe Golf Club.
e What is the building at Y on photo B?

Section C – Physical landscapes in the UK 139

11.7 Physical and human factors affecting flood risk
On this spread you will find out about the factors affecting the risk
of flooding

What is river flooding?

Flooding is where land that is not normally underwater
becomes inundated. A river flood occurs when a river
channel can no longer hold the amount of water flowing in it.
Water overtops the banks and floods the adjacent land – the
floodplain.
The winter of 2019–2020 was excessively wet, leading to
widespread flooding in England and Wales. In November 2019,
after a prolonged period of heavy rainfall, the River Don in
South Yorkshire burst its banks causing extensive flooding.
Fishlake, near Doncaster, was one of the worst-hit villages
(photo A). Many people were evacuated and homes were
uninhabitable for several months.

What causes flooding?

In the UK most floods occur following prolonged periods of
heavy rain, usually in winter or spring. Thunderstorms – usually A Flooding at Fishlake, near Doncaster,
in the summer – can trigger dramatic localised flash flooding. South Yorkshire, 2019
There are several factors increasing the flood risk:

Human factors (land use)

Physical factors Urbanisation – building on a floodplain creates
Precipitation – prolonged periods of rainfall impermeable surfaces such as tarmac roads,
associated with winter storms saturate the soil. concrete driveways and slate roofs. Water is
Subsequent rainfall flows quickly over the surface transferred quickly to drains and sewers and then
causing river levels to rise rapidly. Eventually water into nearby river channels. This rapid surge of water
overtops the banks and flooding occurs (photo A). can increase the risk of flooding downstream. Flash
Flooding may be triggered by excessively heavy flooding events commonly affect urban areas, when
rainfall events leading to flash flooding. These drains are unable to cope with the volume of water.
devastating floods (for example, in Boscastle in
Deforestation – much of the water that falls on
2004; see page 40) occur with little warning and
trees is intercepted by branches and leaves before
usually last just a few hours, hence the term ‘flash’.
being evaporated to the air. In this way, trees act
Geology (rock type) – impermeable rocks (rocks as vast natural umbrellas. Trees also use up water
that do not allow water to pass through them) such through their roots. When trees are removed
as shale and clay promote rapid overland flow of (deforestation), rainwater falls directly onto the
water towards river channels. This speeds up the ground, where it may be transferred rapidly to river
transfer of water, increasing the risk of flooding. channels and lead to flooding.
Relief – in mountain environments, steep slopes Agriculture – in arable farming, soil is left unused
encourage a rapid transfer of water towards river and exposed to the elements for several months,
channels, increasing the risk of flooding. For particularly in the winter. This can lead to more
example, water flowing rapidly off the Pennine Hills surface runoff, and an increased risk of flooding.
contributed to the flooding in northern England Overgrazing and over-cultivation can damage and
during the winter of 2019–2020. compact the soil, further increasing the flood risk.

140 Unit 1 – Living with the physical environment

 River landscapes

What is a hydrograph? Lag time

(time between peak rainfall
The volume of water flowing along a river and peak discharge)
Peak discharge
is its discharge. It is measured in cumecs
– cubic metres per second. A hydrograph

Discharge (m3/sec)
is a graph that plots river discharge after
Rising Falling limb

Rainfall (mm)
a storm (graph B). It shows how discharge limb
rises after a storm, reaches its peak and Storm flow
(overland flow
then returns to the normal rate of flow. and throughflow)
Rainfall
One of the most important aspects of a
Baseflow (groundwater flow)
hydrograph is the lag time. This is the time
in hours between the highest rainfall and Time
the highest (peak) discharge. This shows
B A flood hydrograph
how quickly water is transferred into a river channel and is a key factor
in the flood risk. The shorter the time lag the greater the risk of flooding.

What affects the shape of a hydrograph?

01.02b OUP AS AQA Geog
The shape of a hydrograph is affected by rainfallBarking
and byDog
drainage
Art C Factors affecting the shape
basin characteristics (table C). of a hydrograph

Drainage ‘Flashy’ hydrograph Low, flat hydrograph

basin and with a short lag time with a low peak
precipitation and high peak
characteristics

Basin size Small basins often lead to a rapid water transfer. Large basins result in a relatively slow water transfer.
Drainage density A high density speeds up water transfer. A low density leads to a slower transfer.
Rock type Impermeable rocks encourage rapid Permeable rocks encourage a slow transfer by
overland flow. groundwater flow.
Land use Urbanisation encourages rapid water transfer. Forests slow down water transfer, because
of interception.
Relief Steep slopes lead to rapid water transfer. Gentle slopes slow down water transfer.
Soil moisture Saturated soil results in rapid overland flow. Dry soil soaks up water and slows down its transfer.
Rainfall intensity Heavy rain may exceed the infiltration capacity Light rain will transfer slowly and most will soak
of vegetation, and lead to rapid overland flow. into the soil.

Activities
1 Suggest how precipitation and urbanisation may Practice question
have contributed to the flooding in Fishlake (photo A).
Describe the physical and human factors affecting the
2 What is a ‘flash flood’ and what factors increase the risk of flooding. (4 marks)
risk of serious flooding?
3 Use a simple diagram to explain how deforestation Tips
increases the risk of flooding. • The command word requires you to write a
description of the factors affecting flooding.
• You should refer to both physical and human
Extension factors in your answer and make clear connections
What physical and human factors are likely to produce to the ‘risk of flooding’.
a hydrograph (table C) with a short time lag and a high • Try to write your answer in no more than eight lines.
peak? Suggest ways in which changes in land use could
reduce the flood risk associated with this hydrograph. Section C – Physical landscapes in the UK 141
11.8 Managing floods – hard engineering
On this spread you will find out about the costs and benefits of hard
engineering to manage river flooding
Afforestation to increase Construction of reservoir
What is hard engineering? interception, reduce soil to regulate water flow
erosion and use up some of
Hard engineering involves using artificial structures the water
to prevent or control natural processes from taking
place. This form of flood management is usually very
expensive – individual projects can cost several million
pounds. But this is the preferred option for protecting
expensive property or land, such as housing estates,
railways and water treatment works. The costs have to Land use zoning –
new developments
be weighed against the benefits. constructed away
from flood risk areas
● Costs – these are disadvantages or issues, such
as high financial costs, harmful impacts to the
environment, or social and aesthetic impacts.
● Benefits – these are advantages, such as economic
savings, improvements to the environment or
opportunities for leisure and recreation. Controlled flooding to
reduce serious floods By-pass
Diagram A shows a drainage basin with hard and soft downstream channel Channel enlarged by
engineering options. Creation of wetland
dredging – taking
sediment from the river
areas for water
Dams and reservoirs storage
bed and using it to build
up the banks, so the river
Dams and reservoirs are widely used around the is lowered and the banks
world to regulate river flow and reduce the risk of raised, increasing the
channel's capacity
flooding. Most dam projects are multi-purpose, having
several functions, for example:
River bank
● flood prevention ● hydro-electric power conservation
involving
● irrigation generation tree planting
Channel
● water supply ● recreation. straightening Embankment to enlarge
to speed up the channel and reduce
Dams can be very effective in regulating water flow. water flow the likelihood of flooding
During periods of high rainfall, water can be stored Concrete-lined
in the reservoir. It can then be released when rainfall channel – semi-circular
is low. But the construction of dams can be very in shape to increase
the speed of flow
controversial. They cost huge amounts of money and
the reservoir often floods large areas of land. Many
A Flood prevention – some hard and soft engineering options
people may have to be moved from their homes.

Clywedog reservoir, Llanidloes, Wales

The Clywedog reservoir (photo B) was constructed in the 1960s to
help prevent flooding of the River Severn. Its concrete dam is over
70 m high and 230 m wide and the reservoir stretches for nearly 10 km.
It has been in continuous use since 1967, filling up in the winter and
gradually releasing water in the summer to retain a constant flow.
Although some flooding has continued to affect settlements further
downstream, Clywedog has undoubtedly prevented major floods.

B The Clywedog dam and reservoir

142 Unit 1 – Living with the physical environment
 River landscapes

Channel straightening Embankments

River channel straightening involves cutting An embankment is a raised river bank that
through meanders to create a straight channel.
allows the river channel to hold more water
This speeds up the flow of water along the river.
before flooding occurs. Often constructed of mud
However, whilst this may reduce the risk of flooding
dredged from the river channel, embankments
in one location, it may increase the flood risk further
downstream. In this way, channel straightening may are relatively cheap options compared with
not solve the problem, but shift it elsewhere. constructing a dam. When covered by vegetation
they can look like natural levées.
In some places, concrete is used to line the
channel. This smooth surface speeds up water In towns and cities where high-value property
flow and also prevents the collapse of river banks, needs protecting, hard engineering structures
which can reduce the capacity of a river channel. made from concrete or blocks of stone are used
However, artificial channels and faster river flow to form embankments. Whilst these may be very
can reduce the range of aquatic habitats, leading effective, they are often costly, can obscure views
to a reduction in biodiversity. Artificial channels of the river and may reduce biodiversity.
can also look unattractive.

The Jubilee River, Maidenhead

Flood relief channels In the UK a flood
A flood relief channel is an artificial river channel relief channel,
constructed to bypass an urban area. named the Jubilee Maidenhead J
ub
During times of high flow, sluice gates can be River, has been i l ee
R iver
opened to allow excess water to flow into the flood constructed on

Riv
Eton
rT
relief channel. This reduces the amount of water the River Thames

e
ha m
es
flowing along the main river, significantly reducing near Maidenhead Windsor
the flood risk to expensive property and land. in Berkshire (map
N Wraysbury
Flood relief channels can support biodiverse C). The 11 km 0 5
aquatic ecosystems and provide leisure and channel was km
recreation opportunities. However, they do opened in 2002. It
involve land use change. If roads and footpaths cost £110 million C The Jubilee River
have to be closed or re-directed it can affect local to construct
community access. Farmers may lose land when and with a length of nearly 12 km is the longest
the new channel is constructed. artificial channel in the UK. As well as reducing the
risk of flooding for over 3000 properties, the Jubilee
River has had a positive impact on the environment
Activities by creating new wetlands. It is also popular for
1 Define ‘costs’ and ‘benefits’ in the context of hard recreational activities such as walking and fishing.
engineering river management strategies.
2 Using photo B, suggest the costs and benefits of Practice question
dams and reservoirs such as Clywedog.
Assess the costs and benefits of hard engineering in
3 Draw a simple sketch map of the Jubilee River
managing river flooding. (9 marks)
(map C). Add text boxes to describe the costs and
benefits of the scheme. Tips
• The command word ‘assess’ requires you to engage
Extension in a discussion, weighing up the advantages
(benefits) and disadvantages (costs).
Use online research to find out more about river • Focus on dams and reservoirs and flood relief
straightening and the use of embankments (usually channels only. Try to write a balanced answer.
referred to as ‘levées’ in the USA). Try to locate some
• Examples are not required, but can be used to
examples of these management strategies and consider
support your answer.
their costs and benefits.

Section C – Physical landscapes in the UK 143

11.9 Managing floods – soft engineering
On this spread you will find out about the costs and benefits of soft
engineering to manage river flooding

What is soft engineering?

Soft engineering involves working with natural river processes to The three levels of flood warning
manage the flood risk. Unlike hard engineering it does not involve issued by the Environment
building artificial structures or trying to stop natural processes. It Agency are:
aims to reduce and slow the movement of water into a river channel
to help prevent flooding. In common with all forms of management ● Flood Watch – flooding of low-lying
there are costs (disadvantages) and benefits (advantages). land and roads is expected. People
should be prepared and watch
Flood warnings and preparation river levels.
Rivers and river basins are monitored remotely using satellites and ● Flood Warning – there is a threat
computer technology. Instruments are used to measure rainfall and to homes and businesses. People
to check river levels. Computer models can then be used to predict should move items of value
discharges and identify areas at risk from flooding. to upper floors and to turn off
electricity and water.
In England and Wales the Environment Agency issues flood
● Severe Flood Warning – extreme
warnings if flooding is likely. Warnings are sent to the emergency
services and the public using social media, text and email. danger to life and property is
expected. People should stay in an
The Environment Agency makes maps identifying areas at risk from upper level of their home or leave
flooding. People living in these areas are encouraged to plan for the property.
floods. This might include:
● planning what to do if there is
a flood warning (e.g. moving
valuable items upstairs)
● using flood gates to prevent
floodwater from damaging
property (photo A)
● using sandbags to keep floodwater
away from buildings.
Local authorities and emergency
services use these maps to plan
responses to floods. For example,
installing temporary flood barriers,
evacuating people, closing roads and
securing buildings and services.
Warnings and preparation strategies
based on computer modelling can
be effective if they are perceived
by the public as being accurate and
appropriate to the risks involved.
However, some places can become A Flood gate protecting property from the rising River Severn,
blighted by being mapped as ‘at risk’ Deerhurst, Gloucestershire
from flooding, increasing insurance
premiums and reducing property values.

144 Unit 1 – Living with the physical environment

 River landscapes

Floodplain zoning Housing

Floodplain zoning restricts different land uses to Industry
Roads and
certain locations on the floodplain (diagram B). Areas car parks
Playing
close to the river are at risk from flooding and can be fields
Pasture for
kept clear of high-value land uses such as housing and grazing
industry. Instead, these areas can be used for pasture, Avoid areas
parkland or playing fields. very near river
River
Floodplain zoning is highly cost effective in reducing
vulnerability and exposure to flooding. However, it
is hard to apply retrospectively to towns and cities
that have developed close to rivers. Additionally,
B Floodplain zoning
floodplain zoning may blight certain areas, causing
land and property prices to fall.

Planting trees
Planting trees to establish a new woodland or forest
is called afforestation. Trees intercept rainfall, slowing
the transfer of water to river channels and reducing
the risk of flooding. They are relatively cheap to plant
and bring many environmental benefits, creating
habitats and increasing biodiversity. Planting trees is
a strategy widely adopted in the UK, promoted by the
government, charities and local landowners.

River restoration C Restoration of the River Glaven, Norfolk

Where the course of a river has been changed artificially, river restoration can return it
to its original course. River restoration uses natural processes and features of a river,
Skill
such as meanders, river-bank vegetation and wetlands to slow down river flow and Look back to pages
reduce the likelihood of flooding downstream (photo C). 138–139. What is the
evidence of floodplain
River restoration is relatively cheap to implement and, despite having short-term
zoning alongside the
negative impacts on the environment, can bring long-term environmental benefits. By River Tees (map A,
restoring the natural landscape, the creation of new habitats can increase biodiversity. photo B)?

Activities
Practice question
1 Define soft engineering.
2 Using photo A, outline the costs and benefits of flood ‘The benefits of soft engineering strategies in managing
warnings and preparation. river flooding outweigh the costs.’ Do you agree? Give
reasons for your answer. (6 marks)
3 Using diagram B, explain why floodplain zoning is
an effective strategy for new developments but less Tips
effective for existing urban areas. • Begin your answer by stating your point of view
4 Using photo C, suggest the short-term costs and long- – do you agree with the statement? Then use
term benefits of river restoration. evidence to support your point of view.
• In your answer, refer to both ‘costs’ and ‘benefits’
and make sure that you write about at least two
Extension soft engineering strategies.
Research online for an example of river restoration in the • To develop your answer, consider short-term and
UK. The River Restoration Centre is a good starting point. long-term costs and benefits.
Describe how your chosen river was altered and how it
has been restored. Using maps and annotated photos,
consider the costs and benefits of the scheme.
Section C – Physical landscapes in the UK 145
 11.10 Managing floods at Banbury
On this spread you will find out about the flood management scheme
in Banbury

Where is Banbury? N
EXAMPLE

Banbury is located about 50 km north of Oxford (map A). The town

has a population of around 45 000 people. Much of the town is on the
floodplain of the River Cherwell, a tributary of the River Thames.
Birmingham
How has Banbury been affected by flooding? Banbury

Banbury has a history of devastating floods. In 1998 flooding led

Oxford
to the closure of the town’s railway station, shut local roads and London

caused £12.5 million of damage (photo B). More than 150 homes and
businesses were affected. In 2007 the town was hit again by floods
0 200
that extended over much of central and western England. Many more
km
homes and businesses were affected as the river burst its banks after
very heavy rain. A The location of Banbury

What has been done to reduce the risk

al
of flooding?

an
dC

we ll
fo r
In 2012 Banbury’s new flood defence scheme was completed.

Ox

er
h
e
A 2.9 km earth embankment was built parallel to the M40 lway lin R iv e r C
Approximate limit
motorway to create a flood storage area (map C). The of flooding in
200-year event
Birmingham – Oxford rai

embankment has a maximum height of 4.5 m. It is capable of

holding around 3 million cubic metres of water – that’s 1200
Olympic-size swimming pools!
The flood storage area is located mainly on the natural floodplain Crest of flood
of the River Cherwell. It collects rainwater that otherwise would embankment A36

have swelled the river and caused it to burst its banks.

1

Photo D shows one of the two flow control structures in the Material for the earth
embankment came
embankment. The specially designed aperture (opening) from here. It is now
Borrow
controls the rate of flow downstream towards Banbury. Area a small reservoir.
Any excess water backs up behind the structure, filling up M Hardwick flow
4
Banbury 0 control structure
Town Huscote flow
Centre control structure
N
Rive 0 500
ll
r C h e r we metres

C Main features of the

Banbury Flood Storage
Reservoir

B Banbury station
flooded in 1998

146 Unit 1 – Living with the physical environment

 River landscapes

the reservoir rather than continuing towards

Banbury. The design avoids the need to open and
close flood gates. Map C shows how this works.
Additional flood defence measures that are part
of the scheme include:
● raising the A361 road in the flood storage
area (map C) plus improvements to drainage
beneath the road to prevent flooding
● new earth embankments and floodwalls to
protect property and businesses, such as the
motorsport business Prodrive
● a new pumping station to transfer excess
rainwater into the river below the town
● the creation of a new Biodiversity Action Plan
(BAP) habitat with ponds, trees and hedgerows
to absorb and store excess water.

What are the social, economic and D Flow control structure looking upstream towards the embankment
environmental issues?
The table below outlines some of the main costs and benefits associated with the project.

Social Economic Environmental

• The raised A361 route into Banbury • The cost of the scheme was about • Around 100 000 tonnes of earth
will be open during a flood, to £18.5 million. were required to build the
avoid disrupting people’s lives. • Donors included Environment embankment. This was extracted
• Quality of life for local people is Agency and Cherwell District from nearby, creating a small
improved with new footpaths and Council. reservoir (map C).
green areas. • By protecting 441 houses and • A new Biodiversity Action Plan
• Reduced levels of anxiety and 73 commercial properties, the habitat has been created with
depression through fear of benefits are estimated to be over ponds, trees and hedgerows.
flooding. £100 million. • Part of the floodplain will be
deliberately allowed to flood if
river levels are high.

Activities Practice question

1 Why was a flood management scheme needed at Banbury? Using an example, describe the
2 Using map C, outline the main features and purpose of the flood management strategy used to protect
storage reservoir. an area from flooding. (4 marks)
3 Using photo D, describe the hard engineering structures that Tips
formed part of the scheme.
• The question requires you to refer
4 What additional flood defence measures were implemented?
to an example (Banbury). Try to
refer to three or four specific facts
and figures to support your answer.
Extension
• Make clear connections between
Suggest why recent flood management schemes such as the Banbury the management strategy and the
Flood Alleviation Scheme often involve elements of both hard and reduction in the risk of flooding.
soft engineering. To what extent do you think this reflects a greater • You should aim to write about
awareness of environmental issues? 12 lines.

Section C – Physical landscapes in the UK 147