Chapter 2

Incidence Relations, Parallelism,

Perpendicularity

The theoretical foundation of this chapter has been presented in Chapter I, in high school
mathematics, and in analytic geometry. The purpose of this chapter includes exploring
in depth several key points of high school mathematics, helping students develop better
orientation skills when solving problems. In particular, this program emphasizes the basis
for choosing tools to solve types of geometric problems in secondary schools, while focusing
on advanced problem types for nurturing gifted students.

2.1 Incidence relations among figures

To solve problems regarding collinearity, points belonging to a plane, concurrent lines, planes
passing through a single point, or sets of points belonging to a sphere, we consider the
theoretical basis of the following specific procedures:

1. To prove that three points A, B, and C belong to one line, we can use one of the
following commonly used procedures (stated in condensed form):

a) A, B, C are collinear ⇔ AB and BC are both parallel to some line ∆ (Euclidean

Axiom).
b) A, B, C are collinear ⇔ A, B, and C belong to two distinct planes (P) and (Q)
(Incidence axioms).
c) A, B, C are collinear ⇔ AB
⃗ = k AC
⃗ (Can be substituted with common points B
or C).
d) A, B, C are collinear ⇔ The equation of line AB (in a plane or in space) is satisfied
by the coordinates of C.

In addition to the above procedures, we can use Thales’ theorem, Menelaus’ theorem,
or use the properties of vertical angles or supplementary angles.
2 Chapter 2. Incidence Relations, Parallelism, Perpendicularity

2. Proving a set of points belongs to a plane: First, we consider the proposition: “Given n
points, with no three points collinear. If every set of 4 points belongs to a plane, then
all n points belong to a single plane (coplanar).” We can proceed with the following
procedures for proof:
a) A, B, C, D belong to a plane ⇔ AB, AC, and AD are all parallel to plane α or
perpendicular to some line (ℓ), or AB intersects CD (or AC intersects BD).
b) A, B, C, D belong to a plane ⇔ Vectors AB,⃗ AC,⃗ AD⃗ are coplanar.
c) A, B, C, D belong to a plane ⇔ The equation of the plane (α) passing through
three points A, B, C in an orthonormal spatial coordinate system is satisfied by
the coordinates of D.
d) A, B, C, D belong to a plane ⇔ A, B, C, D are images of 4 points A1 , A2 , A3 , A4
belonging to a plane through a homothety VOk .
Note: In addition to the mentioned procedures, to explore different methods for solving
a problem, we can use the Menelaus theorem applied to the following skew quadrilat-
eral: “Four points A, B, C, D belonging respectively to sides MN, NP, PQ, QM of a
skew quadrilateral MNPQ are coplanar if and only if AM AN
· BN
BP
CP
· CQ DQ
· DM = 1”. The
reader is encouraged to prove this proposition, noting that for the necessary condition,
one can draw perpendicular lines from M, N, P, Q to the plane (ABCD) and apply
Thales’ theorem.
3. Proving lines are concurrent: To prove that n lines in a plane or in space are concurrent,
we use the following propositions:
a) Given n lines, if any three of them are concurrent, then all n lines are concurrent.
b) If n lines any two of which intersect, they are concurrent if they are not coplanar.
c) Identify a specific point and show that every line passes through that point.
Note: Some familiar theorems can be used: Ceva’s theorem, or the theorem on the
polar line.
4. Proving n planes pass through a single point: To prove this, the following propositions
can be used:
a) If n planes are such that any four of them have only one unique common point,
then all n planes are concurrent.
b) Identify a specific point and show that every plane passes through it.

Below are illustrative examples for the problem types and procedures mentioned above:
Problem 1: Let ABC be a triangle. Let O, G, and H be the circumcenter, centroid, and
orthocenter of that triangle, respectively. Prove that the three points O, G, and H belong
to a single line (the Euler line).
Proof: (See Figure 1)
Method 1: Use vertical angles. We already have A, G, M are collinear. GM
GA
= 12 , ∠OM G =
2.1. Incidence relations among figures 3

∠HAG (alternate interior angles), where M and N are the midpoints of BC and CA, respec-
tively. To prove O, G, H are collinear, we prove ∠OGM = ∠HGA. This leads to proving
△GHA ∼ △GOM . The problem reduces to proving OM = 21 AH. Let K be the point
diametrically opposite to B. From the properties of the midline, it follows... Quadrilateral
AHCK is a parallelogram, so AH = CK = 2OM . From this, the proof is completed.
Method 2: O, G, H are collinear ⇔ GH ⃗ = k · GO,
⃗ find k. Note: AH ⃗ = KC ⃗ and thus
OM ⃗ We have: GH
⃗ = 1 AH. ⃗ = GA ⃗ + AH ⃗ = −2GM ⃗ + 2OM ⃗ = −(2GM ⃗ + M⃗O) = −2GO, ⃗
2
which completes the proof.
−1 −1
Method 3: Perform a homothety VG 2 . The images of points A, B, C through VG 2 are M,
−1
N, P (P is the midpoint of AB) respectively. The orthocenter H has its image through VG 2
as the orthocenter H ′ of triangle MNP. It is easy to see H ′ ≡ O, which completes the proof.

Figure 2.1: Fig. 1 - Problem 1

Problem 2: Prove that in an orthocentric tetrahedron, the orthocenter H, centroid G, and

the circumcenter O of the tetrahedron are collinear and GH = GO.
Proof: (See Figure 2)
Suppose ABCD is an orthocentric tetrahedron (the altitudes are concurrent). Let G be
the centroid; then G is the midpoint of the segment MK connecting the midpoints of edges
CD and AB. The circumcenter belongs to the axis of the circumcircle of △BCD and the
perpendicular bisector plane of CD. Let AG ∩ (BCD) = G1 , then G1 is the centroid of
△BCD. According to the properties of an orthocentric tetrahedron, A1 = (BCD) ∩ AH
is the orthocenter of △BCD. Then, according to Problem 1, it follows that A1 , G1 , O1 are
collinear. Plane (AA1 G1 ) contains A1 G1 , so it contains O1 . Since O1 O ∥ AA1 because
both are perpendicular to (BCD), we infer that O belongs to plane (AA1 O1 ). By similar
reasoning, H, G, O belong to plane (BB1 G2 ) where B1 is the orthocenter of △ACD and G2
is its centroid. Thus, H, G, O belong to the intersection of these two planes, completing the
proof.
Let I be the intersection of the line drawn through G, parallel to AH and A1 O1 . According
to Thales’ theorem, we have GH GO
= IO
IA1
1
. We also have: IG
IA1
1
= GG
GA
1
= 31 ⇔ IA1IA 1
+IG1
= 34 ⇔
IA1
A1 G1
= 34 ⇔ IA1 = 34 · 32 A1 O1 = 21 A1 O1 . This completes the proof.
4 Chapter 2. Incidence Relations, Parallelism, Perpendicularity

Figure 2.2: Fig. 2 - Problem 2

Problem 3: Triangle ABC is inscribed in circle (C). Parallel lines drawn through A, B, and
C intersect (C) at points A1 , B1 , C1 respectively, other than A, B, C. Let H1 , H2 , H3 be the
orthocenters of triangles A1 BC, B1 CA, C1 AB respectively. Prove that points H, H1 , H2 , H3
all belong to a single line.
Proof: (See Figure 3)
First, it is necessary to prove: OH
⃗ = OA ⃗ + OB ⃗ + OC ⃗ where O and H are the circumcenter
and orthocenter of (C). Indeed, let G be the centroid of triangle ABC. Then: OH ⃗ = 3OG ⃗
(1). Furthermore, G being the centroid implies: OG ⃗ = 1 (OA
3
⃗ + OB⃗ + OC)
⃗ (2). Substituting
(2) into (1) yields: OH⃗ = OA⃗ + OB⃗ + OC ⃗ (3). Similarly, we have: OH ⃗ 1 = OA⃗ 1 + OB
⃗ + OC⃗
(4), OH⃗ 2 = OB ⃗ 1 + OA
⃗ + OC
⃗ (5), OH ⃗ 3 = OC⃗ 1 + OA
⃗ + OB ⃗ (6). From (3) and (4) we get:
HH⃗ 1 = AA ⃗ 1 . From (3) and (5) we get: HH⃗ 2 = BB⃗ 1 . Since AA1 ∥ BB1 , then BB⃗ 1 = λAA⃗ 1,
which implies HH ⃗ 2 = λHH⃗ 1 . Therefore, H, H1 , H2 are collinear. Similarly, H, H1 , H3 are
collinear. From this, the proof is completed.
Problem 4: Through vertices A, B, C, D of a parallelogram, draw lines a, b, c, d parallel to
each other, and on them take points A1 , B1 , C1 , D1 respectively.

1. Prove that the line connecting the midpoint of A1 C1 and the midpoint of B1 D1 always
passes through a fixed point.

2. A1 , B1 , C1 , D1 are coplanar if and only if the midpoint of A1 C1 and the midpoint of

B1 D1 coincide.
2.2. Parallelism, parallel projection 5

Figure 2.3: Fig. 3 - Problem 3

2.2 Parallelism, parallel projection

This section aims to exploit the role of Thales’ Theorem (forward and converse); the invari-
ants of parallel projection and, in particular, orthogonal projection:

1. Converse Thales’ Theorem: “If two sets of three points (A, B, C) and (A′ , B ′ , C ′ )
belong, in that order, to two skew lines such that BA : BC = B ′ A′ : B ′ C ′ , then
there exists a unique triplet of planes (P), (R), (Q) passing through AA′ , BB ′ , CC ′
respectively such that (P )//(Q)//(R)”.
Proof: Since AA′ and CC ′ are skew, there exists a unique pair of planes (P), (Q)
containing AA′ and CC ′ such that (P )//(Q) (using proof by contradiction). Construct
plane (R) through B such that (R)//(P ); then (R) must intersect A′ C ′ at B1′ . From
the forward theorem, it follows that BA : BC = B1′ A′ : B1′ C ′ , which combined with
the given equality leads to B1′ ≡ B ′ , thus proving the theorem.

2. Readers should master the following invariants of parallel projection (especially or-
thogonal projection) through problem-solving practice. A suitable parallel projection
can be used to determine these invariants:

• a. Three collinear points (not belonging to a line parallel to the projection direc-
tion).
• b. Lines, segments, rays, triangles, quadrilaterals...
• c. The ratio of two segments with the same direction (different from the projection
direction A onto plane (P)). Consequently, the midpoint is an invariant under
parallel projection.
• d. Two parallel lines (not belonging to a plane parallel to the projection direction).
6 Chapter 2. Incidence Relations, Parallelism, Perpendicularity

• e. Parallelograms.
• f. The length of a segment parallel to the projection plane (P).

Specifically for orthogonal projection, note the following invariants: A right

angle transforms into a right angle if and only if one side is parallel to or lies within
the projection plane, and the other side is not perpendicular to the projection plane.
1) Assume Ox//(P ) (projection plane) or Ox ⊂ (P ) (see Fig. 13) and Oy is not
perpendicular to (P). Then, O′ x′ //(P ). Since O′ x′ is perpendicular to the projection
direction, and O′ x′ //Ox (or coincides), O′ x′ is perpendicular to Oy and N N ′ . From
this, O′ x′ is perpendicular to the plane (Oy, O′ y ′ ) so O′ x′ ⊥ O′ y ′ .
2) Assume x[ ′ Oy ′ = 90◦ is the image of the right angle xOy.
d If Ox is parallel to or
belongs to the projection plane, the problem is solved.
Conversely, assume Ox and O′ x′ intersect at a point belonging to (P ), defining the
plane (Ox, O′ x′ ).
Since O′ x′ ⊥ O′ y ′ and O′ x′ ⊥ OO′ , then O′ x′ ⊥ Oy. On the other hand, since
Oy ⊥ Ox, it follows from the above that Oy ⊥ (Ox, O′ x′ ). The plane (Ox, O′ x′ ) and
Oy // (P ).
Note: Orthogonal projection possesses all the invariants of parallel projection along
with the important invariant mentioned above.
Additionally, regarding orthogonal projection, note the following proposition: “If a
convex polygon D with area S belongs to plane (R) which forms an angle α with
plane (P ), then the area S ′ of the projection D′ of D is calculated by the formula
S ′ = Scosα”.
In this case, if (R) ∥ (P ) then S ′ = S, if (R) ⊥ (P ) then S ′ = 0.

Figure 2.4: Fig. 13

2.2. Parallelism, parallel projection 7

Problem 13: A line moves such that it is always parallel to a fixed plane (α) and rests on
two skew lines a, b at two points M, N . Find the locus of points I belonging to the segment
IM
M N such that = k (k is a given positive constant).
IN
Solution: (See Fig. 14)

Figure 2.5: Fig. 14

Without loss of generality, assume a, b intersect (α) at two points M1 , N1 and I1 is the limit
point of the locus.
According to the converse Thales’ Theorem, I, I1 belong to a plane parallel to a, b, which
I0 M0
is the plane (I0 , E1 , I1 ) with I0 ∈ M0 N0 such that: = k. In this plane, we will prove
I0 N0
that I0 , I, I1 are collinear. Thus, we reduce the problem to a plane geometry problem where
I0 , E, E1 belong to a line parallel to a, E1 ∈ (α) and M K//M1 K1 ////M0 N0 .
According to the planar Thales’ Theorem: I0 E
I0 E1
= N0 K
N0 K1
= KN
K1 N1
(1).
On the other hand, we have EI
KN
= ME
MK
and E1 I1
K1 N1
= M1 E1
M1 K 1
. From this: EI
E1 I1
= KN
K1 N1
(2).
From (1) and (2), it follows that: EI
E1 I1
= I0 E
I0 E1
, so I0 , I, I1 are collinear; thus I belongs to
I0 I1 .
Conversely, it can be proven that if I belongs to the segment I0 I1 , then there exists a segment
MN such that M N//(α), M ∈ a, N ∈ b and IM IN
= k.
Thus, the locus of points I is the line I0 I1 (excluding point I1 ).
Problem 14: Given three pairwise skew lines a, b, c. Find the locus of the centroid of
triangle ABC such that points A, B, C move along the given skew lines a, b, c respectively.
MA
Solution: Let M be the midpoint of side AB, then = 1. Using the converse Thales’
MB
Theorem, the set of points M is the plane (α) parallel to and equidistant from a and b.
8 Chapter 2. Incidence Relations, Parallelism, Perpendicularity

2
For each fixed C0 on c, if G is the centroid of triangle ABC0 , then C⃗0 G = C0⃗M . It
3 2
follows that G belongs to plane (α ), which is the image of (α) under the homothety VC30 .
′

Consequently, if c//(α), the locus is a plane (α′ ) parallel to (α); if c is not parallel to (α),
the locus is the set of all planes (α′ ) that are images of (α) under the homothety centered
2
at points on line c with ratio .
3

2.3 Perpendicularity
Perpendicular relations in particular, and quantitative problems in general in advanced math-
ematics, are built from the scalar product. With corresponding additional axioms, this
transforms affine space into Euclidean vector space, or through similarity geometry.
The brief statement above contains a major
q idea in problem solving. The length of segment
2
M N is calculated by the formula M N = M⃗N .
This demonstrates that for types of problems involving lengths, we often use the scalar
product. The scalar product allows for the solution of many types of problems. For example,
to prove line a is perpendicular to line b, we prove the scalar product of their two direction
vectors is zero. Another similar proposition: “Plane (P ) is perpendicular to plane (Q) if
and only if the scalar product of the two corresponding normal vectors of planes (P ), (Q) is
zero”.
Problem 21: Given a tetrahedron OABC where the trihedral angle at vertex O is a right
trihedral angle, OA = OB = OC = 1. Let M, N be the midpoints of edges AB and OA
respectively. Calculate the distance between the two lines OM and CN .
1) Using the synthetic method, the problem can be solved as follows:
The required distance equals the distance from any point on line OM (e.g., O) to the plane
(α) containing CN and parallel to OM . Plane (α) is precisely the plane (CKI) where I is
the midpoint of AM , and K is the orthogonal projection of O onto line IN . Then OKIM
is a rectangle, and if H is the orthogonal projection of O onto CK, then OH ⊥ (CKI).
√
2
Calculate OH from the right triangle COK, where OK = and OC = 1. Using the area
4
1
formula: OH = .
3
2) This problem can be solved using the vector method. Refer to the Elementary Geometry
Textbook by Dao Tam, page 67.
3) This problem can also be solved using the coordinate method in space. Refer to the
Elementary Geometry Textbook by Dao Tam, page 68.
Problem 22: Given a convex tetrahedral angle SABCD. Prove that the necessary and
sufficient condition for plane (SAC) to be perpendicular to plane (SBD) is:

[Link]
[ [ = [Link]
CSD [ ASD.
[
2.3. Perpendicularity 9

Solution: (See Fig. 19)

Figure 2.6: Fig. 19

Assign unit vectors e⃗1 , e⃗2 , e⃗3 , e⃗4 along the rays SA, SB, SC, SD from S.
Assume p⃗ is the normal vector of plane (SAC). We have:
(SAC) ⊥ (SBD) ⇔ p⃗ ⊥ plane (SBD) ⇔ p⃗, e⃗2 , e⃗4 are coplanar ⇔ p⃗ = xe⃗2 + y e⃗4 (Fig. 19)

  
p⃗.e⃗
1 =0 (xe⃗
2+ y e⃗4 ).e⃗1 = 0 xcosASB
[ + ycosASD
[ =0
⇒ ⇔ ⇔ (System 1)
⃗.e⃗3 = 0
p (xe⃗2 + y e⃗4 ).e⃗3 = 0 [ + ycosCSD
xcosBSC [ =0

x, y are not both zero as solutions of system (1) if and only if:

cosASB
[ cosASD
[
=0 ⇔ [Link]
[ [ = [Link]
CSD [ ASD
[
cosBSC
[ cosCSD
[

EXERCISES

Exercise 2.1. Given triangle ABC, inscribed in a circle of radius R. Prove that:
BC AC AB
a) (Law of Sines) = = = 2R.
sinA sinB sinC
b) (Law of Cosines) BC 2 = AB 2 + AC 2 − [Link].
Exercise 2.2. In triangle ABC, draw the median CD. From the midpoints E and F of
segments AD and BD, draw lines parallel to the median CD; these lines intersect sides AC
and BC at points K and L. Prove that LK is parallel to AB.
Exercise 2.3. Given triangle ABC with sides BC = a, AC = b, AB = c. Let I be the
incenter of triangle ABC. Prove that:
−
→ −→ −→ → −
aIA + bIB + cIC = 0 .
10 Chapter 2. Incidence Relations, Parallelism, Perpendicularity

Exercise 2.4. Given convex quadrilateral ABCD with side lengths a, b, c, d respectively; let
p, S be its semi-perimeter and area.

a) Prove that s
B+D
S= (p − a)(p − b)(p − c)(p − d) − abcdcos2 .
2
b) Prove that if ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral, then
q
S= (p − a)(p − b)(p − c)(p − d).
√
c) Prove that if ABCD is both cyclic and tangential, then S = abcd.

d) Prove Heron’s formula for the area of a triangle.

Exercise 2.5. Given a tangential quadrilateral with side
√ lengths a, b, c, d, the sum of two
opposite angles is 2α and its area is S. Prove that S = abcdsinα.
Exercise 2.6. Given convex quadrilateral ABCD with AC = m, BD = n and the angle
1
between its diagonals being α. Prove that SABCD = mnsinα. From this, deduce that if the
2
diagonals are perpendicular, the area equals half the product of the diagonals.
Exercise 2.7. Given triangle ABC with three acute angles and altitudes AD, CP, BQ.
Prove that
SDP Q
= 2cosAcosBcosC.
SABC
Exercise 2.8. Through a point inside a triangle, draw three lines parallel to the sides of the
triangle. These lines divide the triangle into 6 parts, three of which are triangles with areas
S1 , S2 , S3 . Prove the area of the original triangle is:
q q q
S = ( S1 + S2 + S3 )2 .

Exercise 2.9. Given trapezoid ABCD right-angled at A and D, with 2AB = 2AD = DC.
Let point E be on side AB and point F on side BC. Prove that DE = EF if and only if
\ = 90o .
DEF
Exercise 2.10. Given trapezoid ABCD right-angled at A and D, with 2AB = AD = DC.
Let E be the orthogonal projection of D on BC. Prove that AE = AD. (Alternatively, let
M be the midpoint of DE. Prove AM is perpendicular to DE).
Exercise 2.11. Given rectangle ABCD. Let E be the reflection of D across C, K be the
orthogonal projection of C onto BE, and M be the midpoint of segment CK. Prove that
BM is perpendicular to DK.
Exercise 2.12. Given square ABCD with center I. Take point K on side BC. Let E be
the intersection of line AK and line CD. Let M be on segment BE. Prove that points
I, K, M are collinear if and only if CM is perpendicular to BE.
2.3. Perpendicularity 11

Exercise 2.13. Given triangle ABC right-angled at A with E as the foot of the altitude
from A. Let F be the reflection of E across A. Let H be a point on segment AE and let G
be the intersection of BH and F C. Prove that BH is perpendicular to F C if and only if H
is the midpoint of AE.

Exercise 2.14. Given trapezoid ABCD right-angled at A and D. Let M be the midpoint
of AD, A′ be the orthogonal projection of A on M B, and D′ be the orthogonal projection
of D on M C. Assume AA′ and DD′ intersect at P .

a) Prove that M P is perpendicular to BC.

b) Assume AA′ intersects M C at C ′ and DD′ intersects M B at B ′ . Prove that B ′ C ′ is

parallel to BC.

Exercise 2.15. Given quadrilateral ABCD with perpendicular diagonals. Let M, N be

the midpoints of sides AB and AD respectively. The line through M perpendicular to DC
intersects AC at I. Prove that N I is perpendicular to BC.