💻 What is a Digital System?
A digital system works with discrete signals — signals that have specific, separate values
(usually 0 and 1).
It represents information using binary numbers (bits).
⚙️Examples
Computers
Digital watches
Calculators
Modern mobile phones
🧠 What is an Analog System?
An analog system works with continuous signals — signals that vary smoothly over time and
can take any value within a range.
It represents information using physical quantities like voltage, current, temperature, etc.
⚙️Examples
A thermometer showing temperature (like 36.5°C, 36.6°C, etc.)
An old radio volume knob (continuous increase or decrease)
Analog clocks (with hands moving smoothly)
🧩 Summary
Analog = Continuous signals (smooth changes)
Digital = Discrete signals (0s and 1s)
Number system
A Number System is a way to represent numbers using different symbols (digits).
It helps us count, calculate, and store data in computers.
Different systems use different bases— the base tells us how many digits are used in that
system.
Number System Base Digits Used Example
Decimal 10 0–9 145, 27, 398
Binary 2 0, 1 (1011)₂, (1100)₂
Octal 8 0–7 (127)₈, (56)₈
Hexadecimal 16 0–9, A–F (A3)₁₆, (2F)₁₆
Decimal Numbers System (Base 10):
It is the system we use in daily life.
Has 10 digits: 0–9.
Each position has a place value that is a power of 10.
Example:
345 = (3 × 10²) + (4 × 10¹) + (5 × 10⁰)
= 300 + 40 + 5 = 345
Binary Numbers System (Base 2):
Used by computers (because computers understand only 0 and 1).
Each digit is called a bit.
Example:
1011₂ = (1 × 2³) + (0 × 2²) + (1 × 2¹) + (1 × 2⁰)
= 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 11 in decimal
Octal Number System (Base 8)
Uses digits 0 to 7.
Often used as a shorter form of binary numbers.
Example:
127₈ = (1 × 8²) + (2 × 8¹) + (7 × 8⁰)
= 64 + 16 + 7 = 87 in decimal
Hexadecimal Number System (Base 16):
Uses digits 0–9 and letters A–F, where
A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15
Used in computer memory addresses and color codes (like in HTML or CSS).
Example:
2F₁₆ = (2 × 16¹) + (F × 16⁰)
= (2 × 16) + (15 × 1)
= 32 + 15 = 47 in decimal
Conversion:
Binary – decimal:
Decimal- binary:
Decimal: 13₁₀
Divide repeatedly by 2:
Step Number ÷ 2 Quotient Remainder
1 13 ÷ 2 6 1
Step Number ÷ 2 Quotient Remainder
2 6÷2 3 0
3 3÷2 1 1
Now write remainders bottom to top → 1101
✅ Answer: 13₁₀ = 1101₂
Octal → Decimal Conversion:
Multiply each digit by 8 raised to its position value, starting from the right (position 0).
Octal: 127₈
(1 × 8²) + (2 × 8¹) + (7 × 8⁰)
= 64 + 16 + 7 = 87₁₀
✅ Answer: 127₈ = 87₁₀
Decimal → Octal Conversion:
Divide the number by 8 and note the remainders from bottom to top.
🧮 Example:
Decimal: 83₁₀
Step Number ÷ 8 Quotient Remainder
1 83 ÷ 8 10 3
2 10 ÷ 8 1 2
Now write remainders bottom to top → 123
✅ Answer: 83₁₀ = 123₈
Decimal → Hexadecimal Conversion:
Divide the number by 16 and note remainders bottom to top.
🧮 Example:
Decimal: 125₁₀
Step Number ÷ 16 Quotient Remainder
1 125 ÷ 16 7 13 (D)
2 7 ÷ 16 0 7
Now write remainders bottom to top → 7D
✅ Answer: 125₁₀ = 7D₁₆
Binary → Octal Conversion:
Group 3 bits from right to left, then convert each group to its octal equivalent.
🧮 Example:
Binary: 110101₂
Group: (110) (101)
→ (6) (5)
✅ Answer: 110101₂ = 65₈
Binary → Hexadecimal Conversion:
Group 4 bits from right to left, then convert each group to hex.
🧮 Example:
Binary: 10111100₂
Group: (1011)(1100)
→ (B)(C)
✅ Answer: 10111100₂ = BC₁₆
Binary Arithmetic
Binary Addition:
Binary addition follows simple rules, just like normal addition in decimal — but with base 2.
✅ Binary Addition Rules
Binary + Binary Result Carry
0+0 0 0
0+1 1 0
1+0 1 0
1+1 0 1 (Carry 1)
Example:
Binary Subtraction:
Binary subtraction uses simple rules too.
✅ Binary Subtraction Rules
Binary - Binary Result Borrow
0-0 0 0
1-0 1 0
1-1 0 0
0-1 1 1 (Borrow 1 from next bit)
Complements of binary numbers:
The 1’s complement and the 2’s complement of a binary number are important because they
permit the representation of negative numbers. The method of 2’s complement arith metic is
commonly used in computers to handle negative numbers.
Finding the 1’s Complement:
The 1’s complement of a binary number is found by changing all 1s to 0s and all 0s to 1s, as
illustrated below:
Finding the 2’s Complement:
Add 1 to the 1’s complement to get the 2’s complement. The 2’s complement of a binary
number is found by adding 1 to the LSB of the 1’s complement.
2’s complement = (1’s complement) + 1
Introduction to Boolean algebra:
Boolean Algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with two values only —
👉 True or False (in logic)
👉 1 or 0 (in binary/digital systems)
It is used to analyze and simplify digital circuits in computers and electronics.
Boolean Expressions:
A Boolean Expression is a mathematical expression that uses Boolean variables (like A, B, C)
and Boolean operators (like AND, OR, NOT).
➡️It shows a logical relationship between variables.
➡️The result of a Boolean expression is always either 1 (True) or 0 (False).
Examples:
A · (B + C) , (A + B)′
Boolean Operators:
Boolean operators are symbols used to perform logical operations in Boolean Algebra.
There are three basic and three derived operators.
Operator Symbol Name Description Gates Example Result
· or ∧
Gives 1 only if
AND Logical AND A·B 1 when A=1 and B=1
both are 1
+ or ∨
Gives 1 if any
OR Logical OR A+B 1 when A=1 or B=1
one is 1
Reverses the
NOT ‾ or ¬ Logical NOT A′ 1 if A=0
value
Boolean Functions:
A Boolean function is a mathematical expression that shows the relationship between binary
inputs (0 or 1) and a single binary output (0 or 1).
🧠 Example
Let’s take a Boolean function:
'
F ( A , B , C)= A ⋅ B +C
A B C B′ A·B′ F = A·B′ + C
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 1
Ways to Represent Boolean Functions
1. Boolean Expression (Algebraic Form)
Example: F= A ⋅ B' +C
2. Truth Table
Lists all possible inputs and corresponding outputs.
3. Logic Diagram
Using AND, OR, NOT gates to represent the function physically.
4. Standard Forms:
o Sum of Products (SOP) → OR of AND terms
Example: F= A ⋅ B' + A ' ⋅C
o Product of Sums (POS) → AND of OR terms
Example: F=( A +B)( A ' +C )
Logic Gates:
Boolean Theorems and Properties:
In Boolean Algebra, theorems and properties are laws that describe how logic variables (0s and
1s) behave with each other.
They are similar to arithmetic rules (like a + 0 = a), but they work with binary values (1 and 0).
Basic Boolean Laws (Theorems):
1. Identity Law:
A+0 = A
A·1=A
2. Null Law:
A·0=0
A+1=1
3. Idempotent Law
A+A=A
A·A=A
4. Complement Law
A + A′ = 1
A · A′ = 0
5. Commutative Law
A+B=B+A
A · B = B ·A
6. Associative Law
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(A · B) · C = A · (B · C)
7. Distributive Law
A · (B + C) = (A · B) + (A · C)
A + (B · C) = (A + B) · (A + C)
8. Absorption Law
A + (A · B) = A
A · (A + B) = A
9. Involution Law
(A′)′ = A
10. De Morgan’s Theorems
(A + B)′ = A′ · B′
(A · B)′ = A′ + B′
Representation of Boolean Functions:
A Boolean function can be expressed in two standard forms:
1. Sum of Minterms (SOP Form)
2. Product of Maxterms (POS Form)
Minterms:
A minterm is a product (AND) of all variables in the function, each appearing once, either in true
form or in complemented form.
Producing a minterm from variables:
1. Write down all variables (for example, A, B, C).
2. Substitute each variable based on its binary value:
If variable = 1 → write it as A
If variable = 0 → write it as A′ (NOT A)
3. Multiply (AND) all variables together to form the minterm.
A B Minterm Decimal Index
0 0 A′B′ m₀
0 1 A′B m₁
1 0 AB′ m₂
1 1 AB m₃
Maxterms:
A Maxterm is a sum (OR term) of all variables in a Boolean function,
where each variable appears once, either in true or complemented form.
Each maxterm represents a combination of input variables for which the output (F) = 0.
Produce a Maxterm from Variable Values:
1. Write all the variables (A, B, C, etc.).
2. Check the value (0 or 1) for each variable.
If variable = 0, write it as A (normal form).
If variable = 1, write it as A′ (complemented form).
3. Combine all the terms with the OR (+) operation.
4. The result is the maxterm for that combination.
A B C Maxterm Decimal Index
0 0 0 (A + B + C) M₀
0 0 1 (A + B + C′) M₁
0 1 0 (A + B′ + C) M₂
0 1 1 (A + B′ + C′) M₃
1 0 0 (A′ + B + C) M₄
1 0 1 (A′ + B + C′) M₅
1 1 0 (A′ + B′ + C) M₆
1 1 1 (A′ + B′ + C′) M₇
1. Sum of Minterms (SOP Form):
Each minterm represents a single combination of input variables that makes the output
= 1.
The SOP form is the OR (+) of all those minterms.
Row A B C Minterm Decimal Equivalent
1 0 0 1 ( A'B'C ) 1
2 0 1 0 ( A'BC' ) 2
Row A B C Minterm Decimal Equivalent
3 1 0 1 ( AB'C ) 5
F(A,B,C) = A′B′C+A′BC′+AB′C
F(A, B, C) =Σ(1,2,5)
2. Product of Maxterms (POS Form):
A maxterm is a sum (OR) of all variables in the function, each appearing once, either in true or
complemented form.
Each maxterm represents a combination of inputs that makes the output = 0.
The POS form is the AND (·) of all those maxterms.
Decimal A B C Maxterm
0 0 0 0 (A + B + C)
3 0 1 1 (A + B' + C')
4 1 0 0 (A' + B + C)
6 1 1 0 (A' + B' + C)
7 1 1 1 (A' + B' + C')
F(A,B,C)= (A+B+C)(A+B′+C′)(A′+B+C)(A′+B′+C)(A′+B′+C′)
F (A , B , C)=Π (0 ,3 , 4 , 6 , 7)
Feature Sum of Minterms (SOP) Product of Maxterms (POS)
Expression Type Sum (OR) of Products (ANDs) Product (AND) of Sums (ORs)
When Used For output = 1 For output = 0
Symbol Σ (Sigma) Π (Pi)
Each Term Represents 1s in truth table Represents 0s in truth table
Feature Sum of Minterms (SOP) Product of Maxterms (POS)
Example ( F = Σ(1, 2, 5) ) ( F = Π(0, 3, 4, 6, 7) )
Karnaugh Map (K-Map):
A Karnaugh Map is a diagram made up of squares (called cells) that helps us simplify Boolean
expressions easily.
Each cell represents a minterm (for SOP form) or maxterm (for POS form).
It’s a graphical method to reduce long Boolean expressions into simpler forms without using
algebraic rules repeatedly.
Why Use K-Map?
To minimize logic circuits (fewer gates = cheaper & faster circuits)
To visualize patterns in truth tables easily
To find the simplest Boolean expression
K-Map Size:
Number of Variables Number of Cells
2 4 cells
3 8 cells
4 16 cells