Master Success HAPTER 1 THEORIES OF EVOLUTION Theories of Evolution: Theories to explain diversity of life- modem synthetic theory, factors A) INTRODUCTION OF EVOLUTION Evolution is a fundamental biological concept that refers to the gradual change in the inherited characteristics of populations of living organisms over successive generations, It is driven by mechanisms such as natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow. The central idea behind evolution is that species undergo changes in their genetic makeup over time, leading to the development of new traits and the emergence of diverse forms of life. The term “evolution” comes from the Latin word "evolutio,” which means “unrolling” or "to unfold." In the context of biology, the term was first introduced by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in the carly 19th century. However, Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, Presented in his seminal work "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, became the cornerstone of evolutionary biology. Darwin's theory proposed that species evolve through the differential survival and reproduction of organisms with advantageous traits, leading to the gradual adaptation of populations to their environments. initiating clementary evolutionary changes (micro-evolution) and change of gene frequencies _|Mester Success Neief history tionary Thought of acquired characteristics, suggesting traits acquired Tifetime could be passed on to the next generation. yo on by natural selection, emphasizing the | _Comtributor | Period | \Jean-Baptiste (1744- Proposed the theory Lamar [1s29___jduring 's lifeti ‘Developed the theory of evolutio tural |role of natural selection in shaping the diversity of Wife. _ __ “Viedenea,tently formulated a theory of natural selection, prompting a jo’ Independently for } | public ‘Wich Darwin and reinforeing the concept of natural selection. Discovered the principles of inheritance through experiments with pea plants, providing a foundation for understanding the genetic basis of jevotution. __ _ i ‘Advocated forand defended Darvin’s theory of evolution, earning the Thomas Henry {1825- [nickname "Darwin's Bulldog” for his strong support of evolutionary 1395 ideas. wis 4 Hntroduced the gen plasm theory, emphasizing the distinction beweca somatic and germ cells and laying the groundwork for understanding teredity.. = : | ‘Contributed to the modern synthesis of evolutionary theory by integrating | Mendelian genetics with natural selection, helping bridge the gap Mretween genetics and evolution. “| Made significant contributions to population genetics and evolutionary biology, playing a key role in the development of the modem syathesi ||Worked on mathematical models of population genetics, contributing o | 1889- the understanding of genetic drift and the role of genetic variability 12 ‘sewall Wright _|[1988 _ jlevolution. _} i = = ' [Integrated genetics and natural selection, emphasizing the importance of) \Theod 1900- |/mutations in the evolutionary process and contributing to the | ‘Dobzhansky {1975 __|}consolidation of the modem synthesis. _ Huxley Origin of life The two major and contradictory ideas accounting for the origin of life on Earth are: a) Special creation b) Theory of evolution. a) Concept of Special Creation : + The supporters of special creation are called creationists. + They have believed that, during a limited period, God created the universe and man as supernatural event at a particular time in the past. + This theory explains that every species was individually created by ALLAH ia i formn in which it exists today and is not capable of undergoing any chanss- * ey reject il inspirati aes a tames Ht sy stechaly om Bare ee zMaster Success MEAs * Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) was supporter of divine creation b) Concept of Evolution : * The supporters of evolution are called evolutionists * They have believed that the universe and man did not always exist in their present form; neither are they the product of a sudden creative act, but the result of innumerable changes from the only lower to the higher, each step in advance being an evolution from a pre-existing condition. * Modem biologists believe that the Earth is over five billion years old. + Then about 3.5 billion years ago, life began. : * According to evolutionist, life on Earth had emerged as a unicellular prokaryote then with the passage of time variation has been accunaulated, new species came into existence. The current biodiversity including man is the descendent of the earliest unicellular prokaryote that might had originated spontancously. Origin of Life According to Concept of Evolution © Evolutionists believe that first living being on carth belong to a group of prokaryotes Archacobacteria, now known as Archaea. * Evolutionists hypothesized that approximately more than 3.5 billion years ago the first living being originated on earth in hot water springs (called hydrothermal vents) through spontaneous reactions. This hypothesis is called vent hypothesis. Primitive atmosphere: © The evolutionists also concluded that the early atmosphere of earth was reduced (without oxygen), hot and ozone less, therefore, frecjuent exposure of ultra violet radiation was there. * The early prokaryotes were absorptive heterotrophs and then chemosynthetic autotrophs were come into existence. © The primitive carth environment had very little nutrients: that would have limited early life, If life were to continue, another source of nutrients was needed so the photosynthetic habit was probably involved in organisms. * The first photosynthetic organisms probably used hydrogen Sulphide as a source of hydrogen for reducing carbon dioxide to sugar. © Later, water served this same purpose and oxygen liberated by photosynthetic reaction began to accumulate in the atmosphere. Change in atmosphere: «Earth and its atmosphere slowly began to change. © Ozone in the upper atmosphere began-to filter ultraviole radiation from the sun, the reducing atmosphere slowly became oxidizing atmosphere, and at least some organisms began to utilize oxygen. «About 420 million years ago, enouyh protective ozone had. built up to make life on land possible. Ironically, the change from a reducing atmosphere to an oxidizing atmosphere also meant that life could no longer: arise abiotically. Evolution from prokaryotes to eukaryotes ‘As per fossil record the eukaryotes appeared 1.9 to 2.1 billfion years ago. They arose from prokaryotes. 1) Theory about Evolution of Eukaryotes ——_—_—_—_—_—_—— rr 3Mae —— eee 4 ories that have deca put forward about the mechanism of evolution of or Seocees 2) Membrane invagin: semative hypotheses for the origin of eukaryotic cells have been suggested, at the prokaryotic cell membrane folded inward invaginated to terial Ssranous entities within a single cell were formed. then have evolved into the eukaryotic nucleus, mitochondrion and d) Endosymbiosis theory Sosymbiosis theory was proposed by Lynn Margulis. % step in the evolution of eukaryotic cell is thought to have occurred when a large smocboid prokaryote ingested a small aerobic bacterium and stabilized its Fey as an endosymibiont mther than digesting it. This aerobic bacterium developed into # mitochondrion, the site of aerobic respiration in cukaryotic cells. Possession of such mitochondrion like endosymbiont conferred the advantage of aerobic respiration on its dost Flagella may have derives EAdo8ymbitle Sequence: cytoplasm Tough the ingestion of Ancestral Prokaryote 7” \~ONA similar to Invagination esmasmantemtrane ent spirochetes Chloroplasts are thought to Endoplasmic reticulum \ nucieus de derived from symbiotic Nuclear er photosynthetic bacteria, In Sot Serial 3 1S co ititiem ——both_—_Seylal Endlosymbiosis: Ly Photosynthetic : ~\ tochondria and arokarya! g/Prokaryote joroplasts are similar in : 7 a size to bacteria, have their aitochonan &, : own DNA, have ribosomes Ancestral ay “PSMitoehonarion similar to those of bacteria, cheep / — and produce a limited eS portion of their own enzymes and proteins, To explain these observations it is suggested that the endosymbionts must have transferred, over time, some of their genes to the host nucleus and thus lost their independence for the sake of symbiotic relationship. . Regardless of the exact mechanism involved, the emergence of the eukaryotic cell led to a dramatic increase in the complexity and diversity of living organisms on Earth, At first, organisms were capable of existing only as independent single cells. Later, however, some evelved into multicellular organisms in which various cells became specialized for many different functions, These multicellular forms became adspted to life in a great variety of environment. Ancestral photosynthetic eukaryoteMaster Success B) THEORIES OF EVOLUTION TO EXPLAIN DIVERSITY OF LIFE 1) LAMARCKISM J.B. de La Marck, (1744-1829), is often known simply as Lamarck He was a French naturalist, soldier and biologist. Lamarck was an early proponent of the idea that evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with the natural laws. In 1809, he published a book Philosophie Zoologique (Zoological Philosophy) Points of Lamarckism The ideas about evolution presented by Lamarck are known as Lamarckism. * He pictured evolution as a “ladder of life” from simplest to the most complex animals * Man was the top rung of this ladder. Lamarck did little in the way of explaining the origin of this ladder as a whole. * However, he did offer an explanation for the origin of adaptations to the environment. + Lamarck's contribution to science is important, because he was the first to propose that organisms undergo change over time as a result of some natural phenomena. There are four points of Lamarck theory but last two are more important. i) Change in environment ii) New needs according to changed environment }) The use and disuse of organs. iv) Inheritance of acquired characteristics. 1) Use and disuse of organs Lamarck believed that some organs which are more frequently used by an organism are developed and become strong while some organs which are not properly used by an organism are deteriorated, diminished and ultimately disappeared in successive generations. ‘Among the examples Lamarck cited were i) The blacksmith developing a bigger bicep in the arm that Works the hammer; ii) Giraffe stretching its neck to increase length to cat leaves of the tree and iii) The snakes which are living in small holes and crevices have lost their legs. 2) Inheritance of acquired characteristics Lamarck believed that characteristics which individual acquired during its lifetime were passed on to the offspring (heritable) of that individual. Such characteristics are called acquired characters which are often emerged by the use or disuse of organs. According to Lamarck through several generations these acquired characters are continuously inherited and accumulated. Gradually a group of organisms would be produced which would be better able to “cope” with the environment due to inherited acquired characters. Evolution, in other words, would occur.Master Success Internal urge Environmental Changes [ New Needs l | 1 Disuse of Organs, Structures Disappear Use of Organs ‘Structures Develop Better Lamarck's theory of evolution has been largely discredited and replaced by the more widely accepted theory of natural selection, some examples were put forth by Lamarck to support his ideas. It's important to note that these examples are now considered inadequate and do not provide conclusive evidence for Lamarckism. Moder evolutionary biology, especially the understanding of genetics and inheritance, has offered alternative explanations for many of these phenomena. Nonetheless, here are a few examples that Lamarck used to illustrate his theory: : 1. Evolution of giraffe neck Lamarck's Proposal: Giraffe neck is an example often used to illustrate Lamarck's hypothesis involves the evolution of the giraffe's long neck from short necked ancestors. Each giraffe, during its lifetime, would try to reach the leaves at the top of trees. Each animal would constantly stretch its neck in order to attain this goal. As these individuals reproduced, the results of neck stretching (an acquired characteristic) would be passed on to future generation. Each offspring would be born with a slightly longer neck than those of its parents. Thus long necked giraffes gradually evolved.Master Success Modern explanation: The modern understanding, based on natural selection, is, that giraffes with longer necks had a selective advantage in reaching higher branches for food. Over time, individuals with longer necks were more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their advantageous trait through genetic inheritance. 2. Development of Strong Muscles: Lamarck’s Proposal: Lamarck used the example of a blacksmith who develops strong arm muscles through the constant use of his arms. According to Lamarckisin, these acquired strong muscles would be passed on to the blacksmith's offspring. Modern explanation: The development of strong muscles in an individual's lifetime does not alter their genetic code, and these acquired traits are not passed on to offspring. Modem genetics explains that heritable traits are determined by genetic information, not acquired characteristics during an individual's lifetime. 3. Evolution of Amphibians from Fish: Lamarck's Proposal: Lamarck suggested that fish, facing challenges in aquatic cnvironments, adapted to land environments by developing traits such as limbs and lungs. ‘These acquired traits were then passed on to the next generation, leading to the evolution of amphibians, 7 Modern explanation ; ‘The transition from fish to amphibians is now explained by the Process of natural selection acting on random genetic mutations that provided advantages for survival in terrestrial environments. It is not the result of acquired characteristics during 40 organism's lifetime. Reanbacks of Lamarckism rr 7tiste Lamarck in the early 19th is a summarized list of key posed by Jean-Bap The Lamarckian theory of evolution, pr century, faced several criticisms and drawbacks, Here limitations Lack of Mechanism for Inheritance: hanism for the inheritance of acquired traits Lamarck could not provide a convineing mec 4. an organism's lifetime would be passed on He proposed that characteristics acquired durin, ns I to the next generation, but he did not explain how this transmission occurred. Contradictions with Genetics: Lamarck’s theory was developed before the discovery of genetics and DNA. T understanding of genetics revealed that traits acquired during an individual's lifetime are not passed on to offspring, contradicting a central tenet of Lamarckism. NA. The subsequent Absence of Evidence in the Fossil Record: The fossil record did not consistently support Lamarck’s predictions. Instances of progressive evolution due to the use or disuse of organs were not consistently observed, and the fossil record showed: examples of regressive evolution and extinction that Lamarckism struggled to explain. Inconsistencies with Natural Observations: Observations in nature did not consistently align with Lamarck’s predictions. Instances where animals lost certain traits due to disuse were not supported by consistent evidence. Failure to Explain Adaptations: Lamarckism faced challenges in explaining complex adaptations observed in nature. Critics argued that the theory did not adequately address how intricate traits, such as those found in organisms like the eye or wing, could arise through gradual, acquired changes. No Mechanism for Variability: Lamarckism did not provide a satisfactory explanation for the origin of variations within 4 population, a crucial aspect of evolutionary change. The theory lacked a mechanism for introducing new heritable traits. Overemphasis on Environmental Influenc Lamarckisin placed an exaggerated emphasis on the role of the environment in drwing evolutionary change, downplaying the importance of other factors such as genetic variation and natural selection. rR 8re bs SEvolution. > Rejection by Scientific Community: Lamarck's contemporaries, including prominent scientists like Georges Cuvier, rejected his ideas So can be summarized as «There is no experimental proof of Lamarckism. * The idea of Use and disuse Proposed by Lamarck has no genetic bases and therefore cannot be inherited to the next generation. © Itis not necessary that the acquired characters transmit into the next generation. * Organs are not modified by the wish or requirements ofan organism. ,/ .o-Lamarckism GY Neo-Lamarckism refers to a set of ideas and theories that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, attempting to revive or modify aspects of Lamarckian evolution in response to challenges faced by Darwinian natural selection. While neo-Lamarckists shared some conceptual similarities with Lamarck, they often incorporated new scientific insights, Particularly in the fields of genetics and biology. Neo-Lamarckism can be seen as an attempt to reconcile Lamarckian ideas with emerging scientific kuowledge.: Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics: Like Lamarckism, neo-Lamarckism generally retained the idea that traits acquired during an organism's lifetime could be passed on to its offspring: However, neo-Lamarckists often acknowledged the importance of genetic factors and mechanisms that were not understood in Lamarck's time. Use and Disuse of Organs: Neo-Lamarckists continued to emphasize the role of the environment and an organism's activities in influencing evolutionary change. They proposed that the use or disuse of organs could Iead to modifications in those organs, impacting subsequent generations, Directed Evolution: Some neo-Lamarckists introduced the concept of a directed or purposeful evolution, Suggesting that organisms had an inherent drive toward improvement or complexity. This idea stood in contrast to the more stochastic and random nature of genetic variation proposed by Darwinian evolution. Orthogenesis:pt of onthogenesis, which posite a at evolutionary changes Master Swecrts coned This idea implies th a reault of external selective pressures ved direction or goal redetermuned sequence rather th Genetics and Mutation: ced, some neo: Lamarckists integrated the idea of soft ’ ‘ould influence the hereditary material in a tore not align with the Mendelian principles of As genet knowledge advan inheritance, suggesting that acquired flexible manner This concept, however, genetion Vugenic Implications: Some proponents of neo-Lamarckism applied their ideas to human evolution and eugenics They euppested that efforts to improve the human population could be achieved through conscious efforts to influence acquired characteristics in individuals and subsequent penerations’ I's important to note that while neo-Lamarckism attempted to incorporate new knowledge, 11 faced challenges and criticisms from the growing field of Mendelian genetics and the robust evidence supporting Darwinian natural selection, With the integration of Mendelian genetics into the broader framework of the modern synthesis in the mid-20th century, neo- Lamarckisn lost prominence in mainstream evolutionary biology. The modern synthesis, which combined Darwiman natural selection with Mendelian genctics, became the prevailing paradigm for understanding the mechanisms of evolution. ‘Retains inheritance idea but adds genetic | concepts that only those modifications | ‘Traits acquired in a lifetime ase passed on. | Viacks clear mechanism [Attempts to include genetics but lacks | ae | Jenvironment’s role in [Continues to emphasize caviruninent volution. ted understanding Ines to integrate genetics but faces ection of KyolutionMaster Success PURI [Tanarekism —[""Neostamarcis |Largely rejected by the _ scientific communis Declined in acceptance, replaced by modem synthes . | 2) DARWINISM * Charles Darwin was bom in England in a wealthy family, * His father was a prominent physician, * He joined Cambridge University to study theology, even so attended many lectures in biology and geology. * He was only 22 in 1831 when he accepted the position of naturalist abroad on the HMS Beagle, a British Naval ship about to sail around the world. * His major mission was to expand the navy's knowledge of natural Tesources ¢.g., water atid food in foreign lands. Ns British isles, Ly p> Darwin's Observations during his Voyage © The Beagle left Plymouth, England and cruised slowly along the cast and west coasts of | South America, * He collected and catalogued thousands of plant and animal specimens and kept notes of his observations. © The Beagle spent almost two months at the Galapagos Islands, The islands are 965 kilometres west of Ecuador. Here Darwin made observations that were most important in the development of his ideas about evolution. Observations about South American mainland 11EAA sent region of the continent had a definite Sou, Master Success nid fauna of diffe ‘ ‘ {istinet from the life form oF iurop' ; Hae ile that Darwin found, though clearly different frm their resemblance to the living plants He noticed that flora ™ ‘American stamp, very ¢ © Further the South Amencan nade species, were distinetly South American 1? and animals of the continent — Observations about Galapagos pared the animals and plants of the Galapagos with those of the Sout + Me was particularly impressed by their similariti ‘of the Galapagos should resemble those from Se ald vther islands in different parts of the world. ; ‘though there were similarities between Gal Iso distinct differences. Islands, He com h American mainland. ‘es and wondered why the organisms oath America more than those from Japiagos and South American * Moreover, species, there were al (by Insect-ater - on birds were group of finches. Closely related species had beuks of very different sizes and shapes, adapted for feeding on completely different kinds of food. Darvin eollected 13 types of finches on the Galapagos which are although quite similar but seemed to be different species. Some were unique to individual islands, while other species were distributed on two or more islands that were close together. © Darwin pondered these observations and tried to develop a satisfactory explanation for the distribution of species among the islands. Darwin perceived the origin of new species and adapt processes. «Anew species would aris adaptations to different environment, separated fr barriers. © Over many generations, the two populations could become dissimilar enough to be designated as separate species. Development of the Theory of Evolution «Darwin began formulating his theory of went on working quietly on it for many years. . «He wanted to amass a wealth of evidence before publicly presenting his idea. © In 1842, Darwin wrote for himself, a brief 35-page sketch of his theory. «Two years later he enlarged this into an essay of 230 pages, which he showed to his friends, but did not published it. Se 12 tations as closely related ‘se from an ancestral form by the gradual accumulation of om original habitat by geographical natural selection in the late 1830s but heOORT Master Success © For the neat fifleen years, Darwin continued fo collect facts to support hie idew © The bases for the development of Darwin's theory of evolution were not only hie observations about unique distribution of organisms in different of the world bot de was also inspired by the work of many other seientists of that tine * Therefore, the ideas of these scientists also contributed in the early development of Darwinism. Contribution of Charles Lyell and James Hutton © Inthe carly 1830's, Charles Lyell published a book Principle of geology * Danwvin took this book on the voyage. This book presented arguments to support theory of geological change proposed by nes Hutton called theory of uniformitarianism. * Lyell pointed out that the mountains, valleys, deserts, rivers, I could have come through the action of existing forces and natural conditions + Ativer slowly carves a valley, Mountains are worn down to bills and finally pla The slow pace of these geological processes, which still occurs toda Earth had to be much older than generally believed ~ a possibility that fired Darwin's es and coastlines imagination. © Ifthe earth of today is old and so changed, what was it like thousands of years Did it have the kinds of li we now have? What other life may have existed? Contribution of Thomas R. Malthus . ¢ Darwin returned to England in 1836. Soon afterwards, he read a work written by the English political economist Thomas R. Malthus (1766-1834), An Essay on the Principle of Population. Malthus noted that human populations have the capacity to increase exponentially and food supply has the capacity to increase arithmetically. Such a relation could result only in a struggle for food and hence for existence itself. Contribution of Alfred Russell Wallace In 1858 Darwin received a letter from a fellow naturalist, Alfred R. Wallace (1523 1913), who was travelling at that time in Malays. Wallace enclosed an essay that he hac written, and he asked Darwin to read it and then forward it to Lyell, In the essay, Darwin found the theory of the origin of species by means of natural selection. Darwin almost yielded to Wallace the honour of being the first man to announce the theory. However, his friends (Charles Lyell and Joseph Dalton Hooker) arranged to present the two papers under joint authorship using a single title, On the Tendency of Species 1 Form Varieties, and on the Perpetuation of Selection, The papers were presented to the Linnacan Society in London on Julyl, 1858. Why the theory was attributed to Darwin? Alfred Russell Wallace He was the man who motivated Darwin to publish his book The Origin of Species by . Means of Natural Selection. «It appeared in November of 1859, Twelve years later, Darwin's Descent of Man was published. This was about the evolution of man. © Darwin was much, more willing to explore the implications of natural selection, particularly in relation to humans, than Wallace was, Neen eee eee ee nn cc ee eTEEEEEEEIEEREEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEI 30