Krishna's

TEXT BOOK on

Geometry and Vector

Analysis
(For B.A. and [Link]. I st Semester students of Kumaun University)

Kumaun University Semester Syllabus w.e.f. 2016-17

By

A.R. Vasishtha A.K. Vasishtha

Retired Head, Dept. of Mathematics [Link]., Ph.D.
Meerut College, Meerut C.C.S. University, Meerut

Kumaun

KRISHNA Prakashan Media (P) Ltd.

KRISHNA HOUSE, 11, Shivaji Road, Meerut-250001 (U.P.), India
 Jai Shri Radhey Shyam

Dedicated
to

Lord

Krishna
Authors & Publishers
 P reface
This book on Geometry and Vector Analysis has been specially written according
to the latest Syllabus to meet the requirements of B.A. and [Link]. Semester-I Students
of all colleges affiliated to Kumaun University.

The subject matter has been discussed in such a simple way that the students will find
no difficulty to understand it. The proofs of various theorems and examples have been
given with minute details. Each chapter of this book contains complete theory and a fairly
large number of solved examples. Sufficient problems have also been selected from
various university examination papers. At the end of each chapter an exercise containing
objective questions has been given.

We have tried our best to keep the book free from misprints. The authors shall be
grateful to the readers who point out errors and omissions which, inspite of all care, might
have been there.

The authors, in general, hope that the present book will be warmly received by the
students and teachers. We shall indeed be very thankful to our colleagues for their
recommending this book to their students.

The authors wish to express their thanks to Mr. S.K. Rastogi, M.D., Mr. Sugam
Rastogi, Executive Director, Mrs. Kanupriya Rastogi, Director and entire team of
KRISHNA Prakashan Media (P) Ltd., Meerut for bringing out this book in the present
nice form.

The authors will feel amply rewarded if the book serves the purpose for which it is
meant. Suggestions for the improvement of the book are always welcome.

— Authors
 Syllabus
Geometry and Vector
Analysis
B.A./[Link]. I Semester w.e.f. 2016-17
Kumaun University, Nainital
First Semester – Third Paper
B.A./[Link]. Paper-I M.M.-50

PAPER III: GEOMETRY AND VECTOR ANALYSIS

Polar Equation of conics: Polar coordinate system, Distance between two points, Polar
equation of a Straight line, Polar equation of a circle, Polar equation of a conic, Chords,
Tangent and Normal to a conic, Chord of contact, Polar of a point.

Vector Algebra and its Applications to geometry (Plane and Straight Line):

Triple product, Reciprocal vectors, Product of four vectors. General equation of a Plane,
Normal and Intercept forms, Two sides of a plane, Length of perpendicular from a point to
a plane, Angle between two planes, System of planes.

Direction Cosines and Direction ratios of a line, Projection on a straight line, Equation of a
line, Symmetrical and unsymmetrical forms, Angle between a line and a plane, Coplanar
lines, Lines of shortest distance, Length of perpendicular from a point to a line, Intersection
of three planes, Transformation of coordinates.

Vector Differentiation: Ordinary differentiation of vectors, Applications to mechanics,

Velocity and Acceleration, Differential operator-Del, Gradient, Divergence and Curl,
Vector Integration: Line, Surface and volume integrals, Simple applications of Gauss
divergence theorem,Green ’s theorem and Stokes theorem (without proof).
 B rief C ontents
Dedication.........................................................................(v)
Preface............................................................................(vi)
Syllabus (Kumaun University)............................................(vii)
Brief Contents ................................................................(viii)

Geometry............................................................G-01—G-168
1. Polar Equation of a Conic.........................................................................................G-03—G-40
2. Systems of Co-ordinates...........................................................................................G-41—G-54
3. Direction Cosines and Projections.........................................................................G-55—G-78
4. The Plane......................................................................................................................G-79—G-110
5. The Straight Line........................................................................................................G-111—G-168

Vector Analysis.....................................................V-01—V-160
1. Multiple Products.......................................................................................................V-03—V-28
2. Differentiation of Vectors........................................................................................V-29—V-52
3. Gradient, Divergence and Curl................................................................................V-53—V-96
4. Integration of Vectors..............................................................................................V-97—V-104
5. Line Integrals............................................................................................................V-105—V-120
6. Green's, Gauss's and Stoke's Theorems.............................................................V-121—V-160
 Krishna's

GEOMETRY
C hapters

1. Polar Equation of a Conic

1.

1. Systems of Co-ordinates
2.

1. Direction Cosines and Projections

3.

1. The Plane
4.

1. The Straight Line

5.
 G-3

1
P olar E quation of a C onic

1 Conic Section
efinition: A conic section, or conic is the locus of a point which moves so that its
D distance from a fixed point is in a constant ratio to its perpendicular distance from a
fixed straight line. The fixed point is called the focus, the fixed straight line is
called the directrix and the constant ratio is called the eccentricity of the conic.

2 Polar Coordinates
(Agra 2006)
In this chapter we shall discuss
another system of coordinates,
known as polar system. In polar
system, the position of a point in a
plane is determined by its distance ‘r’
from a fixed point O, called the pole
or origin, and the angle ‘θ’ that the
line joining the pole to the point
 G-4

makes with a fixed line OX through the pole, called the initial line. The angle θ is
called the vectorial angle and is taken to be positive if measured in anti-clockwise
direction, otherwise negative. The distance r is called the radius vector and is
taken to be positive if measured along the line bounding the vectorial angle, and
negative if measured in the opposite direction.
In the figure, O is the pole and OX the initial line.
Let OP = r and ∠ XOP = θ. Then the polar coordinates of P are (r, θ). If OQ = OP,
then Q is the point (− r, θ).
Also the points (r, θ), (r, θ ± 2 π), (− r, θ + π) etc. are all coincident. Thus in the polar
system the coordinates of a point are not unique but can be expressed in an infinite
number of ways.

3 Relation between Cartesian and Polar Coordinates

Take the pole O as origin, the initial line as the positive direction of x-axis, and the
π
line through O making angle with OX in the anti-clockwise direction as the
2
positive direction of y-axis. Suppose (r, θ) are the polar and ( x, y) are the cartesian
coordinates of any point P. Draw PM perpendicular to OX. Then OM = x and
MP = y.
From ∆ OPM, we have
x = r cos θ, …(1)
y = r sin θ. …(2)
Squaring and adding (1) and (2), we get
x2 + y2 = r 2
and dividing (2) by (1), we get
y y
tan θ = or θ = tan − 1 ⋅
x x

4 Distance between Two Points

Referred to some origin O. Let P (r1 , θ1 ) and Q (r2 , θ2 ) be two given points. Here
OP = r1 , OQ = r 2 and ∠ POQ = θ2 − θ1 . Q (r2 , θ2)
From ∆ OPQ, we get
cos (θ2 − θ1 ) = cos POQ P (r1 , θ1 )
r2 θ2 – θ 1
OP 2 + OQ2 − PQ2 r1
=
2OP . OQ θ1
θ2
O
r12 + r2 2 − PQ2 X
=
2r1 r2
 G-5

2 2
or 2r1 r2 cos (θ2 − θ1 ) = r1 + r2 − PQ2
2 2
or PQ2 = r1 + r2 − 2r1 r2 cos (θ2 − θ1 )
2 2
or PQ = √ {r1 + r2 − 2r1 r2 cos (θ2 − θ1 }.

5 Polar Equation of a Straight Line

Let PQ be a straight line whose equation is required, intersect the initial line OX at
A. Draw OM perpendicular upon the given line PQ. Let OM = p and ∠ XOM = α.
If r, θ be the co-ordinates of the point P, then
Q
OP = r, ∠ XOP = θ and ∠ POM = α − θ. M
From the right angled triangle OMP, we have
P(r, θ)
OM = OP cos POM p
r
or p = r cos (α − θ) α
θ
or r cos (θ − α) = p, O
A X
which is the required equation of the straight line.

Remark 1: The polar equation of a straight line passing through the pole and
inclined at an angle α to the initial line is
θ = α.
The equation of straight line passing through origin and making an angle α with the
x-axis is
y = x tan α .
Changing to polar co-ordinates, we have
r sin θ = (r cos θ) tan α
or tan θ = tan α
or θ = α.

Remark 2: In cartesian form the general equation is

ax + by + c = 0.
Changing to polar coordinates, we have
ar cos θ + br sin θ + c = 0
−c
or = a cos θ + b sin θ
r
1
or = A cos θ + B sin θ,
r
which is equation of straight line in polar co-ordinates.
 G-6

6 Polar Equation of a Straight Line Perpendicular

to the given Line
The polar equation of the straight line
ax + by + c = 0 is
1
= A cos θ + B sin θ .
r
The cartesian equation of a line perpendicular to this line is
bx − ay + λ = 0.
Changing to polar co-ordinates, we have
r (b cos θ − a sin θ) = − λ
−λ
or b cos θ − a sin θ =
r
l π π
or = a cos  + θ + b sin  + θ ,
r 2  2 
which is the required equation of the perpendicular straight line.
Thus in polar co-ordinates, the equation of a line perpendicular to the given line is
π
obtain by replacing θ by + θ in the given equation and changing the coefficient of
2
1
to a new constant.
r

7 Polar Equation of a Straight Line through Two Points

Let M (r1 , θ1 ) and N (r2 , θ2 ) be two given points and N(r2 , θ2 )
P (r, θ) be any point on the line joining M and N.
P(r, θ)
We have r2
r M(r1, θ1)
area of ∆ MON = area of ∆ MOP θ2 θ r1
+ area of ∆ PON. θ1
1 O
∴ r1 r2 sin ∠ MON X
2
1 1
= rr1 sin ∠ MOP + rr2 sin ∠ PON
2 2
or r1 r2 sin(θ2 − θ1 ) = rr1 sin(θ − θ1 ) + rr2 sin(θ2 − θ)

sin(θ2 − θ1 ) sin(θ − θ1 ) sin(θ2 − θ)

or = + ,
r r2 r1

which is the required equation.

 G-7

8 Polar Equation of a Circle

Let P (r, θ) be any point on the circle with centre C ( R, α) and radius a.
We have
OC = R, ∠ XOC = α )
,θ
P(r
OP = r, ∠ COP = θ − α . a
From ∆ COP, we have α)
R,
C(
r
r 2 + R2 − a2 R
cos (θ − α) =
2rR θ
α
or r 2 − 2 r R cos (θ − α) + R2 = a2 , O
X
which is the required general equation of the circle.

9 Particular Cases of the General Equation of the Circle

1. Centre C of the circle lies on the initial line:
In this case we have α = 0 and so the equation of the circle is
r 2 − 2 Rr cos θ + R2 = a2 .

2. Pole O lies on the circle:

In this case OC = R = a and so the equation of the circle is
r 2 − 2ar cos (θ − α) + a2 = a2
or r = 2a cos (θ − α).

3. Pole lies on the circumference and centre on the initial line:

Let P (r, θ) be any point on the circle and OCA be a diameter.
P(r, θ)
We have
∠ AOP = θ, r
∠ APO = 90 ° θ
O
and OA = 2a. a a A
C X
From ∆ AOP, we have
r = 2a cos θ,
which is the required equation of the circle.

4. Pole is the centre of the circle:

In this case for any point P (r, θ) on the circumference, we have
r = a,
which is the required equation of the circle of radius a.
 G-8

5. Initial line is the tangent at the pole:

Let P (r, θ) and B be any points on the circumference such that OCB is the diameter,
where C is the centre of the circle with radius a. We have
OB = 2a,
B
∠ OPB = 90 °
and ∠ XOP = θ = ∠ OBP. a P(r, θ)
From ∆ OPB, we have C
r
r = 2a sin θ , a

which is the required equation of the circle. θ

O X

10 The Polar Equation of a Conic

To find the polar equation of a conic with its latus rectum of length 2l, eccentricity e and the
focus being the pole. (Kumaun 2001, 07; Gorakhpur 05;
Rohilkhand 06; Kanpur 11)
Let S be the focus which is taken as the pole. Let ZM be the directrix of the conic.
Draw SZ perpendicular to the directrix, and take SZ as the initial line SX.
Consider a point P on the conic and let its polar coordinates be (r, θ) so that
SP = r, ∠ XSP = θ.
Let LSL′ be the latus rectum of length 2l so that
the semi-latus rectum SL = l.
Since the point P is on the conic, therefore by the
definition of a conic, we have
SP = e . PM = e . NZ = e (SZ − SN ).
∴ r = e . SZ − e . SN
= e . SZ − e . SP cos θ
[∵ SN = SP cos θ]
= e . SZ − er cos θ. …(1)
But the point L is also on the conic. Therefore
l = SL = e . LE = e . SZ .
Putting e . SZ = l in (1), we have
r = l − er cos θ
or r (1 + e cos θ) = l
l
or = 1 + e cos θ. …(2)
r
The equation (2) is the required polar equation of a conic referred to the focus as
the pole and the axis of the conic as the initial line.
Remark: While deriving the equation (2) the positive direction of the initial line
 G-9

has been taken as the direction directed from the focus towards the directrix.
However, as shown in the adjoining figure, if we take the positive direction of the
initial line opposite to the direction directed from the focus towards the directrix,
the equation of the conic will come out to be
l
= 1 − e cos θ. …(3)
r
We clearly see that if we rotate the initial line
through an angle π in the equation (2) i. e., if
we replace θ by π + θ in the equation (2), we
get the equation (3). Hence any result for the
conic (3) can be obtained from the
corresponding result for the conic (2) by
increasing each vectorial angle by π, i. e., by
writing θ + π for θ, α + π for α, β + π for β etc.,
where α, β etc. are vectorial angles.
Corollary 1: If the conic is a parabola, then e = 1.
The equation (2) becomes
1
l / r = 1 + cos θ = 2 cos 2 θ
2
1
or r = (l / 2) sec2 θ …(4)
2
and the equation (3) becomes
1
r = (l / 2) cosec2 θ. …(5)
2
Corollary 2: From the equation (2), we have
r = l / (1 + e cos θ).
Therefore the coordinates of a point P (r, θ) on the conic (2) may be written as
 l 
 , θ  ⋅ This is called the point ‘θ’.
 1 + e cos θ 

11 The Equation to the Directrix of the Conic

(Avadh 2009; Meerut 12)
To find the equation to the directrix of the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ.
Let S be the focus. Let P be any point on the directrix ZM. Let the polar coordinates
of P be (r, θ), so that
∠ ZSP = θ, SP = r.

SZ
We have = cos θ
SP
 G-10

or SZ = r cos θ. …(1)
Also, SL = e . LE
= e . SZ
= er cos θ. [Using (1)]
∴ l = er cos θ
l
or = e cos θ,
r
which is the required equation of the directrix.

12 The Polar Equation of a Conic with its Focus as the Pole

and its Axis Inclined at an Angle α to the Initial Line
(Rohilkhand 2005; Kumaun 08, 10, 15)
To find the polar equation of a conic with its focus as the pole and its axis inclined at an
angle α to the initial line.
Let SZ, the axis of the conic, be inclined to
the initial line at an angle α. Consider a
point P with coordinates (r, θ) on the conic.
We have
r = SP = e . PM
[By the definition of a conic]
= e . NZ = e (SZ − SN )
= e ( LE − SN )
LS
= e  − SP cos (θ − α)
 e 
l
= e  − r cos (θ − α) = l − e r cos (θ − α)
e 
or l = r + e r cos (θ − α)
or l / r = 1 + e cos (θ − α), is the required equation.
Corollary: The equation of the directrix in this case is given by
l / r = e cos (θ − α), as in article 11.

Example 1: Show that the equations l / r = 1 + e cos θ and l / r = − 1 + e cos θ

represent the same conic. (Agra 2006, 10; Bundelkhand 04, 13; Kanpur 09, 11;
Meerut 07B, 10, 12B; Kashi 13, 14; Purvanchal 11;
Rohilkhand 05, 06, 09, 10; Kumaun 10, 14)
Solution: The given equations are
 G-11

l / r = 1 + e cos θ, …(1)
and l / r = − 1 + e cos θ. …(2)
First we shall show that every point on the curve (1) also lies on the curve (2). Let
P (r1 , θ1 ) be any point on the curve (1) so that
l / r1 = 1 + e cos θ1 . …(3)
Now the coordinates of the point P can also be expressed as (− r1 , θ1 + π) instead of
(r1 , θ1 ). These coordinates will satisfy the equation (2) if
l / (− r1 ) = − 1 + e cos (θ1 + π)
i. e., if − l / r1 = − 1 − e cos θ1 i. e., if l / r1 = 1 + e cos θ1 which is true by virtue of (3).
Thus every point P on the curve (1) also lies on the curve (2). Similarly we can show
that every point on the curve (2) is also a point on the curve (1). Hence the
equations (1) and (2) represent the same conic.

Example 2: In a conic prove the following :—

(i) The semi-latus rectum is the harmonic mean between the segments of a focal chord.
(Kashi 2013; Rohilkhand 11, 12; Purvanchal 13; Bundelkhand 13)
(ii) The sum of the reciprocals of the segments of any focal chord is constant
1 1 2
i.e., + = (constant).
SP SP ′ l
(iii) The sum of the reciprocals of two perpendicular focal chords is constant
1 1
i.e., + = constant.
PP ′ QQ ′
(Meerut 2004B; Bundelkhand 06; Kanpur 06, 08, 10; Purvanchal 13)

Solution: (i) Let the equation of the conic

be
l / r = 1 + e cos θ. …(1)
Let PSP ′ be a focal chord. If the vectorial
angle of P is α, the vectorial angle of P ′ is
π + α. Thus the coordinates of P and P ′ are
respectively (SP, α) and (SP ′ , α + π).
l
∴ = 1 + e cos α, …(2)
SP
l
and = 1 + e cos (α + π)
SP ′
= 1 − e cos α. …(3)
Adding (2) and (3), we have
l l
+ =2
SP SP ′
 G-12

1  1 1  1
or  SP + SP ′  = l ⋅ …(4)
2  
∴ 1/ l is the arithmetic mean of 1 / SP and 1 / SP ′ and so l is the harmonic mean of
SP and SP ′ .
(ii) The equation (4) implies that the sum of the reciprocals of the segments of any
focal chord is 2 / l which is a constant.
(iii) Now suppose QQ ′ is a focal chord at right angles to PP ′ i. e., PP ′ and QQ ′ are
two perpendicular focal chords. Hence if the vectorial angle of P is α, then the
1
vectorial angle of Q is π + α. Also the vectorial angle of P ′ is π + α.
2
From (2) and (3), we have
l l 2l
PP ′ = SP + SP ′ = + =
1 + e cos α 1 − e cos α 1 − e cos 2 α
2

1 1 − e2 cos 2 α
or = ⋅ …(5)
PP ′ 2l
Now if the vectorial angle of the extremity P of the focal chord PSP ′ is α, then the
1
vectorial angle of the extremity Q of the focal chord QSQ ′ is π + α. So replacing
2
1
PP ′ by QQ ′ and α by π + α in the relation (5), we have
2
1
1 − e2 cos 2  π + α
1 2  1 − e2 sin2 α
= = …(6)
QQ ′ 2l 2l
Adding (5) and (6), we have
1 1 2 − e2
+ = which is a constant.
PP ′ QQ ′ 2l
Example 3: If PSQ and PS ′ R be two chords of an ellipse through the foci S and S′, show
PS PS ′
that + is independent of the position of P.
SQ S ′ R
(Bundelkhand 2005, 12; Purvanchal 08)
Solution: Let the polar equation of the ellipse
be
l / r = 1 + e cos θ. …(1)

Since PSQ is a focal chord, therefore if the

vectorial angle of P is α,then that of Q is π + α.
∴ l / SP = 1 + e cos α, …(2)
and l / SQ = 1 + e cos (π + α) = 1 − e cos α. …(3)
Adding (2) and (3), we get
 G-13

l l
+ =2
SP SQ
1 1 2
or + = . …(4)
SP SQ l
Multiplying both sides of (4) by SP, we have
SP 2
= SP − 1. …(5)
SQ l
Similarly for the focal chord PS ′ R, we have
S ′P 2
= S ′ P − 1. …(6)
S ′R l
Adding (5) and (6), we get
SP S ′ P 2
+ = (SP + S ′ P) − 2.
SQ S ′ R l
But in the ellipse,
SP + S ′ P = the sum of the focal distances of the point P
= the length of the major axis = 2 a, say.
SP S ′ P 2 . 2a
∴ + = −2,
SQ S ′ R l
which is a constant and so is independent of the position of P.

Example 4: A point P moves, so that the sum of its distances from two fixed points S, S′ is
a (1 − e2 )
constant and equal to 2a. Show that P lies on the conic = 1 − e cos θ referred to S as
r
pole and SS′ as initial line, SS′ being equal to 2ae.
Solution: Taking S as the pole and SS′ as the initial
line, let the polar coordinates of P be (r, θ).
∴ PS = r, and PS ′ = 2a − r
because PS + PS ′ = 2a (given).
Also SS ′ = 2ae (given).
Now from ∆ PSS′ , we have
2
r + (2ae)2 − (2a − r)2
cos θ = [By cosine formula]
2 . r . (2ae)
r + a (e2 − 1)
= ⋅
er
a (e2 − 1)
∴ e cos θ = 1 +
r
a (e2 − 1)
or = 1 − e cos θ,
r
which is the required locus of P and is a conic.
 G-14

Comprehensive Exercise 1

1. If PSP ′ and QSQ ′ be two perpendicular focal chords of a conic, prove

1 1
that + is constant.
SP . SP ′ SQ . SQ ′ (Meerut 2004, 06B; Rohilkhand 06;
Kanpur 07; Bundelkhand 14; Kashi 14; Kumaun 09, 13, 15)
2. Prove that the perpendicular focal chords of a rectangular hyperbola are
equal.
3. A chord PQ of a conic whose eccentricity is e and semi-latus rectum l subtends
2
1 12 1 1 e2
a right angle at the focus S, show that  −  +  −  = ⋅
 SP l   SQ l  l2
(Kumaun 2012)
4. PSP ′ is a focal chord of a conic. Prove that the locus of its middle point
is a conic of the same kind as the original conic.
5. A circle passing through the focus of a conic whose latus rectum is 2l meets the
conic in four points whose distances from the focus are r1 , r2 , r3 and r4 , prove
1 1 1 1 2
that + + + = ⋅
r1 r2 r3 r4 l

6. If the circle r + 2a cos θ = 0 cuts the conic l / r = 1 + e cos (θ − α) in four

points, find the equation in r which determines the distances of these four
points from the pole. Show that if the algebraic sum of these four distances is
equal to 2a, the eccentricity is equal to 2 cos α.
7. Show that the equation of the directrix of the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ
l 1− e 2
corresponding to the focus other than the pole is = − e cos θ.
r 1+ e 2
(Kumaun 2013)
8. A circle of given radius passing through the focus S of a given conic intersects
it in A, B, C, D; show that SA . SB . SC . SD is constant. (Kumaun 2012)

13 Chord Joining any Two Points on the Conic

To find the equation of the chord of the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ, whose extremities are (r1 , θ1 )
and (r2 , θ2 ). (Meerut 2005B, 06, 07)
The equation of the conic is
l / r = 1 + e cos θ. …(1)
Suppose the points P (r1 , θ1 ) and Q (r2 , θ2 ) lie on (1). Then
l / r1 = 1 + e cos θ1 and l / r2 = 1 + e cos θ2 .
 G-15

Let the polar equation of any line be

A cos θ + B sin θ = l / r. …(2)
[The equation (2) represents a straight line because if we change it to cartesian
coordinates we get Ax + By = l which is linear in x and y].
If the straight line (2) passes through the point P (r1 , θ1 ), we have
A cos θ1 + B sin θ1 = l / r1 = 1 + e cos θ1
or ( A − e) cos θ1 + B sin θ1 − 1 = 0. …(3)
Similarly if the straight line (2) passes through the point Q (r2 , θ2 ), we have
( A − e) cos θ2 + B sin θ2 − 1 = 0. …(4)
Solving (3) and (4) for A − e and B, we get
A− e B
=
sin θ2 − sin θ1 cos θ1 − cos θ2
1 1
= =
sin θ2 cos θ1 − cos θ2 sin θ1 sin (θ2 − θ1 )
A− e B
or =
1 1 1 1
2 cos (θ1 + θ2 ) sin (θ2 − θ1 ) 2 sin (θ1 + θ2 ) sin (θ2 − θ1 )
2 2 2 2
1
=
1 1
2 sin (θ2 − θ1 ) cos (θ2 − θ1 )
2 2
A− e B 1
or = = ⋅
1 1 1
cos (θ1 + θ2 ) sin (θ1 + θ2 ) cos (θ2 − θ1 )
2 2 2
1 1
∴ A = cos (θ1 + θ2 ) sec (θ2 − θ1 ) + e,
2 2
1 1
B = sin (θ1 + θ2 ) sec (θ2 − θ1 ).
2 2
Putting these values of A and B in (2), the equation of the chord PQ is given by
1 1
l / r = {cos (θ1 + θ2 ) sec (θ2 − θ1 ) + e} cos θ
2 2
1 1
+ {sin (θ1 + θ2 ) sec (θ2 − θ1 )} sin θ
2 2
1 1
or l / r = e cos θ + sec (θ − θ1 ) cos θ − (θ1 + θ2 ) …(5)
2  2 
Thus remember that (5) is the equation of the chord joining the points ‘θ1 ’ and ‘θ2 ’
on the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ.

Corollary: If the points P and Q are such that their vectorial angles are α − β and
α + β, so that the sum of the angles is 2α and their difference is 2β, then the equation
(5) of the chord PQ becomes
l / r = e cos θ + sec β cos(θ − α). …(6)
 G-16

14 Tangent to the Conic at a Given Point on it

To find the equation of the tangent at the point (r1 , θ1 ) of the conic
l / r = 1 + e cos θ. (Rohilkhand 2005, 07; Meerut 07B;
Bundelkhand 10; Kumaun 07, 09, 14)
Let P be a given point (r1 , θ1 ) on the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ. Take another point
Q (r2 , θ2 ) on the conic. Proceeding as in article 13, we get the equation of the chord
joining the points P and Q as
1 1
l / r = e cos θ + sec (θ2 − θ1 ) cos {θ − (θ1 + θ2 )}.
2 2
[Derive the equation here].
Now the tangent at P to the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ is the limiting position of the
chord PQ as Q → P i. e., as θ2 → θ1 . So taking the limit of the equation of the chord
PQ as θ2 → θ1 , we get the equation of the tangent to the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ at
the point whose vectorial angle is θ1 as
l / r = e cos θ + cos (θ − θ1 ). …(1)
Corollary 1: If the conic is l / r = 1 + e cos (θ − α), the tangent at the point ‘θ1 ’ is
given by l / r = e cos (θ − α) + cos (θ − θ1 ). …(2)
Corollary 2: If the conic is l / r = 1 − e cos θ, the tangent at the point θ1 is
l / r = e cos (π + θ) + cos {(π + θ) − (π + θ1 )}
i. e., l / r = − e cos θ + cos (θ − θ1 ). …(3)
(Bundelkhand 2008)
Corollary 3: To find the slope of the tangent (1). The equation (1) may be
written as
l = r cos θ cos θ1 + r sin θ sin θ1 + e . r cos θ
or l = x cos θ1 + y sin θ1 + ex
or y sin θ1 = − x (e + cos θ1 ) + l.
e + cos θ1
∴ the slope of the tangent (1) = − ⋅ …(4)
sin θ1

15 Asymptotes
To find the equation of the asymptotes of the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ.
(kumaun 2013, 15)
The equation of the conic is
l / r = 1 + e cos θ. …(1)
Suppose (r ′ , α) is a point on (1), so that
l / r ′ = 1 + e cos α. …(2)
 G-17

The equation of the tangent to the conic (1) at the point (r ′ , α) on it is

l / r = e cos θ + cos (θ − α). …(3)
We know that an asymptote is the limiting position of the tangent as the point of
contact tends to infinity. Hence (3) will tend to an asymptote if r ′ tends to infinity.
Now if r′ tends to infinity, we have from (2),
0 = 1 + e cos α.
∴ cos α = − 1 / e and sin α = ± √ {1 − (1 / e2 )} …(4)
From (3), we have
l / r = e cos θ + cos θ cos α + sin θ sin α.
Substituting for cos α and sin α from (4) in it, we have
l / r = e cos θ + cos θ . (− 1 / e) ± sin θ √ {1 − (1 / e2 )}
or le / r = (e2 − 1) cos θ ± √ (e2 − 1) sin θ. …(5)
The equation (5) represents the equations of the two asymptotes of the conic (1).
Clearly the asymptotes are real only when e > 1 i. e., the conic (1) is a hyperbola.

Example 5: A chord of a conic subtends a constant angle at a focus of the conic. Show that
the chord touches another conic.
Solution: Referred to the focus S as the pole, let the equation of the conic be
l / r = 1 + e cos θ. …(1)
Suppose a chord PQ of the conic (1) subtends a constant angle 2β at the focus S. Let
α − β and α + β be the vectorial angles of the extremities of the chord PQ. Then the
equation of the chord PQ is
l / r = e cos θ + sec β cos (θ − α)
or (l cos β) / r = e cos β cos θ + cos (θ − α). …(2)
Obviously the straight line (2) is the tangent to the conic
(l cos β) / r = 1 + (e cos β) cos θ at the point whose vectorial angle is α.
Hence the proposition.

Example 6: Find the condition that the line l / r = A cos θ + B sin θ may be a tangent to
the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ. (Meerut 2004B, 06B, 07, 11, 12B; Kanpur 07, 09;
Kumaun 08, 13, 15; Bundelkhand 04; Avadh 07, 09, 13;
Purvanchal 08, 13; Rohilkhand 13)
Solution: Suppose the line
l / r = A cos θ + B sin θ …(1)
is a tangent to the conic
l / r = 1 + e cos θ …(2)
 G-18

at the point whose vectorial angle is α. The equation of the tangent to (2) at the
point ‘α’ is
l / r = cos (θ − α) + e cos θ
or l / r = (e + cos α) cos θ + sin θ sin α. …(3)
The equations (1) and (3) should represent the same line. So comparing the
coefficients of 1 / r, cos θ and sin θ, we have
e + cos α sin α
1= =
A B
or cos α = A − e and sin α = B.
Squaring and adding, we have
( A − e)2 + B2 = 1.
This is the required condition.

Example 7: A conic is described having the same focus and eccentricity as the conic
l / r = 1 + e cos θ, and the two conics touch at the point θ = α; prove that the length of its latus
rectum is 2l (1 − e2 ) / (e2 + 2e cos α + 1). (Avadh 2007)
Solution: The equation of the given conic is
l / r = 1 + e cos θ …(1)
the focus being at the pole.
Let the equation of the conic having the same focus and eccentricity as the given
conic be
l1 / r = 1 + e cos (θ − γ ), …(2)
where γ is the angle of inclination of its axis to the initial line and l1 is its semi-latus
rectum. Since the conics (1) and (2) touch at the point θ = α, the tangents to them
at the point α are the same lines.
The equation of the tangent to (1) at the point α is
l / r = cos (θ − α) + e cos θ
or l / r = (cos α + e) cos θ + sin α sin θ. …(3)
The equation of the tangent to (2) at the point α is
l1 / r = cos (θ − α) + e cos (θ − γ )
or l1 / r = (cos α + e cos γ ) cos θ + (sin α + e sin γ ) sin θ. …(4)
Now the equations (3) and (4) are identical because they represent the same line.
So comparing (3) and (4), we have
l cos α + e sin α
= = ⋅
l1 cos α + e cos γ sin α + e sin γ
∴ el cos γ = (l1 − l ) cos α + el1 , …(5)
and el sin γ = (l1 − l ) sin α. …(6)
To eliminate γ, squaring (5) and (6), and adding, we get
 G-19

2
e2 l 2 = (l1 − l)2 + e2 l1 + 2el1 (l1 − l) cos α
2
or − e2 (l1 − l 2 ) = (l1 − l)2 + 2el1 (l1 − l) cos α.
Since l1 ≠ l, therefore, dividing both sides by l1 − l, we have
− e2 (l1 + l ) = (l1 − l ) + 2el1 cos α
or l1 (1 + 2e cos α + e2 ) = l (1 − e2 ).
∴ the length of the latus rectum of the conic (2)
2 l (1 − e2 )
= 2l1 = ⋅
(1 + 2 e cos α + e2 )
Example 8: Two equal ellipses of eccentricity e, are placed with their axes at right angles
and they have one focus S in common. If PQ be a common tangent, show that the angle PSQ is
equal to 2 sin −1 (e / √ 2).
Solution: Take the common focus S as the pole and the axis of one ellipse as the
1
initial line so that the axis of the other ellipse makes an angle π with the initial
2
line. Let the equations to the two equal ellipses be
l / r = 1 + e cos θ …(1)
and l / r = 1 + e cos (θ − π / 2) or l / r = 1 + e sin θ. …(2)
It is given that PQ is a common tangent to the two ellipses. Let the vectorial angles
of P, a point on (1), and Q, a point on (2), be α and β respectively. Therefore the
tangent to (1) at the point α, i. e., l / r = cos (θ − α) + e cos θ
or l / r = (cos α + e) cos θ + sin α sin θ …(3)
and the tangent to (2) at the point β i. e., l / r = cos (θ − β) + e sin θ
or l / r = cos β cos θ + (sin β + e) sin θ …(4)
should be identical. Hence comparing (3) and (4), we have
cos α + e sin α
1= = ⋅
cos β sin β + e
∴ cos α + e = cos β i. e., cos β − cos α = e
and sin α = sin β + e i. e., sin α − sin β = e.
Squaring and adding, we get 2 − 2 (cos α cos β + sin α sin β) = 2e2
or cos (α − β) = 1 − e2
1
or 1 − 2 sin2 (α − β) = 1 − e 2
2
1 1 1 e
or sin2 (α − β) = e2 or sin (α − β) = .
2 2 2 2
1
∴ (α − β) = sin −1 (e / 2).
2
∴ ∠ PSQ = α − β = 2 sin −1 (e / 2).
 G-20

Example 9: A focal chord PSP′ of an ellipse is inclined at an angle α to the major axis. Show
that the perpendicular from the focus on the tangent at P makes an angle
tan −1 {sin α / (e + cos α)} with the axis.
Solution: Let the conic (given to be an ellipse) be
l / r = 1 + e cos θ,
the focus S being at the pole.
Since the focal chord PSP ′ makes an angle α with the major axis i. e., the initial line,
therefore the vectorial angle of P is α.

The tangent at P is
l / r = cos (θ − α) + e cos θ
or l = (cos α + e) (r cos θ) + sin α . (r sin θ)
or l = (cos α + e) x + sin α . y. …(1)
If the tangent (1) makes an angle ψ with the major axis i. e.,with the initial line, then

tan ψ = the slope of the line (1)

cos α + e
=− …(2)
sin α
Let SQ be the perpendicular from S to the tangent (1).
1
Then the angle which SQ makes with the major axis is ψ − π. (See the figure.)
2
1
Now tan (ψ − π) = − cot ψ
2
sin α
= , using (2).
cos α + e
1
∴ the required angle = ψ − π
2
= tan −1 {sin α / (e + cos α)}.
 G-21

Comprehensive Exercise 2

1. Prove that the condition that the line l / r = A cos θ + B sin θ may touch the
conic l / r = 1 + e cos (θ − α) is
A2 + B2 − 2 e ( A cos α + B sin α) + e2 − 1 = 0.
(Meerut 2009, 10B; Avadh 13)
2. l
Prove that the line = cos (θ − α) + e cos (θ − γ ) is the tangent to the conic
r
l
= 1 + e cos (θ − γ ) at the point for which θ = α.
r
3. Show that the two conics l1 / r = 1 + e1 cos θ and l2 / r = 1 + e2 cos (θ − α)
will touch one another if l12 (1 − e2 2 ) + l2 2 (1 − e12 ) = 2l1 l2 (1 − e1 e2 cos α).
(Bundelkhand 2006, 07, 08; Purvanchal 07, 10)
4. PSP ′ is a focal chord of a conic; prove that the angle between the tangents at P
 2 e sin α 
and P ′ is tan −1  2
 where α is the angle between the chord and the
 1− e 
major axis. (Meerut 2005, 06; Kanpur 06, 08, 14;
Purvanchal 07, 13)
5. Show that the locus of the point of intersection of two tangents to the
parabola l / r = 1 + cos θ, which cut one another at a constant angle α is the
hyperbola, l / r = cos α + cos θ. (Rohilkhand 2007)
6. Prove that the portion of the tangent intercepted between the conic and the
directrix subtends a right angle at the corresponding focus.
or
Let the tangent at any point P on a conic whose focus is S meet the directrix
in K, show that the angle PSK is a right angle.
7. PSP ′ is a focal chord of the conic. Prove that the tangents at P and P ′
intersect on the directrix.
8. Two conics have a common focus; prove that two of their common chords
pass through the intersection of their directrices.
9. If the tangent at any point of an ellipse makes an angle α with its major
axis and an angle β with the focal radius to the point of contact, show
that ecos α = cos β.
10. QR, a chord of the conic l / r = 1 − e cos θ, subtends a constant angle 2α at its
focus S, and SP, the bisector of the angle QSR, meets QR in P. Show that the
locus of P is the conic (l cos α) / r = 1 − e cos α cos θ.
 G-22

11. Prove that two points on the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ whose vectorial angles
are α and β respectively will be the extremities of a diameter if
e +1 α β
= tan tan ⋅
e −1 2 2
12. If POP ′ be a chord of a conic through a fixed point O, prove that
1 1
tan P ′ SO tan PSO is constant, S being a focus of the conic.
2 2
13. If the tangent from a point P to the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ subtends the fixed
angle β at the focus, prove that the locus of the middle point of SP is a conic of
eccentricity esec β.

16 Auxiliary Circle
Definition: The locus of the foot of the perpendicular from the focus on any tangent to a
conic (ellipse or hyperbola) is a circle called the auxiliary circle of the conic.
The equation of the auxiliary circle: To find the locus of the foot of the perpendicular
from the focus of the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ on a tangent to it.
Or
To find the polar equation of the auxiliary circle of the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ.
(Gorakhpur 2006)
The equation of the conic is
l / r = 1 + e cos θ. …(1)
Consider a point ‘α’ on (1). The equation of the tangent at the point ‘α’ is
l / r = cos (θ − α) + e cos θ. …(2)
Changing (2) to cartesian coordinates, we have
l = (cos α + e) x + sin α y. …(2′)
The equation of the line perpendicular to (2′ ) and passing through the focus (i. e.,
the pole or origin) is
0 = sin α . x − (cos α + e) y.
Changing it to polars, we have
0 = sin α . r cos θ − (cos α + e) r sin θ
or sin (θ − α) = − e sin θ. …(3)
Now the foot of the perpendicular from the focus S to the tangent (2) is given by
the intersection of (2) and (3) , and hence its locus is obtained by eliminating the
variable ‘α’ between (2) and (3). The equations (2) and (3) may be rewritten as
l
− e cos θ = cos (θ − α) and − e sin θ = sin (θ − α).
r
Squaring and adding these equations, we have
 G-23

2
 l − e cos θ + e2 sin2 θ = 1
 r 
l2 le
or 2
−2 cos θ + e2 − 1 = 0
r r
or (e 2 − 1) r 2 − 2 ler cos θ + l2 = 0. …(4)
This is the required equation of the auxiliary circle.
Particular case: If the conic be a parabola i. e., e = 1, the equation (4) becomes
− 2 ler cos θ + l2 = 0
or l / r = 2 cos θ
or l / r = cos (θ − 0) + 1 . cos θ
which is the equation of the tangent to the parabola l / r = 1 + cos θ at the vertex
( i. e., at the point θ = 0). (Gorakhpur 2006)

17 The Point of Intersection of the Two Tangents

To find the point of intersection of the two tangents at the points α and β on the conic
l / r = 1 + e cos θ.
The equation of the conic is
l / r = 1 + e cos θ. …(1)
The equations of the tangents to (1) at the points α and β are respectively
l / r = cos (θ − α) + e cos θ, …(2)
and l / r = cos (θ − β) + e cos θ. …(3)
To find the points of intersection of (2) and (3), subtracting (3) from (2), we have
0 = cos (θ − α) − cos (θ − β),
or cos (θ − α) = cos (θ − β).
∴ θ − α = ± (θ − β).
If we take the +ive sign, we get α = β which is inadmissible.
So taking the − ive sign, we get
1
θ − α = − θ + β or θ = (α + β). …(4)
2
Putting the value of θ from (4) in (2) or (3), we have
1 1
l / r = cos  (α + β) − α + e cos (α + β)
2  2
1 1
= cos (α − β) + e cos (α + β).
2 2
If the point of intersection is (r ′ , θ ′ ), then we have
1
θ ′ = (α + β)
2
 G-24

1 1
and l / r ′ = cos (α − β) + e cos (α + β). …(5)
2 2
Particular case: If the conic is a parabola i. e., e = 1, then from (5),
1 1 1 1
l / r ′ = cos (α − β) + cos (α + β) = 2 cos α cos β
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
or r ′ = (l / 2) sec α sec β, and θ ′ = (α + β). …(6)
2 2 2
Note: Students are advised not to use the results of equations (5) or (6) directly in
solving the problems.

18 Director Circle
Definition: The locus of the point of intersection of two perpendicular tangents to a conic,
is called the director circle of the conic.
The equation of the director circle: To find the equation of the director circle of the
conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ. (Rohilkhand 2005; Kumaun 08;
Avadh 09; Purvanchal 12, 13)
The equation of the conic is
l / r = 1 + e cos θ. …(1)
The director circle of the conic (1) is the locus of the point of intersection of
perpendicular tangents to the conic (1).
The equations of the tangents to (1) at the points α and β are
l / r = cos (θ − α) + e cos θ, …(2)
and l / r = cos (θ − β) + e cos θ …(3)
respectively.
To find the point of intersection of (2) and (3), subtracting (3) from (2), we have
0 = cos (θ − α) − cos (θ − β) or cos (θ − α) = cos (θ − β).
1
∴ θ − α = − (θ − β) or θ = (α + β).
2
1
Putting θ = (α + β) in (2), we have
2
1 1
l / r = cos  (α + β) − α + e cos (α + β)
2  2
1 1
= cos (α − β) + e cos (α + β).
2 2
Therefore if (r ′ , θ ′ ) be the point of intersection of the tangents (2) and (3), we have
1 1 1
θ ′ = (α + β) and l / r ′ = cos (α − β) + e cos (α + β). …(4)
2 2 2
Changing the equation (2) of the tangent at the point α to cartesian form, we have
l = (cos α + e) x + (sin α) y.
 G-25

∴ m1 = slope of the tangent (2) = − (cos α + e) / (sin α).

Similarly m2 = slope of the tangent (3) = − (cos β + e) / (sin β).
The tangents (2) and (3) are perpendicular, if m1 m2 = − 1

 (cos α + e)  (cos β + e)

or − − = −1
 sin α   sin β 
or (cos α cos β + sin α sin β) + e (cos α + cos β) + e2 = 0
α + β  α − β  + e2 = 0
or cos (α − β) + 2e cos   cos  
 2   2 
α − β  α + β  cos  α − β  + e2 = 0
or 2 cos 2   − 1 + 2e cos     …(5)
 2   2   2 
Now from (4), we have
1 1
(α + β) = θ ′ and cos (α − β) = l / r ′ − e cos θ ′ . …(6)
2 2
Eliminating α and β with the help of (5) and (6), we have
2
 l   l 
2  − e cos θ ′ − 1 + 2e cos θ ′ .  − e cos θ ′ + e 2 = 0
 r ′   r ′ 
or (1 − e 2 ) r ′ 2 + 2 ler ′ cos θ ′ − 2l2 = 0.
∴ the locus of (r ′ , θ ′ ) is
(1 − e2 ) r 2 + 2 ler cos θ − 2l2 = 0, …(7)
which is the required equation of the director circle.
Particular case: If the conic is a parabola i. e., if e = 1, the equation (7) becomes
2 lr cos θ − l2 = 0
or l / r = cos θ,
which is the equation of the directrix of the parabola l / r = 1 + cos θ.
Hence in the case of a parabola the locus of the point of intersection of
perpendicular tangents is the directrix of the parabola.

Example 10: Show that the locus of the feet of perpendiculars from the focus S of a conic on
chords subtending a constant angle 2γ at S is the circle whose polar equation referred to S as
pole is r 2 (e2 − sec 2 γ ) − 2 ler cos θ + l2 = 0
where 2l is the latus rectum and e the eccentricity of the conic. (Kumaun 2015)

Solution: Referred to the focus S as the pole let the equation of the conic be
l / r = 1 + e cos θ. …(1)
 G-26

Let PQ be a chord of (1) subtending an angle 2γ at the focus [Link] α − γ and α + γ be

the vectorial angles of the extremities of the chord PQ so that ∠ QSP = 2γ ; here α is
a parameter. Then the equation of the chord PQ is
l / r = e cos θ + sec γ cos (θ − α) …(2)
or l / r = e cos θ + sec γ cos θ cos α + sec γ sin θ sin α
or l = (e + sec γ cos α) r cos θ + ( sec γ sin α) r sin θ. …(2′)
Mentally transforming (2) to cartesians, we see that the equation of the
perpendicular drawn from the focus S (i. e., the pole or origin) to the line ( 2′) is
0 = (e + sec γ cos α) r sin θ − (sec γ sin α) r cos θ
or − e sin θ = sec γ sin (θ − α). …(3)
The foot of the perpendicular drawn from the focus S to the chord (2) is the point of
intersection of the lines (2) and (3). To find its locus we have to eliminate the
variable α between (2) and (3).
The equation (2) can be written as
(l / r − e cos θ) = sec γ cos (θ − α). …(4)
Squaring and adding (3) and (4), we get

e2 sin2 θ + (l / r − e cos θ)2 = sec 2 γ

l2 2 le
or e2 + 2
− cos θ = sec 2 γ
r r
or r (e − sec 2 γ ) − 2 ler cos θ + l2 = 0,
2 2

which is the required locus.

Example 11: If A, B, C be any three points on a parabola, and the tangents at these points
form a triangle A′B′C ′, show that SA . SB . SC = SA′ . SB ′ . SC ′ , S being the focus of the
parabola.
Solution: Let the equation of the parabola be l / r = 1 + cos θ, referred to the focus
S as the pole.
Let the vectorial angles of A, B, C be α, β, γ respectively. The equations of the
tangents at these points are
l / r = cos (θ − α) + cos θ, …(1)
l / r = cos (θ − β) + cos θ, …(2)
and l / r = cos (θ − γ ) + cos θ. …(3)
If C ′ is the point of intersection of the tangents (1) and (2), then the vectorial angle
1
of C ′ = (α + β) and the radius vector of C ′
2
1 1
i. e., SC ′ = (l / 2) sec α sec β. [See equation (6) of article 17 ]
2 2
 G-27

1 1 1 1
Similarly SA′ = (l / 2) sec β sec γ and SB ′ = (l / 2) sec γ sec α.
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
∴ SA ′ . SB ′ . SC ′ = (l3 / 8) sec 2 α sec 2 β sec 2 γ. …(4)
2 2 2
Again since the point A whose vectorial angle is α and radius vector is SA lies on (1),
therefore
1 1
l / SA = 1 + cos α = 2 cos 2 α or SA = (l / 2) sec 2 α.
2 2
1 1
Similarly SB = (l / 2) sec 2 β and SC = (l / 2) sec 2 γ.
2 2
1 1 1
∴ SA . SB . SC = (l3 / 8) sec 2 α sec 2 β sec 2 γ . …(5)
2 2 2
From (4) and (5) the required result follows.

Example 12: Find the equation of the circle circumscribing the triangle formed by tangents
at three given points of a parabola.
Solution: Let the three points on the parabola
l / r = 1 + cos θ
be A, B, C and let α, β, γ be their vectorial angles. Also let A′ , B′ , C ′ be the points of
intersection of these tangents. Then as in Example 11,
l β γ β + γ
the point A′ is  sec sec , ,
 2 2 2 2 
l α γ α+ γ
the point B ′ is  sec sec , ,
 2 2 2 2 
l α β α + β
and the point C ′ is  sec sec , ⋅
 2 2 2 2 
By actual substitution we see that the three points A ′ , B ′ , C ′ lie on the curve
l α β γ α + β + γ
r = sec sec sec cos θ − ⋅ …(1)
2 2 2 2  2 
The equation (1) is of the type
r = 2a cos (θ − λ )
which is the equation of a circle passing through the pole, the diameter through the
pole making an angle λ with the initial line and the length of the diameter equal to
2a.
Hence the equation (1) is the equation of the circumcircle of the triangle A′ B ′ C ′,
the length of the diameter of the circumcircle being equal to
1 1 1
(l / 2) sec α sec β sec γ
2 2 2
and the diameter through the pole making an angle 1 / 2 (α + β + γ ) with the initial
line.
 G-28

Remark: The centre of the circle (1) is the middle point of its diameter passing
through the pole. So the vectorial angle of the centre of the circle (1) is
1 1 1
1 / 2 (α + β + γ ) and the radius vector is (l / 4) sec α sec β sec γ .
2 2 2

Comprehensive Exercise 3

1. Prove that the centres of the four circles circumscribing the four triangles
formed by the four tangents drawn to a parabola at points whose vectorial
angles are α, β, γ , δ lie on another circle which passes through the focus of the
parabola.
2. If the tangents at any two points P and Q of a conic meet in a point T, and if
the chord PQ meets the directrix corresponding to S in a point K , prove that
∠ KST is a right angle.
3. PQ is a variable chord of a conic having S for focus and angle PSQ is constant.
Prove that the locus of the point of intersection of tangents at P and Q is a
conic having S for a focus and the corresponding directrix is common with
the given conic.
4. Prove that, if chords of a conic subtend a constant angle at a focus, the
tangents at the ends of the chord will meet on a fixed conic and the chord will
touch (or envelope) another fixed conic.
5. Prove that the locus of the point of intersection of tangents at the extremities
of perpendicular focal radii of a conic is another conic having the same focus.
6. Prove that the radius vector TS of the point of intersection of tangents at P
and Q bisects the angle between the radii vectors of P and Q (i.e., between PS
and QS).
7. A chord PQ of a conic subtends a constant angle 2γ at the focus S and
tangents at P and Q meet in T ; prove that
1 1 2 cos γ 2 sin2 γ
+ − = ⋅
SP SQ ST l
8. Show that the locus of the intersection of two perpendicular tangents one
drawn to each of the two parabolas with a common focus whose axes are
neither coincident nor perpendicular is a conic.
9. P, Q , R are three points on the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ the focus S being the
pole. The tangent at Q meets SP and SR in M and N so that SM = SN = l.
Prove that the chord PR touches the conic l / r = 1 + 2e cos θ.
 G-29

10. If PQ is the chord of contact of tangents drawn from a point T to a conic

whose focus is S, prove that
(i) ST 2 = SP . SQ , if the conic is a parabola;
(ii) 1 1 1 PSQ
− 2
= 2 sin2 if the conic is a central conic and b is
SP . SQ ST b 2
its semi-minor axis.

19 Pair of Tangents
To prove that the equation of the pair of tangents drawn to the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ from the
point (r ′ , θ ′ ) is (S 2 − 1) (S ′ 2 − 1) = P 2 ,
where S ≡ l / r − e cos θ, S ′ ≡ l / r ′ − e cos θ ′
and P ≡ (l / r − e cos θ) (l / r ′ − e cos θ ′ ) − cos (θ − θ′ ).
Hence to prove that the equations of the asymptotes of the conic are
le / r = (e2 − 1) cos θ ± √ (e2 − 1) sin θ.
Consider a point P with vectorial angle α on the conic
l / r = 1 + e cos θ …(1)
The tangent to (1) at the point α is
l / r = cos (θ − α) + e cos θ. …(2)
If the tangent (2) passes through the point (r′ , θ ′), we have
l / r ′ = cos (θ ′ − α) + e cos θ ′ . …(3)
The required equation of the pair of tangents is obtained by eliminating α between
(2) and (3).
We have
(S 2 − 1) (S′ 2 − 1) = {(l / r − e cos θ)2 − 1} {(l / r ′ − e cos θ ′ )2 − 1}
= {cos 2 (θ − α) − 1}{cos 2 (θ ′ − α) − 1}, [Using (2) and (3)]
2 2
= { − sin (θ − α)}{ − sin (θ ′ − α)}
= sin2 (θ − α) sin2 (θ ′ − α). …(4)
Also P = (l / r − e cos θ) (l / r ′ − e cos θ ′ ) − cos (θ − θ ′ )
= cos (θ − α) cos (θ ′ − α) − cos (θ − θ′ ) [Using (2) and (3)]
1
= {2 cos (θ − α) cos (θ ′ − α)} − cos (θ − θ ′ )
2
1
= {cos (θ + θ ′ − 2α) + cos (θ − θ ′ )} − cos (θ − θ ′ )
2
1
= {cos (θ + θ ′ − 2α) − cos (θ − θ ′ )}
2
 G-30

1
= {2 sin (θ − α) sin (α − θ ′ )}
2
= − sin (θ − α) sin (θ ′ − α).
2
∴ P = sin2 (θ − α) sin2 (θ ′ − α). …(5)
From (4) and (5), we have
(S 2 − 1) (S ′ 2 − 1) = P 2 . …(6)
Since the equation (6) does not contain α, therefore it is the required equation of
the pair of tangents drawn from the point (r ′ , θ ′ ) to the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ.
To find the asymptotes: The asymptotes can be regarded as the pair of tangents
drawn from the centre of the conic. The coordinates of the centre referred to the
 el 
focus S as pole are (ae, π) i. e.,  2
, π ⋅
1 − e 
Therefore to find the asymptotes the point (r ′ , θ ′ ) is to be taken as the point
 el 
 2
, π ⋅
1 − e 
el
∴ r′ = and θ ′ = π. …(7)
1 − e2
Taking these values of r ′ and θ ′ , we have
cos (θ − θ ′ ) = cos (θ − π) = − cos θ,
1 1 − e2 1 − e2 1
S′ = − e cos θ′ = − e cos π = + e = ,
r′ e e e …(8)
and l 1 l
P =  − e cos θ + cos θ = ⋅ 
r e er 
Putting the values from (8) in (6), the equation of the asymptotes is
2
 l   1  l 2
  − e cos θ − 1  2 − 1 =  
 r  e  er
 l2 2 le 2 2  2 l2
or  2 − cos θ + e cos θ − 1 (1 − e ) =
 r r  r2
l2 e2 l 2 2 le l2
or − − (1 − e2 ) cos θ + e2 (1 − e2 ) cos θ − (1 − e2 ) =
r2 r2 r r2
e2 l 2 2 le
or 2
+ (1 − e 2 ) cos θ = e2 (1 − e 2 ) cos 2 θ − (1 − e 2 ),
r r
by transposition of terms.
Adding the term (1 − e2 )2 cos 2 θ to both sides, we have
e2 l 2 2 le
2
+ (1 − e2 ) cos θ + (1 − e2 )2 cos 2 θ
r r
= (1 − e2 )2 cos 2 θ + e2 (1 − e 2 ) cos 2 θ − (1 − e 2 )
 G-31

2
or  el + (1 − e2 ) cos θ = (1 − e2 ) cos 2 θ {1 − e2 + e 2 } − (1 − e2 )
 r 
= (1 − e 2 ) (cos 2 θ − 1)
= − (1 − e2 ) sin2 θ
= (e2 − 1) sin2 θ.
Taking square root of both sides, we get
(le / r) + (1 − e2 ) cos θ = ± √ (e2 − 1) sin θ
or le / r = (e2 − 1) cos θ ± √ (e2 − 1) sin θ.
These are the equations of the asymptotes of the conic
l / r = 1 + e cos θ.

20 Chord of Contact
To find the polar equation of the chord of contact of the point T (r ′, θ ′ ) with respect to the
conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ.
The given conic is
l / r = 1 + e cos θ. …(1)
Let P and Q be the points of contact of the
tangents drawn from the point T (r ′, θ′ ) to the
conic (1).
Then the chord PQ is the chord of contact of the
point T with respect to the conic (1).
Let the vectorial angles of P and Q be α and β
respectively.
The point of intersection T (r ′, θ ′) of the
tangents at P and Q is given by
1
θ ′ = (α + β), …(2)
2
1 1
and l / r ′ = cos (α − β) + e cos (α + β). …(3)
2 2
[See article 17]
The equation of the chord PQ joining the points α and β is
1 1
l / r = sec (α − β) cos θ − (α + β) + e cos θ. …(4)
2  2 
The equation (4) will become the equation of the chord of contact if α, β are
eliminated with the help of (2) and (3).
The equation (4) may be written as
 G-32

1
cos θ − (α + β)
l  2 
− e cos θ =
r 1
cos (α − β)
2
l cos (θ − θ ′ )
or − e cos θ = , using (2) and (3)
r (l / r ′ − e cos θ ′ )
l l
or  − e cos θ  
− e cos θ ′ = cos (θ − θ ′ ).
 r   r′ 
This is the required equation of the chord of contact of the point (r ′, θ ′) with
respect to the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ.

21 Polar of a Point
To find the equation of the polar of a point (r ′, θ ′) w.r.t. the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ.
(Avadh 2006; Purvanchal 09; Kumaun 08)
Suppose we want to find the equation of the polar of a given point R (r ′ , θ ′ ) with
respect to the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ.
If we draw chords of the given conic
passing through the point R, then the
locus of the point of intersection of
the tangents at the extremities of
these chords is said to be the polar of
R with respect to the given conic.
Let PQ be any such chord meeting
the conic in points P and Q whose
vectorial angles are α and β respectively.
If P (r1 , θ1 ) is the point of intersection of the tangents at the points P ‘α’ and Q ‘β’,
then proceeding as in article 17, we have
1
θ1 = (α + β), …(1)
2
1 1
and l / r1 = cos (α − β) + e cos (α + β)
2 2
1
i. e., l / r1 − e cos θ1 = cos (α − β). …(2)
2
The equation of the chord PQ joining the points α and β is
1 1
l / r = sec (α − β) cos θ − (α + β) + e cos θ.
2  2 
Since it passes through the point R (r ′ , θ ′ ), therefore
1 1
l / r ′ = sec (α − β) cos θ ′ − (α + β) + e cos θ ′
2  2 
 G-33

1
cos θ ′ − (α + β)
 2 
or l / r ′ − e cos θ ′ =
1
cos (α − β)
2
cos (θ′ − θ1 )
or ( l / r ′ − e cos θ′ ) = [Using (1) and (2)]
(l / r1 − e cos θ1 )
or ( l / r1 − e cos θ1 ) (l / r ′ − e cos θ ′ ) = cos (θ ′ − θ1 ). …(3)
∴ the polar of the point (r ′ , θ ′ ) i. e., the locus of the point (r1 , θ1 ) is
( l / r − e cos θ) (l / r ′ − e cos θ ′ ) = cos (θ ′ − θ)
[Replacing r 1 by r and θ1 by θ in (3)]
or ( l / r − e cos θ) (l / r ′ − e cos θ ′ ) = cos (θ − θ ′ ). …(4)

Remark 1: The pole of a line is the point of intersection of the tangents at its
extremities.

Remark 2: Articles 20 and 21 show that the polar of a point with respect to a
given conic is the same as the chord of contact of the tangents drawn from that
point to the conic. But here the point must lie outside the conic.

22 Perpendicular Lines
Let the equation of a straight line be
l / r = A cos θ + B sin θ. …(1)
Multiplying both sides by r the equation (1) may be written as
l = Ar cos θ + Br sin θ.
Changing to cartesians this equation becomes
l = Ax + By. …(2)
The equation of any line perpendicular to the line (2) is
Bx − Ay = L, where L is any real number
or Br cos θ − Ar sin θ = L, changing to polars

1 1
or L / r = A cos  π + θ + B sin  π + θ . …(3)
 2   2 
Thus (3) is the equation of any line which is perpendicular to the line (1). In the
equation (3) L is any real number.

Rule: The equation of any line perpendicular to l / r = A cos θ + B sin θ is obtained by

1
writing θ + π for θ and changing l to a new constant, say, L.
2
 G-34

23 Normal to the Conic

To find the equation of the normal at a point ‘α’ on the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ.
(Rohilkhand 2005; Bundelkhand 07, 09;
Kumaun 11, 14; Kashi 13; Avadh 14)
Let P (r1 , α) be a point on the conic
l / r = 1 + e cos θ. …(1)
The tangent to (1) at the point P (r1 , α) is
l / r = cos (θ − α) + e cos θ. …(2)
The normal to (1) at the point P is the line perpendicular to the line (2) and passing
through the point P.
The equation of any line perpendicular to the line (2) is
1 1
L / r = cos θ + π − α + e cos θ + π
 2   2 
or L / r = − sin (θ − α) − e sin θ. …(3)
The line (3) will be the normal at the point P if it passes through the point P (r1 , α).
So putting r = r1 and θ = α in (3), we have
L / r1 = − sin (α − α) − e sin α = − e sin α
or L = − r1 e sin α.
Now putting L = − r1 e sin α in (3), the equation of the normal to (1) at the point
P (r1 , α) is
− (r1 e sin α) / r = − sin (θ − α) − e sin θ
er1 sin α
or = sin (θ − α) + e sin θ. …(4)
r
Again the point P (r1 , α) lies on (1).
∴ l / r1 = 1 + e cos α i. e., r1 = l / (1 + e cos α).
Putting the value of r1 in (4), the equation of the normal at the point P in terms of α
alone, is given by
le sin α 1
⋅ = sin (θ − α) + e sin θ. …(5)
(1 + e cos α) r
Corollary : In the case of the parabola l / r = 1 + cos θ, we have e = 1 and so the
equation (5) of the normal at the point ‘α’ becomes
l sin α 1
⋅ = sin (θ − α) + sin θ. …(6)
1 + cos α r
(Kashi 2013)
Remark: The equation of the normal at the point P (r1 , α) to the conic
l / r = 1 − e cos θ is
− le sin α1
= sin (θ − α) − e sin θ.
⋅
1 − e cos α r
 G-35

Example 13: If the normals at α, β, γ on the parabola l / r = 1 + cos θ meet at a point

( ρ, φ), prove that 2φ = α + β + γ. (Purvanchal 2009)

Solution: The equation of the normal to the parabola l / r = 1 + cos θ at the point
l sin λ 1
λ on it is ⋅ = sin (θ − λ ) + sin θ.
1 + cos λ r
If it passes through the point ( ρ, φ), we have
l sin λ 1
⋅ = sin (φ − λ ) + sin φ .
1 + cos λ ρ
Changing cos λ ,sin λ to half angles this equation takes the form
1 1 1
l tan3 λ + 0 . tan2 λ + (l + 2 ρ cos φ) tan λ − 2 ρ sin φ = 0.
2 2 2
…(1)
1 1
This equation being a cubic in tan λ gives three values of tan λ and hence three
2 2
values of λ . Thus there are three points on the parabola the normals at which pass
1 1 1
through the point ( ρ, φ). If these points are α, β, γ , then tan α, tan β, tan γ are
2 2 2
1
the roots of the cubic (1) in tan λ .
2
By the theory of equations, we have for the cubic (1),
1 1 1 1
tan α + tan β + tan γ = Σ tan α = 0,
2 2 2 2
1 1
Σ tan α tan β = ( l + 2ρ cos φ) / l,
2 2
1 1 1
tan α tan β tan γ = 2ρ sin φ / l.
2 2 2
Now from trigonometry, we have
1 1 1 1
Σ tan α − tan α tan β tan γ
1 1 1 2 2 2 2
tan  α + β + γ  =
 2 2 2  1 1
1 − Σ tan α tan β
2 2
0 − (2ρ sin φ / l)
=
1 − {( l + 2ρ cos φ) / l }
− 2ρ sin φ / l
= = tan φ.
1 − {1 + (2ρ cos φ) / l }
1 1 1
∴ α+ β+ γ =φ or α + β + γ = 2φ.
2 2 2
 G-36

Example 14: Find the locus of the pole of a chord of the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ which
subtends a constant angle 2γ at the focus. (Meerut 2006, 09B; Kumaun 10, 11)

Solution: The pole of a chord is the point of intersection of the tangents at its
extremities.
Let PQ be a variable chord of the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ which subtends a constant
angle 2γ at the focus S of the conic. Let α, β be the vectorial angles of the points P
and Q respectively. Then ∠ PSQ = α − β. But according to the question
∠ PSQ = 2γ. Therefore
α − β = 2γ …(1)
If T (r ′ , θ ′ ) be the point of intersection of the tangents at P and Q, then proceeding
as in article 17, we have
α+β
θ′ = , …(2)
2

and
l
= cos  α − β  + e cos α + β ⋅ …(3)
   
r′  2   2 
The pole of the chord PQ is the point T and we have to find the locus of the point T.
The locus of T will be obtained by eliminating α and β between (1), (2) and (3).
Substituting the values of α − β and α + β from (1) and (2) in (3), we have
l / r ′ = cos γ + e cos θ ′
or (l sec γ ) / r ′ = 1 + (e sec γ ) cos θ′ .
∴ the locus of T (r ′ , θ ′ ) is
(l sec γ ) / r = 1 + (e sec γ ) cos θ,
which is a conic whose focus is the pole S i. e., the focus of the given conic.

Comprehensive Exercise 4

1. Show that three normals can be drawn from a point (ρ, φ) to a parabola.
2. If the normals at three points of the parabola r = a cosec 2 1 / 2 θ whose
vectorial angles are α, β and γ meet in a point whose vectorial angle is φ, prove
that 2φ = α + β + γ − π.
3. If the tangent and normal at any point P of a conic meet the transverse axis in
1 1
T and G respectively and if S be the focus, then show that − is
SG ST
constant.
 G-37

4. If the normals at α, β, γ , δ on the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ meet at a point

(ρ, φ) (i. e., these normals are concurrent), prove that
2
α β γ δ 1 + e
tan tan tan tan +   = 0,
2 2 2 2 1 − e
and α + β + γ + δ − 2φ = (2n + 1) π i.e., an odd multiple of π radians.
(Rohilkhand 2010)
5. If the normal at L, one of the extremities of the latus rectum of the conic
l / r = 1 + e cos θ, meets the curve again at Q , show that

SQ = l (1 + 3e2 + e4 ) / (1 + e2 − e4 ).

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
l
1. The polar equation of the directrix of the conic = 1 + e cos θ corresponding
r
to the focus taken as pole is
l 1 − e2 l
(a) = − 2
e cos θ (b) = e cos θ
r 1+ e r
l l
(c) = − e cos θ (d) = e sec θ.
r r
(Bundelkhand 2005, 07)
l
2. The equation of the tangent to the conic = 1 − e cos θ at the point ‘α’ on it is
r
l l
(a) = e cos θ + cos (θ − α) (b) = − e cos θ + cos (θ − α)
r r
l l
(c) = − e cos θ − cos (θ − α) (d) = e cos θ − cos (θ − α)
r r
3. The conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ represents a hyperbola if
(a) e = 0 (b) e = 1
(c) e < 1 (d) e > 1
(Rohilkhand 2005; Agra 14)
4. For a second degree curve if e = 1, then the curve shall be
(a) a hyperbola (b) an ellipse
(c) a parabola (d) none of these
(Kumaun 2015)
 G-38

5. For a second degree curve if e < 1, then the curve shall be

(a) Hyperbola (b) Parabola
(c) Ellipse (d) Circle (Kumaun 2007, 11)
6. The polar equation of the circle, when its radius is a and its circumference
lies on the pole and the centre on initial line is
(a) r = 2a (b) r = 2a sinθ
(c) r = 2a cos θ (d) 2a = r cos θ (Kumaun 2007)
7. The polar equation of a circle of radius a whose centre is at the pole is
(a) r = 2a cos θ (b) r = 2a sinθ
(c) r = a (d) r 2 = a2 cos θ (Kumaun 2009)
8
8. Conic = 4 − 5 cos θ is
r
(a) a parabola (b) a straight line
(c) an ellipse (d) a hyperbola (Kumaun 2010)
9. r = 2a cos θ represents
(a) an ellipse (b) a parabola
(c) a circle (d) none of these
(Kumaun 2013)
10. For a second degree curve if e > 1, then the curve shall be
(a) a hyperbola (b) an ellipse
(c) a parabola (d) none of these
(Kumaun 2014)

Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks “……” so that the following statements are complete and correct.
1. A conic is the locus of a point which moves so that its distance from a fixed
point is in a …… to its perpendicular distance from a fixed straight line.
2. The length of the latus rectum of the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ is …… .
3. If e < 1, the conic l / r = 1 + e cos θ is an …… .
4. The polar equation of a conic with its focus as the pole and its axis inclined at
l
an angle α to the initial line is = 1 + e ……
r
where l is the length of the semi-latus rectum of the conic and e is the
eccentricity of the conic.
l
5. The equation of the tangent at the point (r1 , θ1 ) of the conic = 1 + e cos θ is
r
…… .
l
6. The slope of the tangent to the conic = 1 + e cos θ at the point ‘α’ on it is
r
…… .
 G-39

7. The locus of the foot of the perpendicular from the focus on any tangent to a
conic (ellipse or hyperbola) is a circle called the …… of the conic.
8. The locus of the point of intersection of two perpendicular tangents to a
conic, is called the …… of the conic.
9. The polar equation of the chord of contact of the point (r ′ , θ ′ ) with respect to
l l  l 
the conic = 1 + e cos θ is  − e cos θ  − e cos θ ′ = …… .
r r  r ′ 
l
10. The equation of the normal at a point ‘α’ on the conic = 1 + e cos θ is
r
le sin α 1
⋅= …… .
1 + e cos α r

True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.
l
1. The conic = 1 + 3 cos θ is an ellipse.
r
l
2. The conic = 1 + cos θ is a parabola.
r
l
3. The equation of the tangent to the conic = 1 + e cos (θ − α) at the point ‘β’
r
l
on it is = e cos (θ − β) + cos (θ − α).
r
l
4. The equation of the director circle of the conic = 1 + e cos θ is
r
(1 − e2 ) r 2 + 2 ler cos θ − 2 l2 = 0.
5. The equation of the polar of a point (r′ , θ′ ) with respect to the conic
l l l 
= 1 + e cos θ is  − e cos θ  − e cos θ ′ = sin (θ − θ ′ ).
r  r   r′ 
l
6. The equation of the chord of the conic = 1 + e cos θ whose extremities are
r
the points (r1 , θ1 ) and (r2 , θ2 ) is
l θ − θ1  θ + θ2 
= e cos θ + sec  2  cos  θ − 1 ⋅
r  2   2 

A nswers
Multiple Choice Questions
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (c)
6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (a)
 G-40

Fill in the Blank(s)

1. constant ratio 2. 2 l 3. ellipse
l
4. cos (θ − α) 5. = e cos θ + cos (θ − θ1 )
r
e + cos α
6. − 7. auxiliary circle
sin α
8. director circle 9. cos (θ − θ′ ) 10. sin (θ − α) + e sin θ

True or False
1. F 2. T 3. F 4. T 5. F
6. T

¨
 G-41

2
S ystems of C o-ordinates

1 Introduction
tudents know well that in co-ordinate geometry of two dimensions (i. e., plane
S analytical geometry) the position of a point in a plane is referred to two
intersecting lines (in the plane of the point) called the axes of reference and their
point of intersection called the origin of co-ordinates. The axes are called
rectangular axes if they are at right angles, otherwise they are called oblique
axes. Whatever the axes may be, they divide the plane into four quadrants called
the first, second, third and fourth quadrants respectively.
But it is not always possible to determine the positions of all the points we can
imagine with reference to above co-ordinate axes. For example, consider the five
corners of a rectangular parallelopiped, they do not lie in one plane. Such points are
called points in space. A point in space can be demonstrated as follows :
Consider your study room and let dimensions of the room be that of a rectangular
parallelopiped. Now consider any particle in air, then this particle in air is a point in space.
The geometry of such points in space is discussed in “Analytical geometry of
three dimensions” also called “Solid geometry.”
 G-42

2 Definitions
Analytical geometry is that branch of
mathematics which treats geometry
algebraically i. e., we have equations of
geometric curves which reveal to us
their nature and properties.
Origin, Coordinate Axes and
Coordinate Planes. Let O be the
point of intersection of two mutually
perpendicular straight lines X ′ OX and
Y ′ OY drawn in the plane of paper.
Imagine a third straight line Z ′ OZ
passing through O and perpendicular to
both X ′ OX and Y ′ OY . Thus OZ is
perpendicular to both OX and OY i. e., OZ is perpendicular to the plane of the
paper. Also suppose that OZ points in that direction in which a right handed screw
will translate if rotated from OX to OY . Such a system of three mutually
perpendicular lines namely X ′ OX , Y ′ OY and Z ′ OZ is called a right handed system
of three dimensional rectangular coordinate axes. These lines are called x-axis, y-axis and
z-axis respectively. The point O is called the origin. OX , OY and OZ are taken to be
positive directions whereas OX ′ , OY ′ and OZ ′ as negative directions of x-axis, y-axis
and z-axis respectively.
We get three planes XOY (xy-plane), YOZ ( yz-plane) and ZOX (zx-plane) if the
above three axes are taken in pairs. They are called the coordinate planes. The three
coordinate planes divide the space into eight parts, called octants. The octant
OXYZ is called the positive octant.

3 Coordinates of a Point in Space

Let P be a point in space. Through P draw three planes PLAN, PNBM and PLCM
parallel to yz-plane, zx-plane and xy-plane respectively and meeting the x-axis,
y-axis and z-axis in the points A, B and C respectively. Complete the
parallelopiped whose coterminous edges are OA, OB and OC respectively. Let
OA = x, OB = y and OC = z , where x, y, z are taken with proper signs by the rule
explained in article 2. Then x is called the x-coordinate of P, y is called the
y-coordinate of P and z is called the z-coordinate of P. These coordinates are
written in the form of the ordered triad ( x, y, z ) and we say that the coordinates of P
are ( x, y, z ).
Obviously the x-coordinate of P is the algebraic distance of P from the yz-plane,
the y-coordinate of P is the algebraic distance of P from the zx-plane and the
 G-43

z-coordinate of P is the algebraic

distance of P from the xy-plane. These
coordinates are taken positive or
negative in the sense explained in
article 2. Thus the perpendicular
distances of a point P with proper signs
from the three coordinate planes
respectively are the coordinates of the
point P.
Obviously the coordinates of A are
( x, 0, 0), those of B are (0, y, 0) and
those of C are (0, 0, z ).
The line PA is in the plane LANP which is parallel to the yz-plane i. e.,perpendicular
to OX and so PA is perpendicular to OX . Similarly PB is perpendicular to OY and
PC is perpendicular to OZ . Thus if the coordinates of P are ( x, y, z ) and if the
perpendiculars from P on x-axis, y-axis and z-axis meet them at A, B and C
respectively, then
OA = x , OB = y, OC = z .
The z-coordinate of P is zero if and only if P lies in the xy-plane, the y-coordinate of
P is zero if and only if P lies in the zx-plane and the x-coordinate of P is zero if and
only if P lies in the yz-plane. The coordinates of the origin O are (0, 0, 0). The
y and z coordinates of each point on x-axis are both zero, the z and x coordinates
of each point on y-axis are both zero and the x and y coordinates of each point on
z-axis are both zero.
Relation between the position vector of a point in space and the coordinates
of that point.
→ →
Let r be the position vector of the point P ( x, y, z ) i. e., OP = r . Let $i, $j and k$
→

denote the unit vectors in the directions OX , OY and OZ respectively. Draw PN

perpendicular from P to the xy-plane so that NP = z with proper sign and
→
NP = z k$ . Through N draw a straight line NA parallel to y-axis and meeting the
x-axis at A and a straight line NB parallel to x-axis and meeting the y-axis at B. Then
OA = x with proper sign and OB = y with proper sign.
→ → →
We have OA = xi$ and OB = yj$ = AN .
→ → → → → → → → → →
Now r = OP = ON + NP = OA + AN + NP [∵ ON = OA + AN ]
= xi$ + yj$ + zk$.
→
Instead of writing r = xi$ + yj$ + zk$, we often find it convenient to write it as
→
r = ( x, y, z ).
 G-44

Thus the position vector of a point P is the vector xi$ + yj$ + zk$ if and only if the coordinates of
the point P are ( x, y, z ).

4 Octants
The three co-ordinate planes namely yz-plane, zx-plane and xy-plane divide the
space into eight parts called the octants, and to which octant the point P belongs is
determined by the signs of the co-ordinates of the point P. [See figure of article 2.]
The octant OXYZ in which the three co-ordinates are all positive is called the first
octant. The following table determines the signs in eight octants :

Octant OXYZ OXY ′ Z OXY ′ Z′ OXYZ′ OX ′ YZ OX ′ Y ′ Z OX ′ YZ′ OX ′ Y ′ Z′

x + + + + – – – –

y + – – + + – + –

z + + – – + + – –

Example 1: What are the positions of the following points ?

(i) (1, 2 , 3), (ii) (1, − 2 , 3), (iii) (0, 0, − 3),
(iv) (−1, − 2 , 0), (v) (2 , 0, 0), (vi) (−1, − 2 , − 3).
Solution: (i) (1, 2 , 3) is a point in the octant OXYZ and its distances from the

co-ordinate planes yz , zx and xy are 1, 2 and 3 respectively.

(ii) (1, − 2 , 3) is a point in the octant OXY ′ Z and its distances from the
co-ordinate planes yz , zx and xy are 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
(iii) (0, 0, − 3) is a point on OZ ′ i. e., on the –ve side of the z-axis situated at a
distance 3 from the origin O.
(iv) (−1, − 2 , 0) is a point in the co-ordinate plane xy since its z-coordinate is zero.
It lies in the octant OX ′ Y ′ Z and its distances from the co-ordinate planes yz
and zx are 1 and 2 respectively.
(v) (2 , 0, 0) is a point on the positive side of the x-axis situated at a distance 2
from the origin O.
(vi) (−1, − 2 , − 3) is a point in the octant OX ′ Y ′ Z ′ and its distances from the
co-ordinate planes yz , zx and xy are 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
 G-45

5 Change of Origin
Let OX , OY , OZ be a rectangular set of axes.
Referred to these axes let the co-ordinates of
two points P and Q be ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) respectively. Suppose we want to
shift the origin from O to the point P i. e., we
want to find the co-ordinates of Q referred to P
as origin.
Draw the new axes PX1 , PY1 and PZ1 parallel
to the original axes OX , OY and OZ
respectively.
The position vectors of the points P and Q with respect to O as origin are given by
→
OP = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k ,
→
OQ = x2 i + y2 j + z 2 k.
→
Also the position vector of the point Q with respect to P as origin is PQ. Now we
→ → →
have PQ = OQ − OP = ( x2 i + y2 j + z 2 k) − ( x1 i + y1 j + z1 k)
= ( x2 − x1 ) i + ( y2 − y1 ) j + (z 2 − z1 ) k
= ( x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z 2 − z1 ).
Therefore, the co-ordinates of the point Q with respect to the new origin P are
( x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z 2 − z1 ).

6 Spherical Polar Co-ordinates

Let X ′ OX , Y ′ OY and Z ′ OZ be the set of rectangular axes. Let P be a point in
space. Draw PN perpendicular from P to the
xy-plane. The position of P is determined if the
length OP, angles ZOP and XON are known.
Suppose OP = r, ∠ ZOP = θ and ∠ XON = φ,
measured positively in the directions shown by
arrows in the figure. The quantities r, θ, φ
defined as above, are called the spherical polar
co-ordinates of P and are written as (r, θ, φ).
Now we shall find relations between these
co-ordinates and cartesian co-ordinates. Let
( x, y, z ) be the cartesian co-ordinates of P. Hence we have
z = PN = OP cos (∠ OPN ) = r cos (∠ ZOP) = r cos θ. …(1)
 G-46

Also ON = OP sin ∠ OPN = r sin θ [ ∵ ∠ ONP = 90 ° ]

∴ x = ON cos φ = r cos φ sin θ, …(2)
and y = ON sin φ = r sin φ sin θ. …(3)
Thus relations (2), (3) and (1) give the relations between x, y, z and r, θ, φ.
Now squaring the relations (2) and (3) and adding, we get
x 2 + y 2 = ON 2
or u2 = x 2 + y 2 , where u = ON
2 2
or √ (x + y ) = u = r sin θ. …(4)
Dividing (4) by (1), we get
tan θ = √ ( x 2 + y 2 ) / z .
Dividing (3) by (2), we get
tan φ = y / x.
Squaring (1) and (4) and adding, we get
x2 + y2 + z 2 = r 2 .
Thus the relations between spherical polar co-ordinates and cartesian co-ordinates
are
x = r cos φ sin θ, y = r sin φ sin θ, z = r cos θ
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2 , tan θ = √ ( x 2 + y 2 ) / z , tan φ = y / x .

7 Cylindrical Co-ordinates
See figure of article 6. Let P be a point in space. The position of P can also be
determined if the measures of ON , ∠ XON and NP are known. Suppose
ON = u, ∠ XON = φ , NP = z . The quantities u, φ , z are called the cylindrical
co-ordinates of P and are written as (u, φ , z ).
Let ( x, y, z ) be the cartesian co-ordinates of P, then N has the co-ordinates ( x, y, 0).
Hence, we have
x = ON cos φ = u cos φ , y = u sin φ , z = z .
Also u2 = x 2 + y 2 , tan φ = y / x .
We observe that the z-coordinate is the same in the two systems i. e., cartesian and
cylindrical.

8 Formula for Distance between Two given Points

Theorem: To show that the distance between the points P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
Q ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) is given by PQ = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + (z 2 − z1 )2 .
 G-47

Proof: Referred to some origin O let the

coordinates of two given points P and Q be
( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) respectively.
→
Then OP = position vector of the point P
= x $i + y $j + z k$
1 1 1
→
and OQ = position vector of the point Q
= x $i + y $j + z k$ .
2 2 2
→ → →
We have PQ = OQ − OP = ( x2 $i + y2 $j + z 2 k$ ) − ( x1 $i + y1 $j + z1 k$ )

= ( x2 − x1 ) $i + ( y2 − y1 ) $j + (z 2 − z1 ) k$ .
→
∴ distance PQ = | OQ | = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + (z 2 − z1 )2 .
Hence distance between the points P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 , z 2 )
= PQ = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + (z 2 − z1 )2 .

Corollary: The distance of the point P ( x, y, z ) from the origin O (0, 0, 0) is

OP = ( x − 0)2 + ( y − 0)2 + (z − 0)2 = x2 + y2 + z 2 .

Example 2: Show that the points (0, 7, 10) , (− 1, 6, 6) , (− 4, 9, 6) form an isosceles right
angled triangle.
Solution: Let ABC be a given triangle and let the coordinates of the vertices
A, B and C be (0, 7, 10), (− 1, 6, 6) and (− 4, 9, 6) respectively. We have
AB = (− 1 − 0)2 + (6 − 7)2 + (6 − 10)2 = 1 + 1 + 16 = 18

BC = (− 4 + 1)2 + (9 − 6)2 + (6 − 6)2 = 9 + 9 + 0 = 18

and CA = (0 + 4)2 + (7 − 9)2 + (10 − 6)2 = 16 + 4 + 16

= 36 = 6.
Since AB = BC, therefore ∆ ABC is an isosceles triangle.
Again AB2 + BC 2 = 18 + 18 = 36 = CA2 . ∴ ∠ ABC = 90 o .
Hence ∆ ABC is also a right angled triangle. Therefore the given triangle is an
isosceles right angled triangle.
Example 3: P is a variable point and the coordinates of two given points A and B are
(− 2, 2, 3) and (13, − 3, 13) respectively. Find the locus of P if 3 PA = 2 PB .
Solution: Let the coordinates of P be ( x, y, z ). Then
 G-48

PA = ( x + 2)2 + ( y − 2)2 + (z − 3)2

and PB = ( x − 13)2 + ( y + 3)2 + (z − 13)2 .

Now it is given that 3 PA = 2 PB.
∴ 9 PA2 = 4 PB2
⇒ 9 {( x + 2)2 + ( y − 2)2 + (z − 3)2 }
= 4 {( x − 13)2 + ( y + 3)2 + (z − 13)2 }
⇒ 9 ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 4 x − 4 y − 6z + 17)
= 4 ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 26 x + 6 y − 26z + 347)
⇒ 5 x 2 + 5 y 2 + 5z 2 + 140 x − 60 y + 50 z − 1235 = 0
⇒ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 28 x − 12 y + 10 z − 247 = 0.
Hence the required locus of the point P is the surface
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 28 x − 12 y + 10 z − 247 = 0.

9 Section Formulae
To find the co-ordinates of the point which divides the straight line joining two given points.

Let P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) be
the given points.
Let ( x, y, z ) be the required co-ordinates
of R , the point which divides the join of
the line joining the two points
P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 , z 2 )
internally in the ratio m1 : m2 . The
position vectors of the points
P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), Q ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) and
R ( x, y, z ) are given by
→
OP = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k , …(1)
→
OQ = x2 i + y2 j + z 2 k , …(2)
→
OR = xi + yj + zk . …(3)
Now the point R divides the join of P and Q in the ratio m1 : m2 , so that

m1 PR
= or m1 ( RQ) = m2 ( PR).
m2 RQ
→ →
Hence m2 PR = m1 RQ
 G-49

→ → → →
⇒ m2 (OR − OP ) = m1 (OQ − OR )
→ → →
⇒ (m1 + m2 ) OR = m1 OQ + m2 OP
→ →
→ m1 OQ + m2 OP
⇒ OR =
m1 + m2
m1 ( x2 i + y2 j + z 2 k) + m2 ( x1 i + y1 j + z1 k)
⇒ xi + yj + zk =
m1 + m2
[Using (1), (2) and (3)]
(m1 x2 + m2 x1 ) i + (m1 y2 + m2 y1 ) j + (m1 z 2 + m2 z1 ) k
= ⋅
m1 + m2
Equating the coefficients of i, j, k , we get
m x + m2 x1 m1 y2 + m2 y1 m z + m2 z1
x= 1 2 , y= , z = 1 2 ⋅
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2
Corollary 1: Mid-point formula. The co-ordinates of the mid-point of the join of
( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) are
x + x2 y1 + y2 z + z2
x= 1 , y= , z = 1 ⋅ [Putting m1 = m2 ]
2 2 2
Corollary 2: If m1 : m2 = λ : 1, then the co-ordinates of the point R are
 x1 + λ x2 y1 + λ y2 z + λ z2 
 , , 1 ⋅
 λ +1 λ +1 λ +1 

These are called general coordinates of a point on the line PQ.

Corollary 3: If the ratio (m1 / m2 ) is positive, then the point R divides PQ

internally and if it is negative then externally.
The co-ordinates of the point R ( x, y, z ) which divides the join of the line joining
the two points P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) externally in the ratio m1 : m2 are
 m1 x2 − m2 x1 m1 y2 − m2 y1 m1 z 2 − m2 z1 
 , , ⋅
 m1 − m2 m1 − m2 m1 − m2 
General coordinates of a point on a line:
Let P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) be any two given points. Let R be any point
on the line PQ . Suppose R divides PQ in the ratio λ :1. Then the coordinates of R
are
 λ x2 + x1 λ y2 + y1 λ z 2 + z1 
 , ,  , λ ≠ − 1.
 λ +1 λ +1 λ +1 
These are called the general coordinates of a point on the line PQ . If λ is positive,
then R divides PQ internally and if λ is negative, then R divides PQ externally.
 G-50

10 Centroid of a Triangle and Centroid of a Tetrahedron

Theorem 1: To show that the centroid of the triangle with vertices A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ),
B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) and C ( x3 , y3 , z 3 ) is the point
 x1 + x2 + x3 , y1 + y2 + y3 , z1 + z 2 + z 3  ⋅
 
 3 3 3 
Proof: Let D be the middle point of BC . Then the coordinates of D are
 x2 + x3 , y2 + y3 , z 2 + z 3  ⋅
 
 2 2 2 

The centroid of the ∆ ABC is the point G

on the median AD dividing AD
internally in the ratio 2 : 1. So the
x-coordinate of G
x + x3 
2 ⋅  2  + 1⋅ x1
 2 
=
2 +1
x1 + x2 + x3
= ⋅
3
Similarly the y-coordinate of G
y + y2 + y3
= 1
3
and the z-coordinate of G
z + z2 + z3
= 1 ⋅
3
Hence the coordinates of the centroid of the triangle ABC are

 x1 + x2 + x3 , y1 + y2 + y3 , z1 + z 2 + z 3  ⋅
 
 3 3 3 

Theorem 2: To show that the centroid of the tetrahedron with vertices A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) ,

B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) , C ( x3 , y3 , z 3 ) and D ( x4 , y4 , z 4 ) is the point

 x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 , y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 , z1 + z 2 + z 3 + z 4  ⋅
 
 4 4 4 
Proof: Let G1 be the centroid of the face ABC of the tetrahedron DABC. Then
the coordinates of G1 are

 x1 + x2 + x3 , y1 + y2 + y3 , z1 + z 2 + z 3  ⋅
 
 3 3 3 
 G-51

The centroid of the tetrahedron DABC is the point

G on the line DG1 dividing DG1 internally in the
ratio 3 : 1. So the x-coordinate of G
x + x2 + x3 
3 .  1  + 1 . x4
 3 
=
3 +1
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4
= ⋅
4
Similarly we can find the y and z coordinates of G .
Hence the centroid of the tetrahedron DABC is the point
 x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 , y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 , z1 + z 2 + z 3 + z 4  ⋅
 
 4 4 4 
Remark: Remember the following facts about different types of quadrilaterals.
A quadrilateral ABCD is
(i) a parallelogram if AB = CD and BC = AD
(ii) a rhombus if AB = BC = CD = DA
(iii) a rectangle if AB = CD, BC = AD and AC = BD
(iv) a square if AB = BC = CD = DA and AC = BD.

Example 4: Find the coordinates of the point which divides the join of the points
A (3, 1, − 2) and B (1, − 3, − 1).
(i) internally in the ratio 2 : 3 (ii) externally in the ratio 3 : 1.
Solution: A is the point (3, 1, − 2) and B is the point (1, − 3, − 1).
(i) Coordinates of the point dividing AB internally in the ratio 2 : 3 are
 3 (3) + 2 (1) 3 (1) + 2 (− 3) 3 (− 2) + 2 (− 1) 11 3 8
 , ,  i. e.,  , − , − ⋅
 2+3 2+3 2+3  5 5 5
(ii) Coordinates of the point dividing AB externally in the ratio 3 : 1 are
1 (3) − 3 (1) 1 (1) − 3 (− 3) 1 (− 2) − 3 (− 1) 1
 , ,  i. e., 0, − 5, − ⋅
 1− 3 1− 3 1− 3   2

Example 5: A point P lies on the line whose end points are A (1, 2, 3) and B(2, 10, 1.
) If the
z-coordinate of P is 7, find its other coordinates.
Solution: Let the coordinates of the point P be ( x, y, z ) and let it divide the join of
A (1, 2, 3) and B (2, 10, 1) in the ratio λ :1. Then
λ .1 + 1. 3 λ + 3
z = = ⋅
λ +1 λ +1
But it is given that the z-coordinate of P is 7.
 G-52

λ +3
∴ 7= or 7λ + 7 = λ + 3 or 6λ = − 4 or λ = − 2 /3
λ +1
λ ⋅ 2 + 1⋅ 1 2 (− 2 / 3) + 1 (− 4 / 3) + 1
∴ x= = = = −1
λ +1 (− 2 / 3) + 1 1/ 3
λ ⋅ 10 + 1⋅ 2 10 (−2 / 3) + 2 (−20 / 3) + 2
and y= = = = −14.
λ +1 (− 2 / 3) + 1 1/ 3
Example 6: Find the ratio in which the join of A (2, 1, 5) and B (3, 4, 3) is divided by the
plane 2 x + 2 y − 2z = 1. Also find the coordinates of the point of division.
Solution: Suppose the plane 2 x + 2 y − 2z = 1 meets the line joining the points
A (2, 1, 5) and B (3, 4, 3) at the point C and C divides AB in the ratio λ :1. Then the
 3λ + 2 4λ + 1 3λ + 5 
coordinates of C are  , , ⋅ …(1)
 λ +1 λ +1 λ +1
But the point C lies on the plane 2 x + 2 y − 2z = 1. So its coordinates must satisfy
the equation of this plane.
 3λ + 2   4λ + 1  3λ + 5 
∴ 2  +2  −2  =1
 λ + 1   λ + 1   λ +1
5
or 6λ + 4 + 8λ + 2 − 6λ − 10 = λ + 1 or 7λ = 5 or ⋅λ =
7
∴ the required ratio is (5 / 7) : 1i. e., 5 : 7 i. e., the plane divides AB internally in the
ratio 5 : 7.
Putting λ = 5 / 7 in (1), the coordinates of the point of division C are
 29 , 9 , 25 ⋅
 12 4 6 

Comprehensive Exercise 1

1. (i) Find the locus of a point P which moves in such a way that its distance
from the point A (u, v, w) is always equal to a.
(ii) A , B , C are three points on the axes of x , y and z respectively at
distances a , b , c from the origin O ; find the co-ordinates of the point
which is equidistant from A , B , C and O.
2. (i) Show that the points A (0 , 1, 2), B (2 , − 1, 3) and C(1, − 3 , 1) are the
vertices of an isosceles right angled triangle.
(ii) Show that the points (1, 2 , 3), (2 , 3 , 1) and (3 , 1, 2) form an equilateral
triangle.
3. (i) Find the co-ordinates of the point which divides the join of (2 , 3, 4) and
(3, − 4,7) in the ratio 2 : − 4. (Meerut 2003)
(ii) Find the ratios in which the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 504 divides the line
joining the points (12, − 4, 8) and (27, − 9, 18).
 G-53

4. (i) Using distance formula show that the points A (3 , 2 , − 4), B (5 , 4 , − 6)

and C(9 , 8 , − 10) are collinear. Find the ratio in which B divides AC.
(Kumaun 2007)
(ii) Find the ratio in which the line joining the points A(2 , 3 , 4) and
B(−3 , 5 , − 4) is divided by the yz-plane. Also, find the point of
intersection.
5. Three vertices of a parallelogram ABCD are A (3 , 4 , − 1), B (7 , 10 , − 3) and
C(8 , 1, 0). Find the fourth vertex D.
6. What are the perpendicular distances of the point ( x, y, z ) from the
coordinate axes ?
7. Find the ratio in which the xy-plane divides the join of A (− 3, 4, − 8) and
B (5, − 6, 4). Also find the point of intersection of the line with the plane.
8. The mid-points of the sides of a triangle are (1, 5, − 1), (0, 4, − 2) and (2, 3, 4).
Find its vertices.

A nswers 1
1. (i) x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 xu − 2 yv − 2wz + u2 + v2 + w2 − a2 = 0
a b c
(ii)  , , 
 2 2 2
3. (i) (1, 10, 1) (ii) 2 : 3 and 2 : − 3
19 4
4. (i) 1 : 2 (ii) 2 : 3; 0, , 
 5 5
5. (4, − 5, 2) 6. z 2 + y2 ; z 2 + x2 ; x2 + y2
7. (7 / 3, − 8 / 3,0) 8. A (1, 2, 3), B (3, 4, 5) and C (− 1, 6, − 7)

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. If the vertices of a triangle ABC are the points A (2 , − 1, 0), B (3, 3, − 3) and
C (0, 1, 4), then the coordinates of its centroid are
5 1 5 1
(a)  , 1,  (b)  − , 2 , − 
3 3  3 3
1 2
(c) (5, 2 , 1) (d) 4, , 
 3 3
 G-54

2. If A, B and C are the points A (2 , 3, 4), B (3, − 2 , 2) and C (6, − 17, − 4), then
the ratio in which C divides AB is
(a) −4 : 3 (b) 3 : 4
(c) 4 : 3 (d) 1 : 2

Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks “……”, so that the following statements are complete and correct.
1. If the vertices of a triangle are the points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) and
( x3 , y3 , z 3 ), then the coordinates of its centroid are ……
2. The coordinates of the point dividing the line joining the points P ( x1 , y1 , z1 )
and Q ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) externally in the ratio m : n are …… .
3. The distance between the points A (−2 , 1, − 3) and B (4, 3, − 6) is …… .
4. The ratio in which the yz-plane divides the join of the points (−2 , 4, 7) and
(3, − 5, 8) is …… .

A nswers
Multiple Choice Questions
1. (a) 2. (a)
Fill in the Blank(s)
x + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y3 z1 + z 2 + z 3 
1.  1 , , 
 3 3 3 
 m x2 − n x1 m y 2 − n y1 m z 2 − n z1 
2.  , , 
 m−n m−n m−n 
3. 7
4. 2 :3

¨
 G-55

3
D irection C osines and P rojections

1 Angle between Two Non-coplanar

(i.e. Non-intersecting) Lines
et PQ and MN be two non-coplanar lines. The angle between two
L non-coplanar lines PQ and MN is equal to the
angle between two straight lines OA and OB
drawn from any point O parallel to PQ and MN
respectively. Thus the angle between the lines PQ
and MN is equal to the angle AOB.

2 Direction Cosines of a Directed Line or a Vector

(Kumaun 2001; Kanpur 11)
Definition: Suppose a directed line or a vector makes angles α, β and γ with the positive
directions of x-axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively. Then
cos α , cos β, cos γ
 G-56

are called the direction cosines (briefly written as d.c.’s) of that directed line or vector. These
are usually denoted by l, m, n respectively.
Thus l = cos α , m = cos β, n = cos γ .
The angles α, β, γ are known as direction angles of the
line.
Let AB be a given directed line or a vector. Draw a
line OP through the origin O in the direction of the
line [Link] angles α, β, γ made by OP with OX,
OY , OZ respectively as shown by arrows. Then
cos α, cos β, cos γ are d.c.’s of the line AB.
Clearly OP ′ i. e., the line through O in the direction of the directed line BA makes
angles 180° − α,180° − β, 180° − γ with OX, OY , OZ respectively. So d.c.’s of the
directed line BA are
cos (180° − α), cos (180° − β), cos (180° − γ )
i. e., − cos α, − cos β, − cos γ .
Thus if the d.c.’s of a directed line AB are l, m, n, then the d.c.’s of the directed line
BA whose direction is opposite to the direction of AB are − l, − m, − n .
Remark: Since the angles α , β, γ are not coplanar, therefore α + β + γ ≠ 360 ° .
Direction Cosines of the Coordinate Axes:
Since the axis of x makes angles 0°, 90°, 90° with the axes of x, y, z respectively, therefore
by definition, its d.c.’s are cos 0°, cos 90°, cos 90° i. e., 1, 0, 0. (Kumaun 2008)
Hence the d.c.’s of the x-axis are 1, 0, 0.
Similarly the d.c.’s of the y-axis are 0, 1, 0 and the d.c.’s of the z-axis are 0, 0, 1.
(Kumaun 2008)

3 Direction Ratios of a Line or a Vector

Definition: Suppose l, m, n are the direction cosines of a line or a vector. Then any three
numbers a, b, c which are proportional to l, m, n i.e., l / a = m / b = n / c are called direction
ratios (briefly written as d.r.’s) of that line or vector.
Direction cosines of a line are unique. But the direction ratios of a line are by no
means unique. If a, b, c are direction ratios of a line, then λa, λb, λc are also direction
ratios of that line where λ is any non-zero real number.

4 Position of a Point by Radius Vector and

Direction Cosines
If l, m, n are the direction cosines of a line OP, and OP = r, then the co-ordinates of P are
(lr, mr, nr).
 G-57

Let P ( x, y, z ) be a point in the space and O the origin. Then length OP = r is the
radius vector of the point P. Draw PM
perpendicular from P to OX meeting it at M.
Then x = OM. From the right angled ∆OMP, we
have
OM
= cos α = l
OP
x
or =l or x = lr.
r
Similarly, y = mr and z = nr.
Hence, co-ordinates of P are ( lr , mr , nr ).
Corollary: If ( x , y, z ) be the co-ordinates of a
x y z
point P, such that OP = r, then the direction cosines of OP are , , ⋅
r r r

5 Relation between the Direction Cosines

If l, m, n are the direction cosines of a line, then l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1.
(Kumaun 2001; Kanpur 05; Agra 14;
Bundelkhand 12; Kashi 12)
Through O draw a line OP parallel to the given line. Then the direction cosines of
OP are l, m, n and let OP = 1.
∴ the co-ordinates of P are (l, m, n) and the co-ordinates of O are (0, 0, 0).
∴ OP 2 = (l − 0)2 + (m − 0)2 + (n − 0)2
or (1)2 = l 2 + m2 + n2 [∵ OP = 1]
2 2 2
or l + m + n = 1.
Corollary: If α, β, γ are the angles which a line makes with the axes, then
cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ = 1 . (Kanpur 2004; Kashi 13)

6 Direction Cosines of the Vector →r = a →i + b →j + c →k , where

→
r =| r |
(Avadh 2014)

Theorem 1: If r = a $i + b $j + c k$, then prove that

→

→
(i) a, b, c are direction ratios of r
→
(ii) direction cosines l, m, n of r are given by
 G-58

a b c
l= ,m= ,n=
2 2 2 2 2 2
a +b +c a +b +c a + b2 + c 2
2

(iii) l2 + m2 + n2 = 1

is l $i + m $j + n k$ and
→
(iv) unit vector in the direction of r

r = | r |(l $i + m $j + n k$ ).
→ →

Proof: Suppose the vector r = a $i + b $j + c k$ which is in the direction of a given

→

line, makes angles α, β, γ with the positive directions of x-axis, y-axis and z-axis
r
respectively. If l, m, n are the direction cosines of r , then l = cos α, m = cos β,
n = cos γ .
r • $i = (a $i + b $j + c k$)• $i = a, r • $j = b and r • k$ = c .
→ → →
We have
r a
r • $i = a ⇒ | r || $i|cos α = a ⇒ | r |cos α = a ⇒ cos α =
→ →
Now ;
→
|r |
b
r • $j = b ⇒ | r | | $j|cos β = b ⇒ | r | cos β = b ⇒ cos β =
→ → →
;
→
|r |
c
r • k$ = c ⇒ | r | | k$|cos γ = c ⇒ | r |cos γ = c ⇒ cos γ =
→ → →
and ⋅
→
| r|
a a
∴ l = cos α = =
→
|r| a + b2 + c 2
2

[ ∵| r | | = |a $i + b $j + c k$| =
→
a2 + b 2 + c 2 ]
b b
m = cos β = =
| r|
→
a2 + b 2 + c 2
c c
and n = cos γ = = ⋅
| r|
→
a + b2 + c 2
2

We have
a2 b2 c2
l2 + m2 + n2 = + +
a2 + b 2 + c 2 a2 + b 2 + c 2 a2 + b 2 + c 2
a2 + b 2 + c 2
= = 1.
a2 + b 2 + c 2
l m n 1
Also = = =
a b c a + b2 + c 2
2

→
i. e., a, b, c are proportional to d.c.’s l, m, n of r .

a, b, c are direction ratios of r = a $i + b $j + c k$ .

→
∴
 G-59

→
Finally unit vector in the direction of r
1 → 1 a $ b $ c $
= r = (a $i + b $j + c k$) = i+ j+ k
→ → → → →
|r| | r| | r| |r | | r|
= l $i + m $j + n k$ .
r = | r |(l $i + m $j + n k$ ).
→ →
∴
Remember the following results established in theorem 1:
(i) If l, m, n are the direction cosines of a line or a vector, then l2 + m2 + n2 = 1.
(ii) l, m, n are the direction cosines of a line or a vector if and only if l $i + m $j + n k$
is a unit vector in the direction of that line or vector.

r = a $i + b $j + c k$ is any vector in the direction of a given line, then a, b, c

(iii) If →

are direction ratios of that vector or line.

Remark: If l, m, n are direction cosines of a line, then l, m, n are also direction
ratios of that line. But if a, b, c are direction ratios of a line, then a, b, c are direction
cosines of that line if and only if a2 + b 2 + c 2 = 1.

Theorem 2: To show that the direction cosines of a line whose direction ratios are a, b, c
a b c
are , , ⋅
√ (a + b + c ) √ (a + b + c ) √ (a + b 2 + c 2 )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Proof: Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of a line whose direction ratios are a, b, c.
Then
l m n
= = = λ (say).
a b c
∴ l = aλ , m = b λ , n = c λ . …(1)
2 2 2
But l + m + n = 1.
1
∴ λ2 (a2 + b 2 + c 2 ) = 1 or λ2 =
a + b2 + c 2
2
1
or λ =± ⋅
√ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 )
a b c
∴ from (1), l = 2 2 2
,m = 2 2 2
, n=
√ (a + b +c ) √ (a + b +c ) √ (a + b 2 + c 2 )
2

a b c
or l=− 2 2 2
,m = − 2 2 2
,n = −
√ (a + b +c ) √ (a + b +c ) √ (a + b 2 + c 2 )
2

depending upon the direction of that line.

Thus, if l, m, n are the direction cosines of a line whose direction ratios are a, b, c ,
2 2 2
l m n √ (l + m + n ) 1
then = = = = ⋅
a b c √ (a + b + c ) √ (a + b 2 + c 2 )
2 2 2 2
 G-60

a b c
∴ l= ,m= ,n= ⋅
√ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 ) √ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 ) √ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 )
Rule: Let a, b, c be the d.r.’s of a given line, then, to find actual direction cosines
of this line, divide each of a, b, c by √ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 ).
Theorem 3: If the length of a line OP through the origin O is r, then the coordinates of P
are (lr, mr, nr) , where l, m, n are the direction cosines of the line OP.
Proof: The unit vector in the direction of the line OP whose d.c.’s are l, m, n
= l $i + m $j + n k$ .
→ →
∴ OP =| OP |(l $i + m $j + n k$ ) = r (l $i + m $j + n k$ ) = r l $i + r m $j + r n k$ .
∴ the coordinates of P are (r l, r m, r n) .
Theorem 4: Direction cosines of the join of two points:
To show that the direction ratios of a line PQ joining two points P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
Q ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) are x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z 2 − z1 and its direction cosines are
x2 − x1 y − y1 z 2 − z1
, 2 , ⋅
PQ PQ PQ
Proof: Let O be the origin and ( x1 , y1 , z1 )
and ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) be the coordinates of the
points P and Q respectively.
→
We have PQ = position vector of Q
− position vector of P
= ( x2 $i + y2 $j + z 2 k$) − ( x1 $i + y1 $j + z1 k$)
= ( x2 − x1 ) $i + ( y2 − y1 ) $j + (z 2 − z1 ) k$ .
→
Now direction ratios of PQ are the coefficients of $i, $j, k$ in the resolution of PQ
as a linear combination of $i, $j, k$ .
∴ direction ratios of PQ are x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z 2 − z1 .
→
Also a unit vector in the direction of PQ
−→ −→
PQ PQ
= =
→ PQ
| PQ|
1
= {( x2 − x1 ) $i + ( y2 − y1 ) $j + (z 2 − z1 ) k$ }
PQ
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 $
= 2 $i + 2 $j + 2 k.
PQ PQ PQ
∴ the direction cosines of PQ are
 G-61

x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1
, , ,
PQ PQ PQ

where PQ = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + (z 2 − z1 )2 .
Remember: Direction ratios of a line PQ joining the points P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
Q ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) are x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z 2 − z1 .

7 Projections
Projection of a point on a given line:
Let P be a given point and AB the given straight line.
Draw PM perpendicular from P to AB, meeting AB in
M. Then the foot M of the perpendicular PM is called
the projection of the given point P on the given line
AB.
Projection of a given line segment on another given line:
To find the projection of the line joining two points P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) on
another line whose direction cosines are l, m, n.
Let AB be a given line whose direction cosines are l, m, n.
r
If a is a unit vector along AB, then
r
a = l $i + m $j + n k$ .
Let P and Q be two given points ( x1 , y1 , z1 )
and ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) respectively. Draw PM and
QN perpendiculars to AB. Then MN is the
projection of PQ on AB.
Draw PR parallel to AB to meet QN at R.
Then PR = MN .
If θ is the angle between the lines PQ and AB, then ∠ QPR = θ.
The projection of PQ on AB = MN = PR
→ → r
= PQ cos θ = | PQ |cos θ = PQ • a,
r
where a is unit vector in the direction PR
i. e., in the direction of the given line AB
$
= {( x2 $i + y2 $j + z 2 k ) − ( x1 $i + y1 $j + z1 k$ )} • (li$ + mj$ + nk$ )
= { ( x2 − x1 ) $i + ( y2 − y1 ) $j + (z 2 − z1 ) k$ } • (li$ + mj$ + nk$ )
= l ( x2 − x1 ) + m ( y2 − y1 ) + n (z 2 − z1 ).
Hence the projection of the line joining the points P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 , z 2 )
on a line whose direction cosines are l, m, n
= l ( x2 − x1 ) + m ( y2 − y1 ) + n (z 2 − z1 ).
 G-62

Remark: If the projection of PQ on AB is zero, then PQ is perpendicular to AB.

Corollary 1: If O and P are two points (0, 0, 0) and ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), then the projection of
OP on a line whose direction cosines are l, m, n is lx1 + my1 + nz1 . (Kumaun 2007)
Corollary 2: The projection of the line joining the points P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
Q ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) on a line whose direction ratios are a, b, c is
( x2 − x1 ) a + ( y2 − y1 ) b + (z 2 − z1 ) c
= ⋅
√ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 )

Example 1: Find the direction cosines of a line whose direction ratios are 2, 3, − 6.

Solution: We have 22 + 32 + (− 6)2 = 4 + 9 + 36 = 7.

Hence the direction cosines of the given line are
2 3 −6
, , ⋅
7 7 7
Example 2: Find the direction cosines of the line segment joining the points P ( − 2, 1, − 8)
and Q (4, 3, − 5). (Kashi 2011)
Solution: The direction ratios of the line segment PQ are
4 − (− 2), 3 − 1, − 5 − (− 8) i. e., 6, 2, 3.
2 2 2
We have (6) + (2) + (3) = 36 + 4 + 9 = 49 = 7 .
6 2 3
∴ the direction cosines of PQ are , , ⋅
7 7 7
Example 3: If P (6, 3, 2), Q (5, 1, 4), R (3, − 4, 7), S (0, 2 , 5) are four points, find the
projection of PQ on RS.
Solution: The direction ratios of RS are
0 − 3, 2 + 4, 5 − 7 i. e., − 3, 6, − 2 .
Hence the direction cosines of RS are
−3 6 −2
, ,
√ (9 + 36 + 4) √ (9 + 36 + 4) √ (9 + 36 + 4)
−3 6 −2
or , , ⋅
7 7 7
Now the projection of PQ upon RS
3 6 2
= (5 − 6)  −  + (1 − 3) + (4 − 2)  − 
 7 7  7
3 12 4 13 13
= − − =− = numerically.
7 7 7 7 7
 G-63

Comprehensive Exercise 1

1. Find the d.c.’s of a line whose direction ratios are − 1, 2, − 1 .

2. Find the direction cosines of the line which is equally inclined to the axes.
(Gorakhpur 2005; Kanpur 11; Bundelkhand 13; Purvanchal 13)

3. Find the direction cosines l, m, n of two lines which are connected by the
relations l − 5m + 3n = 0 and 7l 2 + 5m2 − 3n2 = 0.
(Meerut 2010, 12; Purvanchal 13)
4. Find the direction cosines l, m, n of the two lines which are connected by the
relations l + m + n = 0 and mn − 2nl − 2lm = 0.
(Gorakhpur 2005; Kanpur 07; Purvanchal 08; Kumaun 13)
5. If P, Q, R, S are four points with co-ordinates (3, 4, 5), (4, 6, 3), (−1, 2 , 4),
(1, 0, 5) respectively, then find the projection of PQ on RS. Also find the
projection of RS on PQ. (Agra 2001)
6. Prove that sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2 γ = 2, where α, β, γ are the angles which the
given line makes with the positive directions of the axes. (Agra 2001)

A nswers 1
−1 2 −1 1 1 1
1. , , 2. ± ,± ,±
6 6 6 3 3 3
1 1 2 1 2 3
3. − , , and , ,
6 6 6 14 14 14
1 1 −2 1 −2 1 4 4
4. , , ; , , 5. (− , − )
√6 √6 √6 √6 √6 √6 3 3

8 Angle between Two Lines or Vectors

(Kumaun 2002)
Theorem 1: If θ is the angle between two lines or vectors whose direction cosines are
l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 , then prove that
(i) cos θ = l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2
(ii) the lines are perpendicular if and only if l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0.
(Avadh 2013)
2 2 2
(iii) sin θ = (m1 n2 − m2 n1 ) + (n1 l2 − n2 l1 ) + (l1 m2 − l2 m1 )
= Σ (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 .
 G-64

l1 m1 n1
(iv) the lines are parallel if and only if = = ⋅
l2 m2 n2 (Avadh 2013)
→ →
Proof: Let a and b be unit vectors along the lines or vectors whose direction
cosines are l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 respectively. Then
→
a = l1 $i + m1 $j + n1 k$ and b = l2 $i + m2 $j + n2 k$ .
→

Since θ is the angle between the given lines, therefore the angle between the vectors
→ →
a and b is also θ .
→ →
(i) We have a • b = (l1 $i + m1 $j + n1 k$ ) • (l2 $i + m2 $j + n2 k$ )
→ →
⇒ | a | | b |cos θ = l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2
⇒ cos θ = l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2
→ → r r
[∵ | b | = 1 = | b | , a and b being unit vec tors]
Hence cos θ = l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 .
(ii) The given lines or vectors are perpendicular if and only if θ = 90 °
i. e., if and only if cos θ = 0 i. e., if and only if l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0.
(iii) To prove this result we shall make use of Lagrange’s identity stated below.
Lagrange’s Identity: If l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 are two sets of real numbers,
then
(l12 + m12 + n12 )(l2 2 + n2 2 + n2 2 ) − (l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 )2
= (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 + (n1 l2 − n2 l1 )2 + (l1 m2 − l2 m1 )2 .
Now, we have sin2 θ = 1 − cos 2 θ
= (l12 + m12 + n12 ) (l2 2 + m2 2 + n2 2 ) − (l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 )2
= (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 + (n1 l2 − n2 l1 )2 + (l1 m2 − l2 m1 )2
[By Lagrange’s identity]
2
= Σ (m1 n2 − m2 n1 ) ∴ sin θ = Σ (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 .
Alternative proof for the value of sin θ:
→ →
We have | a × b | = |(l1 $i + m1 $j + n1 k$ ) × (l2 $i + m2 $j + n2 k$ )|
→ →
⇒ | b || b |sin θ = |(m1 n2 − m2 n1 ) $i + (n1 l2 − n2 l1 ) $j + (l1 m2 − l2 m1 ) k$|

⇒ sin θ = (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 + (n1 l2 − n2 l1 )2 + (l1 m2 − l2 m1 )2 .

→ → → →
[∵ | a | = 1 = | b | , a and b being unit vec tors]
(iv) The given lines or vectors are parallel
→ → → →
⇔ the vectors a and b are parallel ⇔ a = λ b , where λ is some scalar
⇔ l1 $i + m1 $j + n1 k$ = λ (l2 $i + m2 $j + n2 k$ )
 G-65

⇔ l1 = λ l2 , m1 = λm2 , n1 = λn2
[Equating the coefficients of $i, $j, k$ on both sides]
l1 m1 n1
⇔ = = , each ratio being equal to λ .
l2 m2 n2

Remark 1: If θ is the angle between two lines, then

π − θ is also the angle between those lines. We have
cos (π − θ) = − cos θ so that |cos (π − θ)| = |cos θ|.
If θ is an acute angle, then cos θ is positive and if θ is an
obtuse angle, then cos θ is negative.
If on applying the formula cos θ = l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 ,
we get cos θ > 0, then θ is the acute angle between the lines and if we get cos θ < 0,
then θ is the obtuse angle between the lines. If we wish to get the acute angle
between the given lines, we can modify the formula giving cos θ as
cos θ = | l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 |.
Remark 2: Rule to remember the formula for sin θ:
Direction cosines of one line are l1 , m1 , n1
and direction cosines of the other line are l2 , m2 , n2 .
2 2 2
m1 n1 n1 l1 l1 m1
We have sin2 θ = + +
m2 n2 n2 l2 l2 m2

Theorem 2: If θ is the angle between two lines or vectors whose direction ratios are
a1 , a2 , a3 and b1 , b2 , b3 , then prove that
a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
(i) cos θ =
a12 + a2 2 + a3 2 b12 + b2 2 + b3 2
(ii) the lines are perpendicular if and only if a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = 0
(Avadh 2013)
2 2 2
(a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 ) + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )
(iii) sin θ =
a12 + a2 2 + a3 2 b12 + b2 2 + b3 2
a1 a2 a3
(iv) the lines are parallel if and only if = = ⋅
b1 b2 b3 (Meerut 2013B; Avadh 13)
→ →
Proof: Let a and b be vectors along the lines whose direction ratios are
a1 , a2 , a3 and b1 , b2 , b3 respectively.
→ →
Then b = a1 $i + a2 $j + a3 k$ and b = b1 $i + b2 $j + b3 k$.
Since θ is the angle between the given lines, therefore the angle between the vectors
→ →
a and b is also θ.
→ →
(i) We have a • b = (a1 $i + a2 $j + a3 k$ ) • (b1 $i + b2 $j + b3 k$ )
 G-66

→ →
⇒ | a | | b |cos θ = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
⇒ cos θ =
→ →
|a ||b |
a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
= ⋅
a12 + a2 2 + a3 2 b12 + b2 2 + b3 2
(ii) The given lines or vectors are perpendicular
⇔ θ = 90 ° ⇔ cos θ = 0 ⇔ a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = 0.
(iii) We have
→ →
| a × b | = |(a1 $i + a2 $j + a3 k$ ) × (b1 $i + b2 $j + b3 k$ )|
→ →
⇒ | a | | b |sin θ = |(a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) $i + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 ) $j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) k$|

(a2 b3 − a3 b2 )2 + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )2 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2

⇒ sin θ = ⋅
a12 + a2 2 + a3 2 b12 + b2 2 + b3 2
(iv) The given lines or vectors are parallel
→ →
⇔ the vectors a and b are parallel
→ →
⇔ a = λ b , where λ is some scalar
⇔ a1 $i + a2 $j + a3 k$ = λ (b1 $i + b2 $j + b3 k$ )
⇔ a1 = λb1 , a2 = λb2 , a3 = λb3 [Equating the coefficients of $i, $j, k$ ]
a1 a a
⇔ = 2 = 3 , each ratio being equal to λ .
b1 b2 b3
Remark 1: The condition of perpendicularity of two lines is the same whether
we use their direction cosines or direction ratios.
Remark 2: Two lines are parallel if and only if their direction ratios are
proportional.
Remark 3: How to show that three given points are collinear ?
If we are to show that the three given points P, Q and R are collinear, we should
find direction ratios of PQ and PR. If these direction ratios are proportional, then
PQ and PR are parallel. Since both PQ and PR pass through P, so they are in the
same straight line. Hence the points P, Q and R are collinear.
Remark 4: If θ is the angle between the straight lines whose direction cosines are
l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 , then (Bundelkhand 2014; Kumaun 14)

cos θ = l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 and sin θ = Σ (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 .

sin θ Σ (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2
∴ tan θ = = ⋅
cos θ l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2
 G-67

Again if θ is the angle between the straight lines whose direction ratios are a1 , b1 , c1
and a2 , b2 , c 2 , then
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c 2
cos θ =
a12 + b12 + c12 a2 2 + b2 2 + c 2 2

Σ (b1 c 2 − b2 c1 )2
and sin θ = ⋅
a12 + b12 + c12 a2 2 + b2 2 + c 2 2

sin θ Σ (b1 c 2 − b2 c1 )2
∴ tan θ = = ⋅
cos θ a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c 2
We observe that the formula for tan θ is the same whether we are given direction
cosines or direction ratios.

9 Perpendicular Distance of a Point from a Line

To find the perpendicular distance of a point P ( x ′ , y ′ , z ′ ) from a line through A (a, b, c )
and whose direction cosines are l, m, n.
Let AB be a line through A (a, b, c ) and whose d.c.’s
are l, m, n.
Let PN be the perpendicular from P to AB.
Now AN = projection of the line segment joining
A (a, b, c ) and P ( x ′ , y ′ , z ′ ) on
the line AB
= ( x ′ − a) l + ( y ′ − b) m + (z ′ − c ) n,
and AP = distance between the points A and P
= √ [( x ′ − a)2 + ( y ′ − b)2 + (z ′ − c )2 ].
We have, PN 2 = AP 2 − AN 2
or PN 2 = {( x ′ − a)2 + ( y ′ − b)2 + (z ′ − c )2 }
− {( x ′ − a) l + ( y ′ − b) m + (z ′ − c ) n}2
or PN 2 = {( x ′ − a)2 + ( y ′ − b)2 + (z ′ − c )2 } { l 2 + m2 + n2 }
− {( x ′ − a) l + ( y ′ − b) m + (z ′ − c ) n}2
[ ∵ l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1]
= Σ {( y ′ − b) n − (z ′ − c ) m}2 [By Lagrange’s identity]
∴ PN = √ [Σ {( y ′ − b) n − (z ′ − c ) m}2 ].

Aliter: Let ∠ PAN = θ.

2
We have, PN = AP 2 sin2 θ.
 G-68

Now θ is the angle between the lines AP and AB. Here the d.c.’s of AP are
( x ′ − a) / AP, ( y ′ − b) / AP, (z ′ − c ) / AP
and the d.c.’s of AB are l, m, n
2 2
( y ′ − b) / AP (z ′ − c ) / AP ( x ′ − a) / AP (z ′ − c ) / AP
∴ sin2 θ =  + 
 m n   l n 
2
( x ′ − a) / AP ( y ′ − b) / AP
+ 
 l m 
 y ′ − b 2 2 2
1 z ′ − c  x ′ − a z ′ − c  x ′ − a y′− b
=   +  +  ⋅
AP 2  m n   l n   l m  
 
2 2
2 y ′ − b z ′ − c  x ′ − a z ′ − c
∴ PN = AP 2 sin2 θ =   + 
 m n   l n 
2
x ′ − a y ′ − b
+  ⋅ …(1)
 l m 
Remark: In the formula (1), l, m, n are the d.c.’s of the line AB. If however, α, β, γ
2
are the d.r.’s of the line AB, then to get PN we should divide the R.H.S. of (1) by
α2 + β2 + γ 2 .

Example 4: Show that the three points A (2, − 1, 3) , B (4, 3, 1) and C (3, 1, 2) are
collinear. (Meerut 2010B)
Solution: The direction ratios of the line AB are
4 − 2, 3 − (− 1),1 − 3 i. e., 2, 4, − 2.
The direction ratios of the line AC are 3 − 2,1 − (− 1), 2 − 3 i. e., 1, 2, − 1.
We see that the direction ratios of the two lines AB and AC are proportional
2 4 −2
because we have = = , each ratio being equal to 2.
1 2 −1
∴ the lines AB and AC are parallel.
But both the lines AB and AC pass through the point A. So AB and AC are in the
same straight line. Hence the points A, B and C are collinear.
Example 5: Prove that the straight lines whose direction cosines are given by the relations
al + mb + cn = 0 and fmn + gnl + hlm = 0 are perpendicular if f / a + g / b + h / c = 0
and parallel if √ (af ) ± √ (bg) ± √ (ch) = 0. (Meerut 2007B, 10;
Purvanchal 09, 10; Kumaun 15)
Solution: As given, n = − (al + bm) / c .
Substituting this value of n in the second relation, we get
 G-69

 al + bm  al + bm
fm  −  + gl  −  + hlm = 0
 c   c 
or afml + bfm2 + agl 2 + bglm − chlm = 0
l2 l
or ag 2
+ (af + bg − ch) + bf = 0. …(1)
m m
Now if l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 are the direction cosines of the two lines, then the
roots of (1) are l1 / m1 and l2 / m2 .
l l bf
∴ product of the roots = 1 ⋅ 2 =
m1 m2 ag
l1 l2 m1 m2
or = ⋅
f /a g/b
l1 l2 m1 m2 n1 n2
∴ = = , by symmetry.
( f / a) ( g / b) (h / c )
Now the lines are perpendicular if l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0
i. e., if f / a + g / b + h / c = 0.
Again, if the lines are parallel then the direction cosines are same i. e.,the roots of (1)
are equal
i. e., (af + bg − ch)2 = 4ag . bf . [ ∵ B2 = 4 AC ]
Taking square root, we get
af + bg − ch = ± 2 √ (afbg)
or af ± 2 √ (af bg) + bg = ch
or { √ (af ) ± √ (bg )}2 = (ch ).
Taking square root,
√ (af ) ± √ (bg ) = ± √ (ch )
or √ (af ) ± √ (bg ) ± √ (ch ) = 0,
which proves the second result.

Example 6: Show that the straight lines whose direction cosines are given by the equations
al + bm + cn = 0 and ul2 + vm2 + wn2 = 0
are perpendicular, if a2 (v + w) + b 2 (u + w) + c 2 (u + v) = 0 and parallel, if
a2 b2 c2
+ + = 0. (Meerut 2001, 12; Kanpur 09, 11, 14;
u v w
Kumaun 12, 14)
Solution: The given relations are
al + bm + cn = 0 …(1)
2 2 2
and ul + vm + wn = 0 …(2)
From (1), we have n = − (al + bm) / c
 G-70

Putting this value of n in (2), we have

2
 (al + bm)
ul2 + vm2 + w  −  =0
 c 
or (c 2 u + a2 w) l2 + 2abwlm + (b 2 w + c 2 v) m2 = 0
or (c 2 u + a2 w) (l / m)2 + 2abw (l / m) + (b 2 w + c 2 v) = 0 …(3)
Let l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 be the d.c.’s of the two lines. Then the roots of the
quadratic equation (3) in (l / m) are l1 / m1 and l2 / m2 .
l1 l2 b2 w + c 2 v
∴ product of the roots = ⋅ = ⋅
m1 m2 c 2 u + a2 w
l1 l2 m1 m2 n1 n2
∴ 2 2
= 2 2
= , by symmetry …(4)
b w+c v c u+a w a v + b2 u
2

The lines will be perpendicular if

l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0 …(5)
2 2 2 2 2 2
i. e., (b w + c v) + (c u + a w) + (a v + b u) = 0, putting the
proportionate values of l1 l2 , m1 m2 and n1 n2 from (4) in (5)
i. e., a2 (v + w) + b 2 (u + w) + c 2 (v + u) = 0.
Now the roots of the equation (3) will be equal i. e., we shall have
l1 / m1 = l2 / m2 if B2 = 4 AC
i. e., 4 a2 b 2 w2 = 4 (c 2 u + a2 w) (b 2 w + c 2 v)
or c 2 (a2 wv + b 2 uw + c 2 vu) = 0
or a2 wv + b 2 uw + c 2 vu = 0
a2 b2 c2
or + + = 0. …(6)
u v w
[Dividing by uvw]
If instead of eliminating n between (1) and (2), we eliminate l, then by symmetry of
the result (6), (6) is also the condition for m1 / n1 = m2 / n2 .
∴ if (6) is satisfied, we have
l1 l m1 m2
= 2 and =
m1 m2 n1 n2
l1 m1 n1
i. e., = = which is the condition for the lines to be parallel.
l2 m2 n2
Hence the lines will be parallel if
a2 b2 c2
+ + = 0.
u v w
Remark: The right hand side of (5) is 0. So instead of putting actual values of
l1 l2 , m1 m2 , n1 n2 in (5), we can put their proportionate values also.
 G-71

Example 7: Show that the lines whose d.c.’s are given by l + m + n = 0 and
2 mn + 3ln − 5lm = 0 are at right angles.
(Meerut 2000, 02, 04, 05, 08, 13B; Kumaun 08, 11; Purvanchal 07, 11)
Solution: From first relation, we get
l = − m − n. …(1)
Substituting this value of l in the second relation, we get
2 mn + 3 (− m − n). n − 5 (− m − n) m = 0
or 5m2 + 4mn − 3n2 = 0
or 5 (m / n)2 + 4 (m / n) − 3 = 0. …(2)
If l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 be the d.c.’s of the two lines, then the roots of (2) are
m1 / n1 and m2 / n2 .
∴ product of the roots
m1 m2 3
⋅ =−
n1 n2 5
m1 m2 n1 n2
or = …(3)
3 −5
Also from (1), n = − l − m.
Putting this value of n in the second given relation, we get
2 m (− l − m) + 3l (− l − m) − 5lm = 0
or 3 (l / m)2 + 10 (l / m) + 2 = 0.
l1 l2 2 l1 l2 m1 m2
∴ ⋅ = or =
m1 m2 3 2 3 …(4)

From (3) and (4), we have

l1 l2 m m nn
= 1 2 = 1 2 = k (say).
2 3 −5
∴ l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = (2 + 3 − 5) k = 0. k = 0.
∴ the given lines are at right angles.

Example 8: If l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 are direction cosines of the two lines, show that the
direction cosines of the line perpendicular to both are proportional to
m1 n2 − m2 n1 , n1 l2 − n2 l1 , l1 m2 − l2 m1 .
Prove further if the given lines are at right angles to each other then these direction ratios are the
actual direction cosines. (Avadh 2012)
Solution: Suppose that the required direction cosines of the line are l, m, n. Since
the line is perpendicular to the given lines, we have
ll1 + mm1 + nn1 = 0 …(1)
and ll2 + mm2 + nn2 = 0. …(2)
 G-72

Solving (1) and (2), we have

l m n
= = ⋅ …(3)
m1 n2 − m2 n1 n1 l2 − n2 l1 l1 m2 − l2 m1
This shows that the required d.r.’s are
m1 n2 − m2 n1 , n1 l2 − n2 l1 , l1 m2 − l2 m1 .
Now suppose θ is the angle between the two given lines whose d.c.’s are l1 , m1 , n1
and l2 , m2 , n2 .
Then sin θ = √ { Σ (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 } …(4)
[See article 8, Theorem 1, part (iii)]
If θ = 90 ° i. e., the lines are perpendicular, then (4) gives
√ { Σ (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 } = 1. …(5)
∴ in this case from (3) the d.c.’s l, m, n of the line are given by
l m n
= =
m1 n2 − m2 n1 n1 l2 − n2 l1 l1 m2 − l2 m1
√ (l2 + m2 + n2 ) 1
= 2
= = 1.
√ { Σ (m1 n2 − m2 n1 ) } 1

[Using (5) and l2 + m2 + n2 = 1]

Hence in this case the actual direction cosines l, m, n are
m1 n2 − m2 n1 , n1 l2 − n2 l1 , l1 m2 − l2 m1 . Proved.

Example 9: If the edges of a rectangular parallelopiped be a, b, c , show that the angles

between the four diagonals are given by
 ± a2 ± b 2 ± c 2 
cos − 1  2 2 2 
⋅
 a + b + c 
(Meerut 2002; Agra 05; Avadh 07)

Solution: Let the vertex O of the rectangular

parallelopiped be taken as origin and the
coterminous edges OA, OB, OC as the
coordinate axes. We have OA = a, OB = b,
OC = c . The coordinates of the eight vertices
of the parallelopiped are given by O (0, 0, 0),
A (a, 0, 0), B (0, b, 0), C (0, 0, c ), D (a, b, 0),
E (0, b, c ), F (a, 0, c ) and P (a, b, c ).
The four diagonals of the parallelopiped are
OP, AE, BF and CD whose direction ratios
are respectively a, b, c; − a, b, c ; a, − b, c ; and
a, b, − c .
 G-73

∴ direction cosines of OP, AE, BF and CD are respectively

a b c
, , ;
2 2 2 2 2 2
a +b +c a +b +c a + b2 + c 2
2

−a b c
, , ;
2 2 2 2 2 2
a +b +c a +b +c a + b2 + c 2
2

a −b c
, , ;
2 2 2 2 2 2
a +b +c a +b +c a + b2 + c 2
2

a b −c
and , , ⋅
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a +b +c a +b +c a +b +c
∴ the angle θ between the diagonals OP and AE is given by

a (− a) + b . b + c . c
cos θ =
a + b2 + c 2
2
a2 + b 2 + c 2
− a2 + b 2 + c 2
=
a2 + b 2 + c 2
 − a2 + b 2 + c 2 
or θ = cos − 1  2 2 2 
⋅
 a +b +c 
The total number of pairs of the diagonals is 4 C2 i. e., 6. In a similar way the angles
between the remaining five pairs of the diagonals are determined and all of these six
angles are given by
2 2 2
 ± a ± b ± c 
cos − 1  2 ⋅
 a + b 2 + c 2 
The above expression will give only six valid values because the ambiguous signs
cannot be either all +ive or all –ive for in that case
θ = cos − 1 1 or cos − 1 (− 1)
i. e., θ = 0 or 180°
which is impossible as no two of the diagonals are parallel.

Example 10: A line makes angles α, β, γ , δ with the four diagonals of a cube; prove that
4
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ + cos2 δ = ⋅
3
(Meerut 2013B; Avadh 09)

Solution: Take the coordinate axes OX , OY , OZ along the coterminous edges

OA, OB, OC respectively of a cube of edge of length a. Then the coordinates of the
eight vertices of the cube are :
 G-74

O (0, 0, 0), A (a, 0, 0), B (0, a, 0),

C (0, 0, a), D (a, a, 0), E (0, a, a),
F (a, 0, a) and P (a, a, a).
The four diagonals of the cube are
OP, AE, BF and CD whose direction
ratios are respectively
a − 0, a − 0, a − 0;
0 − a, a − 0, a − 0;
a − 0, 0 − a, a − 0;
and a − 0, a − 0, 0 − a
i. e., a, a, a; − a, a, a; a, − a, a; and a, a, − a
or 1, 1, 1; − 1, 1, 1; 1, − 1, 1; and 1, 1, − 1.
∴ the direction cosines of OP, AE, BF and CD are
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
, , ;− , , ; ,− , ;
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1
and , ,− respectively.
3 3 3
Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of a line which makes angles α, β, γ , δ with the
four diagonals of the cube. Then
1 1 1 l+m+n
cos α = l ⋅ + m⋅ + n⋅ = ,
3 3 3 3
 − 1 1 1 −l+m+n
cos β = l ⋅   + m ⋅ + n⋅ = ,
 3 3 3 3
1  − 1 1 l−m+n
cos γ = l ⋅ + m⋅   + n⋅ =
3  3 3 3
1 1 −
 1 l + m −n
and cos δ = l ⋅ + m⋅ + n⋅   = ⋅
3 3  3 3
On squaring and adding, we get cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ + cos 2 δ
1
= {(l + m + n)2 + (− l + m + n)2 + (l − m + n)2 + (l + m − n)2 }
3
1
= {4 (l 2 + m2 + n2 )}
3
4
= ⋅ [ ∵ l2 + m2 + n2 = 1]
3

Comprehensive Exercise 2

1. If points P, Q are (2, 3, − 6), (3, − 4, 5), then find the angle between OP and
OQ, where O is the origin.
 G-75

2. Prove that the line joining the points (1, 2 , 3) and (−1, − 2 , − 3) is
perpendicular to the line joining the points (−2 , 1, 5) and (3 , 3 , 2).
3. Show that the three points A (6 , − 7 , − 1), B (2 , − 3 , 1) and C(4 , − 5 , 0) are
collinear.
4. Prove that the three lines drawn from a point with direction cosines
proportional to 1, − 1, 1 ; 2 , − 3, 0 and 1, 0, 3 are coplanar.
5. Show that the lines whose direction cosines are given by the equations
2l + 2m − n = 0, and mn + nl + lm = 0 are at right angles. (Kanpur 2008)
6. Prove that the acute angle between the lines whose direction cosines are
given by the relations l + m + n = 0 and l 2 + m2 − n2 = 0 is π / 3.
(Meerut 2005B, 13)
7. If l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 be the direction cosines of two mutually
perpendicular lines, show that the direction cosines of the line perpendicular
to both of them are m1 n2 − m2 n1 , n1 l2 − n2 l1 , l1 m2 − l2 m1 .
(Kumaun 2007)
8. If a variable line in two adjacent positions has direction cosines l, m, n and
l + δl, m + δm, n + δn , show that the small angle δθ between the two positions
is given by (δθ)2 = (δl)2 + (δm)2 + (δn)2 . (Avadh 2010)
9. Show that the angle between any two diagonals of a cube is cos −1 (1 / 3).
(Garhwal 2001)
10. If (l1 , m1 , n1 ), (l2 , m2 , n2 ), (l3 , m3 , n3 ) are the direction cosines of three
mutually perpendicular lines, then find the direction cosines of a line whose
direction cosines are proportional to l1 + l2 + l3 , m1 + m2 + m3 ,
n1 + n2 + n3 and prove that this line is equally inclined to the given lines.
(Kanpur 2002)
11. The direction cosines of two straight lines, inclined at an angle θ are l1 , m1 , n1
and l2 , m2 , n2 . Show that direction cosines of the bisector of the angle
l1 + l2 m1 + m2 n1 + n2
between them are , , ⋅
2 cos (θ / 2) 2 cos (θ / 2) 2 cos (θ / 2)
12. If two pairs of opposite edges of a tetrahedron are perpendicular, then prove
that the third pair is also perpendicular. (Garhwal 2003)

A nswers 2
 18 2 
1. cos − 1  −  10. cos −1 (1 / √ 3)
 35 
 G-76

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).

1. If cos α, cos β, cos γ are the direction cosines of a straight line, then
sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2 γ is equal to
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 0 (d) 3

2. Direction cosines of the line joining the point (0, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1) are
 1 1 1 1 1 1
(a)  , ,  (b)  , , 
 3 3 3  3 3 3
(c) ( 3, 3, 3) (d) (3, 3, 3)

3. The equation of x-axis are

(a) x = 0, y = 0 (b) y = 0, z = 0
(c) z = 0, x = 0 (d) none of these
(Kumaun 2015)
4. The direction cosines of x-axis are
(a) 1, 0, 0 (b) 1, 1, 0
(c) 0, 0, 1 (d) 0, 1, 1 (Kumaun 2015)

5. If (l, m, n) are direction cosines of OP and OP = r, then the co-ordinates of

P are
l m n
(a) , , (b) lr, mr, nr
r r r
r r r
(c) , , (d) none of these
l m n (Kumaun 2007)
6. The direction cosines of z-axis are
(a) 1, 0, 0 (b) 0, 1, 0
(c) 0, 0, 1 (d) 0, 1, 1 (Kumaun 2008)

7. The point (1, 1, 0) lies on

(a) xy-plane (b) yz-plane
(c) xz-plane (d) none of these
(Kumaun 2009, 14)
 G-77

8. If the coordinates of the point A and B are (1, –1, 0) (0, 0, 1) respectively
the direction cosines of AB are
−1 −1 −1 1 1 −1
(a) , , (b) , ,
3 3 3 3 3 3
−1 1 1
(c) , , (d) none of these
3 3 3 (Kumaun 2009)
9. Direction cosines of the line joining the points (0, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1) are
(a) (3, 3, 3) (b) ( 3, 3, 3)
1 1 1  1 1 1
(c)  , ,  (d)  , , 
 3 3 3  3 3 3
(Kumaun 2011, 13)
10. If cos α , cos β , cos γ are the direction cosines of a straight line then
sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2 γ is equal to
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 0 (d) 3 (Kumaun 2014)

Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks “……”, so that the following statements are complete and correct.
1. If α, β, γ are the angles which a given directed line makes with the positive
directions of the axes of x , y and z respectively then the direction cosines of
the line are …… .
2. D.C.’s of a line which makes equal angles with the positive directions of the
coordinate axes are …… . (Agra 2006; Bundelkhand 05)
3. If l, m, n are the direction cosines of any line then l 2 + m2 + n2 = …… .
4. The direction cosines of a line whose direction ratios are 2 , 3, − 6 are …… .
5. Projection of the line joining the points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) on a line
whose direction ratios are a, b, c is …… .
6. The angle θ between any two lines whose direction cosines are l1 , m1 , n1 and
l2 , m2 , n2 is given by cos θ = …… .
7. If θ is the angle between the lines whose d.c.’s are l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2
then sin2 θ = …… .

True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.
1. Two lines whose direction cosines are l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 will be
perpendicular if l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0. (Agra 2005)
2. The direction cosines of intersecting lines are 0, 0, 0.
3. If l, m, n are the direction cosines of a line the l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 .
 G-78

4. The direction cosines are also the direction ratios.

A nswers
Multiple Choice Questions
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b)
6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (b)

Fill in the Blank(s)

1 1 1
1. cos α, cos β, cos γ 2. , , 3. 1
3 3 3
2 3 6 a ( x2 − x1 ) + b ( y2 − y1 ) + c (z 2 − z1 )
4. , ,− 5.
7 7 7 √ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 )
6. l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2
7. (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 + (n1 l2 − n2 l1 )2 + (l1 m2 − l2 m1 )2

True or False
1. T 2. F 3. T 4. T

¨
 G-79

4
T he P lane

1 Plane
efinition: A plane is a surface such that every straight line joining any two points on
D it lies wholly on it.
Normal to a plane: A straight line which is perpendicular to every line lying in a plane is
called a normal to that plane. It is also called a line perpendicular to that plane. All
the normals to a plane are parallel lines.

2 Normal Form of the Equation of a Plane

To find the equation of a plane whose perpendicular distance from the origin is p and
cos α, cos β, cos γ are direction-cosines of this perpendicular.
Let P ( x, y, z ) be any point on the plane. Let ON be the perpendicular drawn from
origin to the plane. Since ON = p and the direction cosines of ON are cos α, cos β,
cos γ , therefore the co-ordinates of N are ( p cos α, p cos β, p cos γ ). Therefore the
direction cosines of PN will be proportional to
x − p cos α, y − p cos β, z − p cos γ .
 G-80

Since ON and PN are at right angles to each other, therefore

cos α ( x − p cos α) + cos β ( y − p cos β)
+ cos γ (z − p cos γ ) = 0
or x cos α + y cos β + z cos γ
= p (cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ )
or x cos α + y cos β + z cos γ = p
Hence if l, m, n be the direction cosines of the normal
to a plane directed from the origin to the plane and p
be the length of the perpendicular from the origin to
the plane, then the equation of the plane is lx + my + nz = p.
This is known as the equation of a plane in normal form.

3 General Equation of a Plane

Theorem: To prove that every equation ax + by + cz + d = 0 of first degree in x, y and z
always represents a plane and the coefficients a, b, c of x, y, z in this equation are direction
ratios of normal to this plane. (Garhwal 2000)
Proof: The general equation of first degree in x, y, z is given by
ax + by + cz + d = 0. …(1)
Let A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) be any two points on the surface
represented by (1), so that we have
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d = 0 …(2)
and ax2 + by2 + cz 2 + d = 0. …(3)
Multiplying (3) by λ and adding to (2), we get
a ( x1 + λ x2 ) + b ( y1 + λ y2 ) + c (z1 + λ z 2 ) + d (1 + λ ) = 0.
Dividing both sides by (1 + λ ), we get
 x + λ x2   y1 + λ y2   z1 + λ z 2 
a 1  +b  +c   + d = 0. …(4)
 1+ λ   1+ λ   1+ λ 

The relation (4) shows that for every value of λ ≠ − 1 , the point
 x1 + λx2 y1 + λy2 z1 + λz 2 
 , , 
 1+ λ 1+ λ 1+ λ 
lies on the surface (1). But these are the general coordinates of a point which
divides the join of A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) in the ratio λ :1. Since λ may
take any real value other than − 1, every point of the straight line AB lies on the
surface (1). Hence the equation (1) represents a plane.
Subtracting (2) from (3), we get
a ( x2 − x1 ) + b ( y2 − y1 ) + c (z 2 − z1 ) = 0. …(5)
 G-81

The relation (5) shows that the two lines whose direction ratios are a, b, c and
x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z 2 − z1 are perpendicular. But x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z 2 − z1 are
direction ratios of the line AB which is any line lying in the plane (1). Therefore a
line whose direction ratios are a, b, c is perpendicular to every line lying in the plane
(1) and so it is perpendicular to the plane (1). Hence a, b, c are direction ratios of
the normal to the plane (1).
Note: The number of arbitrary constants in the general equation of the
plane.
The general equation of the plane is
ax + by + cz + d = 0 or (a / d ) x + (b / d ) y + (c / d ) z = − 1.
This equation shows that there are three arbitrary constants namely a / d, b / d, c / d
in the equation of a plane. Therefore the equation of a plane can be determined to
satisfy the three conditions, each condition giving us the value of a constant.
An Important Remark: The equation of any plane passing through the origin is
ax + by + cz = 0.

4 To Reduce the General Equation of the Plane to the

Normal Form
The general equation of the plane is
ax + by + cz + d = 0. …(1)
If l, m, n are the d.c.’s of the normal to the plane, then the equation of the plane in
the normal form is
lx + my + nz = p. …(2)
If (1) and (2) represent the same plane, then
l m n p √ (l 2 + m2 + n2 ) 1
= = = =± =± ,
a b c −d √ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 ) √ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 )
where the same sign either +ive or –ive is to be chosen throughout.
∴ l = ± a / √ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 ), m = ± b / √ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 ),
n = ± c / √ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 ), and p = ± d / √ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 ).
Substituting these values in (2), the normal form of the plane (1) is given by
ax by cz
± ± ±
√ (a + b + c ) √ (a + b + c ) √ (a + b 2 + c 2 )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

d
=± …(3)
√ (a + b 2 + c 2 )
2

The sign in equation (3) is so chosen that p i. e., ± d / √ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 ) is always

positive.
 G-82

Working rule to reduce the general cartesian equation of a plane to normal

form. Suppose the general cartesian equation of a plane is
ax + by + cz + d = 0. …(1)
Transpose the constant term d in the equation (1) to the R.H.S. and adjust the
equation in such a way that this constant term on the R.H.S. is positive. Now
divide the equation by a2 + b 2 + c 2 , where a, b, c are the coefficients of x, y, z in
the equation of the plane. The resulting equation will be the equation of the plane
in the normal form lx + my + nz = p.
Here p will be the length of the perpendicular from the origin to the plane and l, m, n
will be the direction cosines of the normal to the plane directed from origin to the
plane.

5 Equation of a Plane in Intercepts Form

Theorem: If a plane makes intercepts a, b and c on the axes of x, y and z respectively, then
x y z
the equation of the plane is + + = 1.
a b c (Kumaun 2007)
Proof: Let O be the origin and let the plane
meet the coordinate axes at the points A, B, C
respectively such that OA = a, OB = b, OC = c
with proper signs. Then the coordinates of the
points A, B, C are A (a, 0, 0), B (0, b, 0) and
C (0, 0, c ).
Let the equation of the plane be
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, …(1)
where dD ≠ 0 because the plane does not pass
through the origin (0, 0, 0).
Since (1) passes through the points (a, 0, 0), (0, b, 0) and (0, 0, c ), therefore
D
Aa + D = 0 ⇒ A = −
a
D
Bb + D = 0 ⇒ B = −
b
D
and Cc + D = 0 ⇒ C = − ⋅
c
Putting these values of A, B and C in (1), the required equation of the plane is
D D D
− x− y− z + D=0
a b c
 x y z 
or D − − − + 1 = 0
 a b c 
x y z
or − − − +1= 0 [∵ D ≠ 0]
a b c
 G-83

x y z
or + + = 1.
a b c
This is called equation of a plane in intercepts form.
The intercept made by this plane on x-axis is a, that on y-axis is b and that on z-axis
is c.
Working rule to reduce the equation of a plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 to
intercepts form:
Transpose the constant term to the R.H.S. and then divide both sides of the
equation by this transposed constant term to make the R.H.S. 1. Then put the
x y z
resulting equation in the form + + = 1.
a b c
Equations of coordinate planes: The equation of xy-plane is z = 0, the
equation of yz-plane is x = 0 and the equation of z x-plane is y = 0.

6 General Equation of a Plane through a given Point and

Perpendicular to a given Line
To find the equation of a plane through a given point A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and perpendicular to a
line whose direction ratios are a, b, c .
Let ( x, y, z ) be the coordinates of any current point P on the plane. Since the plane
passes through the point A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), the line AP lies in the plane.
The d.r.’s of the line AP are x − x1 , y − y1 , z − z1 . Also the d.r.’s of the normal to
the plane i. e., of a line perpendicular to the plane are a, b, c .
Now the normal to the plane is perpendicular to every line lying in the plane and
therefore the lines whose d.r.’s are a, b, c and x − x1 , y − y1 , z − z1 are
perpendicular.
∴ a ( x − x1 ) + b ( y − y1 ) + c (z − z1 ) = 0,
which is the equation of the required plane.
Remark: The equation of any plane passing through the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is
a ( x − x1 ) + b ( y − y1 ) + c (z − z1 ) = 0.
In this equation a, b, c are d.r.’s of normal to the plane.
As a particular case, the equation of any plane passing through the origin is
ax + by + cz = 0, in which the coefficients of x, y, z i. e., a, b, c are d.r.’s of the normal
to the plane.

7 Equation of a Plane through Three Points

To find the equation of a plane which passes through three points whose co-ordinates are
( x1 , y1 , z1 ) , ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) and ( x3 , y3 , z 3 ). (Kumaun 2000)
 G-84

Let the general equation of the plane be

ax + by + cz + d = 0. …(1)
If the equation (1) of the plane passes through the given points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ),
( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) and ( x3 , y3 , z 3 ) the coordinates of these points will satisfy the
equation (1), so that we have
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d = 0, …(2)
ax2 + by2 + cz 2 + d = 0, …(3)
and ax3 + by3 + cz 3 + d = 0. …(4)
Eliminating a, b, c and d from the above equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) the equation
of the required plane is given by
x y z 1
x y1 z1 1 
 1 = 0 …(5)
 x2 y2 z 2 1 
 
x y3 z 3 1
 3 
Corollary: Condition for four points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ), ( x3 , y3 , z 3 ) and
( x4 , y4 , z 4 ) to be coplanar.
The equation of the plane passing through first three points is given by equation
(5). If the fourth point namely ( x4 , y4 , z 4 ) also lies on this plane, then the
co-ordinates of this point will satisfy the equation (5), so that we have
 x4 y4 z4 1  x1 y1 z1 1
 1  1
x y1 z1 x y2 z2
 1  = 0, i. e.,  2  = 0. …(6)
 x2 y2 z2 1  x3 y3 z3 1
x y3 z3  x y4 z4 
 3 1  4 1

The condition (6) is the required condition for four given points to be coplanar.

8 Equations of The Co-ordinate Planes

(i) The equation to yz-plane: The x-coordinate of each point lying on the
yz-plane is zero, and hence the equation to yz-plane is given by x = 0.
(ii) The equation to zx-plane: It is given by y = 0.
(iii) The equation to xy-plane: It is given by z = 0.

9 The Equations to the Planes Parallel to

the Co-ordinate Planes
The equation of the plane parallel to the yz-plane and at a distance `a' from it. The
x-coordinate of every point on this plane is equal to `a' . Hence the equation of the
required plane is given by x = a.
 G-85

Similarly, the equation of the plane parallel to the xz-plane and at a distance ‘b’ from it is
given by y = b.
Also the equation of the plane parallel to the xy-plane and at a distance `c ' from it is
given by z = c .

10 The Equations of the Planes Perpendicular to the

Co-ordinate Axes
The equation of the plane perpendicular to the x-axis. This plane is obviously parallel to
the yz-plane and hence its equation is given by x = a. [See article 9]
Similarly the equations of the planes perpendicular to y and z axes are respectively
given by y = b and z = c .

11 Planes Parallel to Axes

If the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 (where a, b, c are proportional to direction cosines
of the normal to the plane) is parallel to the x-axis, then the normal to the plane will
be at right angles to the x-axis, hence
Therefore the equation of the plane will be
by + cz + d = 0.
Similarly equations to the planes parallel to y and z axes can be written as
ax + cz + d = 0 and ax + by + d = 0, respectively.
Remember: Equation of the plane parallel to x-axis does not contain x , and equation of
the plane parallel to the plane YOZ does not contain y and z.

12 Angle between two Planes

Definition: The angle between two planes is defined as the angle between their normals
drawn from any point to the planes.
Let the equations of the two planes be
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 …(1)
and a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2 = 0. …(2)
The d.r.’s of the normal to the plane (1) are a1 , b1 , c1 and the d.r.’s of the normal to
the plane (2) are a2 , b2 , c 2 .
If θ is the angle between the planes (1) and (2), then θ is the angle between the lines
whose d.r.’s are a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c 2 .
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c 2
∴ cos θ =
√ (a1 + b12 + c12 ) √ (a2 2 + b2 2 + c 2 2 )
2 …(3)
 G-86

(b1 c 2 − b2 c1 )2 + (c1 a2 − c 2 a1 )2 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2

and tan θ = ⋅
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c 2
For the acute angle between the two planes, cos θ is positive and for the obtuse
angle it is negative. The numerical value of cos θ in both these cases is the same
because cos (π − θ) = − cos θ.
Condition of perpendicularity of two planes:
Two planes are perpendicular if their normals are perpendicular. Therefore the
planes (1) and (2) are perpendicular if the lines whose d.r.’s are a1 , b1 , c1 and
a2 , b2 , c 2 are perpendicular the condition for which is
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c 2 = 0. …(4)
Condition of parallelism of two planes:
Two planes are parallel if their normals are parallel. Therefore the planes (1) and
(2) are parallel if the lines whose d.r.’s are a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c 2 are parallel the
condition for which is
a1 / a2 = b1 / b2 = c1 / c 2 …(5)
i. e., the coefficients of x, y, z in the equations of the two planes should be
proportional.
Remember: The equation of any plane parallel to the plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is ax + by + cz + λ = 0.

13 The Two Sides of a Plane

To find the condition that the two points should lie on the same or opposite
sides of a plane.
Let the equation of the plane be ax + by + cz + d = 0
and A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) be any two points.
Suppose the line AB meets the plane in P where P divides AB in the ratio λ : 1. Now
λ is positive or negative according as P divides AB internally or externally i. e.,
according as A and B lie on opposite sides or on the same side of the plane.
The co-ordinates of the point P are
 λ x2 + x1 λ y2 + y1 λ z 2 + z1 
 ⋅
 λ +1 , λ +1
,
λ + 1 

It lies upon the plane, therefore
a (λ x2 + x1 ) b (λ y2 + y1 ) c (λ z 2 + z1 )
+ + +d=0
λ +1 λ +1 λ +1
or ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d + λ (ax2 + by2 + cz 2 + d ) = 0
 G-87

ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d

or λ =− ⋅
ax2 + by2 + cz 2 + d
If the points A and B lie on the same side of the plane, λ is negative, therefore
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d and ax2 + by2 + cz 2 + d
have the same sign (both positive or both negative).
If the points A and B lie on opposite sides of the plane, λ is positive, therefore
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d and ax2 + by2 + cz 2 + d
have opposite signs.
Thus we see that the points A and B lie on the same or on opposite sides of the plane
according as the expressions
ax1 + bx1 + cz1 + d and ax2 + by2 + cz 2 + d
have the same or opposite signs.

14 Perpendicular Distance of a Point from the Plane

To find the length of the perpendicular from the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) to a given
plane:
Let the equation of the given plane be
ax + by + cz + d = 0 …(1)
To find the length of the perpendicular from the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) to the plane (1).
Shifting the origin to the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) the equation (1) becomes
a ( x + x1 ) + b ( y + y1 ) + c (z + z1 ) + d = 0
or ax + by + cz + ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d = 0. …(2)
2 2 2
Dividing both sides of (2) by √ (a + b + c ), we get
a b c
2 2 2
x+ 2 2 2
y+ z
√ (a + b +c ) √ (a + b +c ) √ (a + b 2 + c 2 )
2

ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d

+ = 0. …(3)
√ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 )
The equation (3) of the plane is in the normal form with a proper adjustment of
sign throughout the equation.
∴ The length of the perpendicular from the new origin to the plane (3)
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d
=± ⋅
√ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 )
Hence the length of the perpendicular from the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) to the plane (1)
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d
=± ⋅
√ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 )
Since the perpendicular distance of a point from the plane is always positive,
 G-88

therefore a positive or negative sign is to be attached before the radical according as

ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d is positive or negative i. e., according as ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) lies on the
same side or on opposite side of the plane as the origin, provided d is positive.
Working Rule: To find the length p of the perpendicular from the point
( x1 , y1 , z1 ) to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0, we substitute the co-ordinates of the
given point in the left hand side of the equation of the plane and then divide this
expression by √ [(coeff. of x)2 + (coeff. of y)2 + (coeff. of z )2 ].
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d
Thus, p= .
√ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 )
If the value of p obtained from this formula is negative, we can ignore the sign and
give the positive value in answer, unless there is some special reason.
Remark: To avoid the negative value of p , we can take
| ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d |
p= ⋅
√ (a2 + b 2 + c 2 )
If the equation of the plane is in the normal form lx + my + nz − p = 0, the length p1
of the perpendicular from the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) to the plane is given by
p1 = lx1 + my1 + nz1 − p, for in this case √ (l 2 + m2 + n2 ) = 1.

15 Distance between Two Parallel Planes

Find the lengths of perpendicular distances of each plane from the origin and retain
their signs. The algebraic difference of these two perpendicular distances is the
distance between the given parallel planes. But while applying this method we
should be careful that the coefficients of x in the two equations of the planes are of
the same sign.
Alternate method: Take a point on one of the two given planes, then the required
distance is the length of the perpendicular drawn from this point to the other
plane.

Example 1: Find the equation of the plane which cuts off intercepts 6, 3, − 4 from the axes of
co-ordinates. Reduce it to normal form and find the perpendicular distance of the plane from
the origin.
Solution: The equation of the plane which cuts off intercepts 6, 3, − 4 from the
co-ordinate axes is
x y z
+ + =1 or 2 x + 4 y − 3z = 12 . …(1)
6 3 −4
 G-89

Dividing both sides of (1) by 22 + 42 + (− 3)2 i. e., by 29, we get

2 4 3 12
x+ y− z = ,
29 29 29 29
which is the equation of the plane in normal form lx + my + nz = p.
The length of the perpendicular from the origin to this plane
12
= p= ⋅
29
Example 2: A plane meets the co-ordinate axes in A, B, C such that the centroid of triangle
x y z
ABC is the point ( p, q, r). Show that the equation of the plane is + + = 3.
p q r
(Meerut 2000, 05, 10, 12; Avadh 09, 10;
Kanpur 10; Kashi 13; Kumaun 11, 13)
Solution: Let the equation of the plane in intercepts form be
x y z
+ + = 1. …(1)
a b c
Then the co-ordinates of the points A, B and C are
A (a, 0, 0), B (0, b, 0) and C (0, 0, c ).
1 1 1
So the centroid of the triangle ABC is the point  a, b, c  .
3 3 3 
But it is given that the centroid of the ∆ ABC is the point ( p, q, r).
1 1 1
∴ p = a, q = b, r = c
3 3 3
⇒ a = 3 p, b = 3q, c = 3r .
Putting the values of a, b, c in (1), the equation of the required plane is
x y z
+ + =1
3 p 3q 3r
x y z
or + + = 3.
p q r

Example 3: Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (1, 2, 1) and
perpendicular to the line joining the points (1, 4, 2) and (2, 3, 5). Find also the perpendicular
distance of the origin from the plane.
Solution: The direction ratios of the line joining the points A (1, 4, 2) and
B (2, 3, 5) are 2 − 1, 3 − 4, 5 − 2 i. e., 1, − 1, 3. These are the direction ratios of the
normal to the required plane. Also the required plane passes through the point
(1, 2, 1). Hence its equation is
1 ( x − 1) − 1 ( y − 2) + 3 (z − 1) = 0
or x − y + 3z = 2.
The perpendicular distance of the origin from the plane (1)
 G-90

2 2
= = ⋅
2
1 + (− 1) + 32 2 11

Example 4: Find the angle between the planes 2 x − y + z = 7 and x + y + 2z = 9.

(Bundelkhand 2007)
Solution: The angle θ between the given planes is the angle between their
normals whose direction ratios are 2 , − 1, 1 and 1, 1, 2 .
( 2 ) (1) + ( − 1) (1) + (1) ( 2 ) 3 3 1
∴ cos θ = = = =
2 2 2
2 + (− 1) + 1 1 + 1 + 22 2 2 6 6 6 2

or θ = π / 3.
Hence the acute angle between the given planes is 60°.
Example 5: Find the equation of the plane passing through the points (1, − 1, 2) and
(2, − 2, 2) and which is perpendicular to the plane 6 x − 2 y + 2z = 9.
(Meerut 2005; 12)
Solution: The equation of any plane passing through the point (1, − 1, 2) is
a ( x − 1) + b ( y + 1) + c (z − 2) = 0. …(1)
If the plane (1) passes through the point (2, − 2, 2), then
a (2 − 1) + b (− 2 + 1) + c (2 − 2) = 0
i. e., a − b + 0c = 0 …(2)
Now we know that two planes are perpendicular if their normals are perpendicular.
Direction ratios of normal to plane (1) are a, b, c and direction ratios of normal to
the plane 6 x − 2 y + 2z = 9 are 6, − 2, 2. So if the plane (1) is perpendicular to the
plane 6 x − 2 y + 2z = 9, then 6a − 2b + 2c = 0. …(3)
Solving (2) and (3) by cross-multiplication, we have
a b c
= =
−2−0 0 −2 −2+6
a b c
or = =
−2 −2 4
a b c
or = = ⋅
1 1 −2
Putting the proportionate values of a, b, c in (1), the equation of the required plane
is
1 ( x − 1) + 1 ( y + 1) − 2 (z − 2) = 0
or x + y − 2z + 4 = 0.

Example 6: Find the equation of the plane through the point (1, 3, 2) and parallel to the
plane 3 x − 2 y + 2z + 33 = 0. Find the perpendicular distance of the point (3, 3, 2) from
this plane.
Solution: The equation of the plane through the point (1, 3, 2) and parallel to the
 G-91

plane 3 x − 2 y + 2z + 33 = 0 is
3 ( x − 1) − 2 ( y − 3) + 2 (z − 2) = 0
or 3 x − 2 y + 2z − 1 = 0. …(1)
The perpendicular distance of the point (3, 3, 2) from the plane (1)
|3 (3) − 2 (3) + 2 (2) − 1| |9 − 6 + 4 − 1| 6
= = = ⋅
2 2
3 + (− 2) + 2 2 17 17

Example 7: Find the distance between the parallel planes

2 x − y + 3z − 4 = 0 and 6 x − 3 y + 9z + 13 = 0.
(Bundelkhand 2007; Avadh 14)
Solution: Let P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) be any point on the plane 2 x − y + 3z − 4 = [Link]
2 x1 − y1 + 3z1 − 4 = 0 i. e., 2 x1 − y1 + 3z1 = 4. …(1)
The distance between the given parallel planes = the length of the perpendicular
from P to the plane 6 x − 3 y + 9z + 13 = 0
|6 x1 − 3 y1 + 9z1 + 13| |3 (2 x1 − y1 + 3z1 ) + 13|
= =
62 + (− 3)2 + 92 126

|3 (4) + 13|
=
126 [Using (1)]
25
= ⋅
3 14
Example 8: A variable plane which remains at a constant distance 3p from the origin cuts
the coordinate axes at A, B, C. Show that the locus of the centroid of triangle ABC is
x − 2 + y − 2 + z − 2 = p− 2 . (Kumaun 2001; Meerut 01, 12)
x y z
Solution: Let the equation of the variable plane be + + = 1, …(1)
a b c
where a, b, c are parameters i. e., a, b, c are variables.
The plane (1) is at a constant distance 3p from the origin i. e., the length of the
perpendicular drawn from the origin to the plane (1) is always 3p, whatever a, b, c
may be.
1
∴ = 9 p2
(1 / a)2 + (1 / b)2 + (1 / c )2
1 1 1 1
or 2
+ 2
+ 2
= ⋅ …(2)
a b c 9 p2
The plane (1) meets the coordinate axes at the points A (a, 0, 0), B (0, b, 0) and
C (0, 0, c ). Let ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) be the coordinates of the centroid of ∆ ABC.
a+0 +0 a 0 +b+0 b 0 +0 +c c
Then x1 = = , y1 = = , z1 = = ⋅
3 3 3 3 3 3
∴ a = 3 x1 , b = 3 y1 , c = 3z1 .
 G-92

Putting these values of a, b, c in (2), we get

1 1 1 1 −2 −2 −2
+ + = 2 or x1 + y1 + z1 = p− 2 .
9 x12 9 y12 9z12 9p
Hence the locus of the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is x − 2 + y − 2 + z − 2 = p− 2 .

Comprehensive Exercise 1

1. (i) Reduce the equation of the plane x + 2 y − 2z − 9 = 0 to the normal

form and hence find the length of the perpendicular drawn from the
origin to the given plane.
(ii) Find the perpendicular distance from the origin to the plane
2 x + y + 2z = 3. Find also the direction-cosines of the normal to the
plane.
2. (i) Find the equation to the plane through P (2, 3, − 1) at right angles to OP.
(Meerut 2007B)
(ii) Find the equation of the plane passing through the points (2, 2, − 1),
(3, 4, 2) and (7, 0, 6).
3. (i) The foot of the perpendicular from the origin to a plane is (4, − 2, − 5).
Find the equation of the plane.
(ii) O is the origin and A is the point (a, b, c ). Find the equation of the plane
through A and at right angles to OA.
4. A plane makes intercepts 9 , 9 / 2 , − 9 / 2 upon the co-ordinate axes. Find the
length of the perpendicular from origin on it.
5. A plane meets the coordinate axes at A , B and C such that the centroid of the
triangle ABC is (1, − 2 , 3). Find the equation of the plane.
6. Find the equation of the plane perpendicular to the line segment from
(−3, 3, 2) to (9, 5, 4) at the middle point of the segment.
7. Find the equation to the plane through the points (1, 1, 0), (1, 2, 1), (− 2, 2, − 1).
(Agra 2006)
8. Show that the four points (0, − 1, − 1), (4, 5, 1), (3, 9, 4) and (− 4, 4, 4) are
coplanar. (Purvanchal 2011; Avadh 12)
9. Show that the four points (0, − 1, 0), (2, 1, − 1), (1, 1, 1) and (3, 3, 0) are co-planar
and hence show that the equation of the plane passing through these points is
4 x − 3 y + 2z = 3. (Kanpur 2011)
10. Find the equation of the plane through (1, 0, − 2) and perpendicular to each of
the planes 2 x + y − z − 2 = 0 and x − y − z − 3 = 0. (Rohilkhand 2009B)
 G-93

11. (i) Find the equation of the plane through the points (1, − 2 , 2), (−3, 1, − 2)
and perpendicular to the plane x + 2 y − 3z = 5.
(Meerut 2009; Rohilkhand 13)
(ii ) Find the equation to the plane through the points (−1, 1, 1) and (1, − 1, 1)
and perpendicular to the plane x + 2 y + 2z = 5. (Kumaun 2009)
(iii) Find the equation of the plane through the points (1, − 2, 4) and
(3, − 4, 5) and parallel to the x-axis (i. e., perpendicular to the yz-plane).
(Kumaun 2007, 13)
(iv) Find the equation of the plane passing through (2, 3, − 4) and (1, − 1, 3)
and parallel to the x-axis. (Kumaun 2014)
12. (i) Find the angle between the planes 2 x − y + z = 11 and x + y + 2z = 3.
(Rohilkhand 2012)
(ii) Find the angle between the planes 3 x + 4 y − 5z = 3 and
2 x + 6 y + 6z = 7. (Kumaun 2007)
13. Find the distance of the point P (2, 1, − 1) from the plane x − 2 y + 4z = 9.
(Rohilkhand 2010)
14. (i) Find the distance between the parallel planes 2 x − 2 y + z + 3 = 0 and
4 x − 4 y + 2 z + 7 = 0. (Rohilkhand 2010)
(ii) Find the distance between the parallel planes 2 x − 2 y + z + 1 = 0 and
4 x − 4 y + 2z + 3 = 0. (Kumaun 2014)
15. (i) Find the equations of the planes parallel to the plane
x + 2 y − 2z + 8 = 0 which are at a distance of 2 units from the point
(2, 1, 1).
(ii) Find the equations of the planes parallel to the plane which are at a unit
distance from the point (1, 2, 3).
(iii) Find the equation of the plane that passes through the point (2, 3, 4) and
is parallel to the plane 5 x − 6 y + 7z = 3. (Kumaun 2015)
(iv) Find the equation of the plane through (0, 1, − 2) and parallel to the
plane 2 x − 3 y + 4z = 0. (Kumaun 2008)

16. A variable plane is at a constant distance p from the origin and meets the axes
in A, B and C. Show that the locus of the centroid of the triangle ABC is
x −2 + y −2 + z −2 = 9 p −2 . (Meerut 2005B, 07B, 13; Kanpur 2009,10)
17. A variable plane is at a constant distance p from the origin and meets the
coordinate axes in A, B, C . Show that the locus of the centroid of the
tetrahedron OABC is x − 2 + y − 2 + z − 2 = 16 p− 2 .
(Kanpur 2005; Agra 06; Meerut 06, 07; Avadh 13)
 G-94

A nswers 1

1 2 2
1. (i) x+ y − z = 3; 3 (ii) 2 / 3, 1 / 3, 2 / 3
3 3 3
2. (i) 2 x + 3 y − z = 14 (ii) 5 x + 2 y − 3z = 17
3. (i) 4 x − 2 y − 5z = 45 (ii) ax + by + cz = a2 + b 2 + c 2
4. 3 5. 6 x − 3 y + 2z = 18
6. 6 x + y + z = 25 7. 2 x + 3 y − 3z − 5 = 0
10. 2 x − y + 3z + 4 = 0
11. (i) x + 16 y + 11z + 9 = 0 (ii) 4 x + 4 y − 6z + 6 = 0
(iii) y + 2z − 6 = 0 (iv) 7 y + 4z − 5 = 0
π π 13
12. (i) (ii) 13.
3 2 21
1 1
14. (i) (ii)
6 6
15. (i) x + 2 y − 2z + 8 = 0 ; x + 2 y − 2z + 4 = 0
(ii) x − 2 y + 2z = 0 ; x − 2 y + 2z − 6 = 0
(iii) 5 x − 6 y + 7z − 20 = 0 ; x − 2 y + 2z − 6 = 0
(iv) 2 x − 3 y + 4z + 11 = 0 ; x − 2 y + 2z − 6 = 0

16 A Plane through the Intersection of Two given Planes

Theorem : The equation of any plane passing through the line of intersection of two given
planes P ≡ a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and Q ≡ a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2 = 0
is P + λQ = 0, where λ is a parameter i. e., λ is any real number.

Proof: The equation

P + λQ = 0 …(1)
is a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 + λ (a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2 ) = 0
or (a1 + λ a2 ) x + (b1 + λ b2 ) y + (c1 + λ c 2 ) z + d1 + λ d2 = 0. …(2)
The equation (2) is the equation of a plane because it is an equation of first degree
in x, y and z. Moreover all the points which satisfy both the equations P = 0 and
Q = 0 i. e., which lie on the line of intersection of the planes P = 0 and Q = 0 also
satisfy the equation (1) because 0 + λ (0) = 0.
Hence (1) is the equation of any plane passing through the line of intersection of
the planes P = 0 and Q = 0.
 G-95

Remark: The axis of x is the line of intersection of the planes y = 0 and z = 0. So

the equation of any plane passing through the axis of x is y + λ z = 0. The axis of y
is the line of intersection of the planes z = 0 and x = 0. So the equation of any plane
passing through the axis of y is z + λ x = 0. Similarly the equation of any plane
passing through the axis of z is x + λy = 0 .

17 Condition for a Line to be Parallel or Perpendicular to a

given Plane
To find the condition that a line whose d.r.’s are l, m, n may be parallel or be perpendicular to a
given plane.
Let the equation of the given plane be
ax + by + cz + d = 0. …(1)
Then the d.r.’s of the normal to the plane (1) are a, b, c . The d.r.’s of the given line
are l, m, n.
The line is parallel to the plane: If the given line is parallel to the plane (1), it is
perpendicular to the normal to the plane (1), the condition for which is
al + bm + cn = 0. …(2)
The line is perpendicular to the plane: If the given line is perpendicular to the
plane (1), it is parallel to the normal to the plane (1), the condition for which is
a / l = b / m = c / n.

18 The Angle between a Line and a Plane

Definition: The angle between a line and a plane is defined to be the complement of the
angle between the line and the normal to the plane.
Clearly this angle can be determined by the methods explained earlier.

Example 9: Find the equation of the plane through the line of intersection of the planes
x + 2 y + 3z + 5 = 0, x − 3 y + z + 6 = 0 and passing through the origin.
Solution: The equation of any plane passing through the line of intersection of
the planes x + 2 y + 3z + 5 = 0 and x − 3 y + z + 6 = 0 is
x + 2 y + 3z + 5 + λ ( x − 3 y + z + 6) = 0. …(1)
If the plane (1) passes through the origin (0, 0, 0), then 5 + 6λ = 0 or λ = − 5 / 6.
Putting λ = − 5 / 6 in (1), the equation of the required plane is
x + 2 y + 3z + 5 − (5 / 6) ( x − 3 y + z + 6) = 0
 G-96

or 6 x + 12 y + 18z + 30 − 5 x + 15 y − 5z − 30 = 0
or x + 27 y + 13z = 0.
Example 10: Find the equation of the plane which contains the line of intersection of the
planes x + 2 y + 3z − 4 = 0 and 2 x + y − z + 5 = 0 and which is perpendicular to the
plane 5 x + 3 y − 6z + 8 = 0.
Solution: The equation of any plane passing through the line of intersection of the
planes x + 2 y + 3z − 4 = 0 and 2 x + y − z + 5 = 0 is
( x + 2 y + 3z − 4) + λ (2 x + y − z + 5) = 0 …(1)
or (1 + 2λ ) x + (2 + λ ) y + (3 − λ ) z − 4 + 5λ = 0. …(2)
If the plane (2) is perpendicular to the plane
5 x + 3 y − 6z + 8 = 0, then 5 (1 + 2λ ) + 3 (2 + λ ) − 6 (3 − λ ) = 0
or − 7 + 19λ = 0 or λ = 7 / 19.
Putting λ = 7 / 19 in (1), the required plane is
( x + 2 y + 3z − 4) + (7 / 19) (2 x + y − z + 5) = 0
or 19 x + 38 y + 57z − 76 + 14 x + 7 y − 7z + 35 = 0
or 33 x + 45 y + 50 z − 41 = 0.

19 Planes Bisecting the Angles between Two Planes

Theorem: The equations of the planes bisecting the angles between the planes
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2 = 0 are
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 a x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2
=± 2 ⋅ (Garhwal 2001)
2 2 2
a1 + b1 + c1 a2 2 + b2 2 + c 2 2
Proof: Let P ( x, y, z ) be any point on either of the planes bisecting the angles
between the given planes. Then the perpendicular distances of these planes from P
must be equal.
| a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 | | a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2 |
∴ =
2 2 2
a1 + b1 + c1 a2 2 + b2 2 + c 2 2
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2
or =± ,
a12 + b12 + c12 a2 2 + b2 2 + c 2 2
which are the required equations of the bisector planes.

Remark 1: Equation of the plane bisecting the angle in which the origin
lies.
Let the given planes be
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 …(1)
and a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2 = 0. …(2)
 G-97

First write the equations (1) and (2) in such a way that the constant terms
d1 and d2 are of the same sign i. e., either both d1 and d2 are positive or both are
negative. Then the equation of the plane bisecting the angle in which the origin lies
is
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 a x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2
=+ 2
a12 + b12 + c12 a2 2 + b2 2 + c 2 2
and the equation of the plane bisecting the angle in which the origin does not
lie is
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 a x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2
=− 2 ⋅
a12 + b12 + c12 a2 2 + b2 2 + c 2 2
Remark 2: How to find that the angle between the given planes in which
the origin lies is acute or obtuse ?
First write the equations (1) and (2) in such a way that the constant terms
d1 and d2 are of the same sign.
If a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c 2 < 0, then the angle between the planes in which the origin lies
is acute.
If a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c 2 > 0, then the angle between the planes in which the origin lies
is obtuse.
Note that the angle between the two planes in which the origin lies is acute or
obtuse according as the angle between the normals to the two planes drawn from
the origin is obtuse or acute.
Remark 3: If the angle between the bisecting plane and one of the given planes is
less than 45°, then the bisecting plane will be the plane bisecting the acute angle.

Example 11: Show that the origin lies in the acute angle between the planes
x + 2 y + 2z = 9 and 4 x − 3 y + 12z + 13 = 0. Find the equation of the plane which bisects
the obtuse angle between them.
Solution: The equations of the given planes in the normal form are
1 2 2 4 3 12
x+ y + z = 3 and − x+ y− z = 1.
3 3 3 13 13 13
Therefore the direction cosines of the normals to the planes from the origin are
1 2 2 4 3 12
, , and − , ,− respectively.
3 3 3 13 13 13
If θ be the angle between these normals, then
1 4 2 3 2 12 4 6 24 22
cos θ =  −  +   +  −  = − + − =− ⋅
3  13 3 13 3  13 39 39 39 39
 G-98

Therefore θ is an obtuse angle and hence the angle between the planes, in which the
origin lies, is acute.
The equation of the plane which bisects the obtuse angle i. e., the angle in which the
origin does not lie is
x + 2 y + 2z − 9 − 4 x + 3 y − 12z − 13
=−
√ (1 + 4 + 4) √ (16 + 9 + 144)
x + 2 y + 2z − 9 4 x − 3 y + 12z + 13
or =
3 13
or 13 x + 26 y + 26z − 117 = 12 x − 9 y + 36z + 39
or x + 35 y − 10 z = 156.

20 Condition for the Equation to Represent a Pair of

Planes and the Angle between the Two Planes
Prove that the equation
ax 2 + by2 + cz2 + 2 fyz + 2 gzx + 2 hxy = 0
represents a pair of planes if abc + 2 fgh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2 = 0.
Prove also that the angle between the planes is
2 ( f 2 + g 2 + h 2 − bc − ca − ab)1 /2 
tan −1  ⋅
 a+b+c 
(Agra 2001, 02; Bundelkhand 09)
Proof: The given general homogeneous equation of second degree in x, y, z is
ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2
+ 2 fyz + 2 gzx + 2 hxy = 0 …(1)
Let the equations of the two planes represented by (1) be
l1 x + m1 y + n1 z = 0 and l2 x + m2 y + n2 z = 0.
These equations will not contain the constant terms for otherwise their product
will not be homogeneous. Thus we have
ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2
+ 2 fyz + 2 gzx + 2hxy ≡ (l1 x + m1 y + n1 z ) (l2 x + m2 y + n2 z).
Comparing the coefficients of like terms on either side, we have
l1 l2 = a, m1 m2 = b, n1 n2 = c , m1 n2 + m2 n1 = 2 f , 
⋅ …(2)
n1 l2 + n2 l1 = 2 g, l1 m2 + l2 m1 = 2h 
The required condition is obtained by eliminating l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 from
the relations (2). This is conveniently done by considering the following product of
two zero-valued determinants :
 G-99

l1 l2 0 l2 l1 0
m1 m2 0 × m2 m1 0 = 0. [Remember]
n1 n2 0 n1 n2 0
Multiplying the two determinants by row-by-row multiplication rule, we have
 2 l1 l2 l1 m2 + l2 m1 l1 n2 + l2 n1 
m1 l2 + m2 l1 2 m1 m2 m1 n2 + m2 n1 = 0.
 
 n1 l2 + n2 l1 n1 m2 + n2 m1 2n1 n2 
On putting the values of l1 l2 , l1 m2 + l2 m1 etc. from (2), we have
 2a 2h 2g a h g
 2h 2b 2 f  = 0 or  h b f = 0
   
2g 2f 2c  g f c 
2
or abc + 2 fgh − af − bg 2 − ch 2 = 0. …(3)
This is the required condition that the equation (1) represents a pair of planes
passing through the origin.
To find the angle between the planes: Let θ be the angle between the two
planes represented by the equation (1).
Then θ is the angle between the planes l1 x + m1 y + n1 z = 0 and
l2 x + m2 y + n2 z = 0 and so is given by
[Σ (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 ]1 /2
tan θ = ,
l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2
where l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = a + b + c
and Σ (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 = Σ [(m1 n2 + m2 n1 )2 − 4m1 m2 n1 n2 ]
2
= Σ (4 f − 4bc )
2
=4( f − bc ) + 4 ( g 2 − ca) + 4 (h 2 − ab),
so that [Σ (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 ]1 /2 = 2 √ ( f 2
+ g 2 + h 2 − bc − ca − ab).
2 √ ( f 2 + g 2 + h2 − bc − ca − ab)
∴ tan θ = …(4)
a+b+c
2
2 √ ( f + g 2 + h2 − bc − ca − ab)
or θ = tan −1  .
 a+b+c 
Condition of perpendicularity: The two planes given by (1) will be
1 1
perpendicular if θ = π i. e., tan θ = tan π = ∞. Hence the relation (4) gives
2 2
a + b + c = 0.
Thus, the two planes given by (1) will be perpendicular if
the coefficient of x 2 + the coefficient of y 2 + the coefficient of z 2 = 0.
 G-100

Example 12: Prove that the equation 2 x 2 − 6 y 2 − 12z 2

+ 18 yz + 2zx + xy = 0
represents a pair of planes and find the angle between them.
(Garhwal 2000; Agra 01; Rohilkhand 05, 07; Avadh 10)
Solution: Comparing the given equation with the equation
ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2
+ 2 fyz + 2 gzx + 2hxy = 0, we get
1 1 1
a = 2 , b = − 6, c = − 12 , f = ⋅ 18 = 9, g = ⋅ 2 = 1, h = ⋅
2 2 2
2
∴ abc + 2 fgh − af − bg 2 − ch 2
1 1
= 2 (−6) . (−12) + 2 . 9 . 1 . − 2 . 81 + 6 . 1 + 12 .
2 4
= 144 + 9 − 162 + 6 + 3 = 162 − 162 = 0.
Hence the given equation represents a pair of planes.
If θ be the angle between the planes, then
2
2 √( f + g 2 + h2 − bc − ca − ab)
tan θ =
a+b+c
1 1
2 √ (81 + 1 + − 72 + 24 + 12) 2 √ [ . (185)]
4 4 185
= = =− ⋅
2 − 6 − 12 −16 16
185 441
∴ sec 2 θ = 1 + tan2 θ = 1 + =
256 256
21 16 16
∴ sec θ = or cos θ = or θ = cos −1   ⋅
16 21  21
Alternative method: Arranging the given equation as a quadratic in x,we have
2 x 2 + x (2z + y) − (6 y 2 + 12z 2
− 18 yz ) = 0.
− (2z + y) ± √ [(2z + y)2 + 4 . 2 . (6 y 2 + 12z 2
− 18 yz )]
∴ x=
2 .2
2
or 4 x = − 2z − y ± √ [4z + 4zy + y 2 + 48 y 2 + 96z 2
− 144 yz ]
2 2
= − 2z − y ± √ (49 y − 140 yz + 100 z )
= − 2z − y ± √ (7 y − 10 z )2
= − 2z − y ± (7 y − 10 z ).
∴ 4 x = − 2z − y + 7 y − 10 z and 4 x = − 2z + y − 7 y + 10 z
or 4 x − 6 y + 12z = 0 and 4 x + 8 y − 8z = 0
or 2 x − 3 y + 6z = 0 and x + 2 y − 2z = 0.
These being linear equations in x, y and z prepresent the two planes. If θ is the angle
 G-101

between these planes, then using

a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c 2
cos θ = , we have
√ (a1 + b12 + c12 ) √ (a2 2 + b2 2 + c 2 2 )
2

2 . 1 + (−3) . (2) + 6 . (−2) −16

cos θ = = ,
√ (4 + 9 + 36) √ (1 + 4 + 4) 21
giving the obtuse angle between the planes.
If θ is the acute angle between the planes, then cos θ = 16 / 21.
∴ θ = cos −1 (16 / 21).

21 Projection on a Plane
Recall the definitions of the projection of a point and the projection of the segment
of a line on a plane (see article 7 of chapter 3).
Similarly the projection of an area A on a given plane is defined. Let A be an area
enclosed by the curve PQR … . Let P ′ , Q ′ , R ′ , …be the feet of the perpendiculars
drawn from P, Q, R ,… to the given plane. Then the projection of the area A
enclosed by the curve PQR … on the given plane is the area A′ enclosed by the
curve P ′ Q ′ R ′ … . If θ is the angle between the plane of the area A and the plane of
projection, then A′ = A cos θ.
Now we shall discuss two theorems on the projections.
Theorem 1: Let the projections of an area A on the co-ordinate planes yz , zx and xy be
A x , A y and Az respectively, then A2 = A x 2 + A y2 + Az 2 .

Proof: Let the direction cosines of the normal to the plane of area A be l, m, n.
Also the normal to the yz-plane is x-axis whose d.c.’s are 1, 0, 0. If α be the angle
between the plane of area A and the yz-plane, then α is the angle between the
normals to these planes and so cos α = l . 1 + m . 0 + n . 0 = l.
Now the projection A x of the area A on the yz-plane is given by
A x = A cos α = Al.
Similarly we have A y = Am, Az = An.
Squaring and adding, we have
A x 2 + A y2 + Az 2 = A2 (l2 + m2 + n2 ) = A2 . 1 = A2 .
Theorem 2: The projection of a given plane area A on a given plane ξ is equal to the sum of
the projections of A x , A y and Az on the given plane ξ, where A x , A y and Az are the
projections of the area A on the co-ordinate planes viz., yz , zx and xy-planes respectively.
Proof: Let l, m, n be the d.c.’s of the normal to the plane A, and let l ′ , m ′ , n ′ be the
d.c.’s of the normal to the plane ξ. Now if θ is the angle between these two planes,
then cos θ = ll ′ + mm ′ + nn ′ . …(1)
 G-102

Now let the projection of the area A on the plane ξ be A ′ ; then we have
A ′ = A cos θ or A ′ = A (ll ′ + mm ′ + nn ′ ). …(2)
Also by definition and in view of theorem 1, we have
A x = Al, A y = Am, Az = An. …(3)
From (2), we have A ′ = ( Al ) l ′ + ( Am) m ′ + ( An) n ′
= A x l ′ + A y m′ + Az n′ [using the relations (3)]
= (the projection of the area A x on the plane ξ)
+ (the projection of the area A y on the plane ξ)
+ (the projection of the area Az on the plane ξ).
Proved.

22 Area of a Triangle
To find the area of a triangle ABC the co-ordinates of whose vertices are A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ),
B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) and C ( x3 , y3 , z 3 ).
Let l, m, n be the d.c.’s of the normal to the plane of the triangle ABC and let ∆
denote the area of this triangle.
Let A x , B x and C x be the projections of the three vertices A , B and C respectively
on the yz-plane. Clearly the co-ordinates of these points are given by
A x (0, y1 , z1 ), B x (0, y2 , z 2 ) and C x (0, y3 , z 3 ).
Let ∆ x denote the area of the triangle A x B x C x i. e., ∆ x is the area of projection of
the area ∆ on the yz-plane, so that we have
∆ x = ∆ . l. …(1)
Also by the co-ordinate geometry of two dimensions,
y1 z1 1
1
∆x = y1 z 2 1 …(2)
2
y3 z 3 1
Similarly if ∆ y and ∆ z are the areas of the projections of the area ∆ on zx and
xy-planes, then
∆ y =∆⋅m …(3)
and ∆z = ∆ ⋅ n …(4)
x1 z1 1 x1 y1 1
1 1
where ∆ y = x2 z2 1 , ∆z = x2 y2 1 ⋅
2 2
x3 z3 1 x3 y3 1
Squaring (1), (3) and (4) and adding, we get
∆ x2 + ∆ y
2
+ ∆ z 2 = ∆2 (l 2 + m2 + n2 ) = ∆2 . 1
or ∆2 = ∆ x 2 + ∆ y
2
+ ∆ z2 . …(5)
This gives area ∆ of the triangle ABC .
 G-103

Example 13: A plane makes intercepts OA = a, OB = b and OC = c respectively on the

1
co-ordinate axes. Show that the area of the triangle ABC is √ (b 2 c 2 + c 2 a2 + a2 b 2 ).
2
(Meerut 2008, 09)
Solution: The points A , B and C lie on the axes of x , y and z respectively, so that
their co-ordinates are A (a, 0, 0), B (0, b, 0), C (0, 0, c ).
Let ∆ denote the area of the triangle ABC . The projection of the triangle ABC on
the yz-plane is the triangle OBC and if ∆ x denotes its area, then
1 1
∆ x = . OB . OC = bc . …(1)
2 2
The projection of the triangle ABC on the zx-plane is the triangle OCA and its area
1 1
∆ y is given by ∆ y = . OC . OA = c a . …(2)
2 2
Also the projection of the triangle ABC on the xy-plane is the triangle OAB and its
area ∆ z is given by
1 1
∆ z = . OA . OB = ab . …(3)
2 2
∴ the area ∆ of the triangle ABC is given by
1
∆2 = ∆ x 2 + ∆ y2 + ∆ z 2 = (b 2 c 2
+ c 2 a2 + a2 b 2 )
4
1
or ∆ = √ (b 2 c 2 + c 2 a2 + a2 b 2 ).
2

23 Volume of a Tetrahedron
If V is the volume of the tetrahedron A, BCD whose vertices are the points
A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ), C ( x3 , y3 , z 3 ) and D ( x4 , y4 , z 4 ), then
x1 y1 z1 1
1 x2 y2 z 2 1
V = .
6 x3 y3 z 3 1
x4 y4 z 4 1
Particular case: If V is the volume of the tetrahedron O, ABC whose vertices are
the points O (0, 0, 0), A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) and C ( x3 , y3 , z 3 ), then
x1 y1 z1
1
V = x2 y2 z 2 .
6
x3 y3 z 3
 G-104

Example 14: Prove that the four planes my + nz = 0, nz + lx = 0, lx + my = 0,

2 p3
lx + my + nz = p form a tetrahedron whose volume is ⋅
3 lmn
(Kanpur 2009; Kumaun 11)
Solution: The equations of the given planes are
my + nz = 0 …(1)
nz + lx = 0 …(2)
lx + my = 0 …(3)
and lx + my + nz = p. …(4)
Solving (1), (2) and (3), we get x = 0, y = 0, z = 0.
p p p
Solving (2), (3) and (4), we get x = − , y = , z = ⋅
l m n
p p p
Solving (1), (3) and (4), we get x = , y = − , z = ⋅
l m n
p p p
Solving (1), (2) and (4), we get x = , y = , z = − ⋅
l m n
Hence, the coordinates of the vertices of the tetrahedron are
 p p p  p p p p p p
(0, 0, 0) ;  − , ,  ;  , − ,  and  , , −  ⋅
 l m n  l m n l m n
Therefore, the volume V of the tetrahedron
p p p
−
l m n −1 1 1 −1 0 0
1 p p p p3 p3 C2 + C1
= − = 1 −1 1 = 1 0 2 ,
6 l m n 6 lmn 6 lmn C3 + C1
p p p 1 1 −1 1 2 0
−
l m n
p3 2 p3
= ×4= ⋅
6 lmn 3 lmn

Comprehensive Exercise 2

1. Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the
planes 2 x − 7 y + 4z = 3, 3 x − 5 y + 4 z + 11 = 0, and the point (−2 , 1, 3).
(Bundelkhand 2005)
2. Find the equation of the plane through the line of intersection of the planes
ax + by + c z + d = 0 and αx + βy + γz + δ = 0 and parallel to x-axis.
(Bundelkhand 2006, 14)
 G-105

3. Find the equation of the plane which is perpendicular to the plane

5 x + 3 y + 6z + 8 = 0 and which contains the line of intersection of the
planes x + 2 y + 3z − 4 = 0, 2 x + y − z + 5 = 0. (Rohilkhand 2009)
4. A variable plane at a constant distance p from the origin meets the axes in
A, B and C. Through A, B, C planes are drawn parallel to the co-ordinate
planes. Show that the locus of their point of intersection is
x −2 + y −2 + z −2 = p −2 . (Rohilkhand 2008B)
5. A variable plane passes through a fixed point (α, β, γ ) and meets the axes of
reference in A, B, C. Show that the locus of the point of intersection of the
planes through A, B, C parallel to the co-ordinate planes is
αx −1 + βy −1 + γz −1 = 1. (Meerut 2009B; Kumaun 12)
6. x y z
A point P moves on the plane + + = 1which is fixed. The plane through
a b c
P perpendicular to OP meets the co-ordinate axes in A, B and C. The planes
through A, B and C parallel to the yz , zx and xy-planes intersect in Q. Prove
that if the axes be rectangular, the locus of Q is
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
+ 2 + 2 = + + ⋅
x y z ax by cz

7. Find the equations of the bisector planes of the angles between the planes
3 x − 2 y + 6z + 8 = 0 and 2 x − y + 2z + 3 = 0 (Purvanchal 2010)
8. Find the equation of the plane that bisects the angle between the planes
3 x − 6 y + 2z + 5 = 0 and 4 x − 12 y + 3z = 3 which contains the origin. Is this
the plane that bisects the obtuse angle ? (Avadh 2011)
9. Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles between the planes
2 x − y − 2z − 6 = 0 and 3 x + 2 y − 6z − 12 = 0 and distinguish them.
(Purvanchal 2010)
2 2 2
10. Prove that the equation x +4y −z + 4 x y = 0 represents a pair of
planes and find the angle between them. (Rohilkhand 2008)
11. Show that the equation a b c
+ + = 0 represents a pair of
y−z z − x x− y
planes. (Gorakhpur 2006; Kanpur 06; Rohilkhand 10)
12. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are A (1, 2 , 3), B (2 , − 1, 1) and
C (1, 2 , − 4). (Meerut 2013)
13. Find the area of the triangle included between the plane 3 x − 4 y + z = 12 and
the co-ordinate planes. (Meerut 2000; Rohilkhand 08)

14. From a point P ( x ′ , y ′ , z ′ ) a plane is drawn at right angles to OP to meet the

co-ordinate axes at A, B and C. Prove that the area of the triangle ABC is
r 5 / (2 x ′ y ′ z ′ ), where r is the measure of OP. (Meerut 2011)
 G-106

A nswers 2
1. 15 x − 47 y + 28z = 7
2. (bα − aβ) y + (c α − aγ ) z + (dα − aδ) = 0
3. 33 x + 45 y + 50 z − 41 = 0
7. 5 x − y − 4z − 3 = 0, 23 x − 13 y + 32z + 45 = 0
8. 67 x − 162 y + 47z + 44 = 0
9. 5 x − 13 y + 4z − 6 = 0; 23 x − y − 32z − 78 = 0
1
10. tan −1  √ 5
2 
1
12. √ (490) square units
2
13. 3 √ (26) square units

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).

1. Equation of a plane through the point P (α, β, γ ) and perpendicular to OP is

(a) α x + βy + γz = α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 (b) α x + βy + γz = 0
(c) α x + βy + γz = α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 (d) α x + βy + γz = 1
2. The angle between the planes 3 x − 4 y + 5z = 0 and 2 x − y − 2 z = 5 is
(a) π / 3 (b) π / 2
(c) π / 6 (d) π / 4
(Meerut 2009B)
3. The ratio in which the x y-plane meets the line joining the points (−3, 4, − 8)
and (5, − 6, 4) is
(a) 2 : 3 (b) 2 : 1
(c) 4 : 5 (d) none of these
(Agra 2007)
 G-107

4. A plane meets the coordinate axes at A , B , C such that the centroid of the
triangle ABC is the point (a, b, c ). Then the equation of the plane ABC is
x y z x y z
(a) + + =1 (b) + + =0
a b c a b c
x y z
(c) + + =3 (d) none of these
a b c
5. If d1 and d2 are both positive and the origin lies in the acute angle between the
planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2 = 0
then the value of a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c 2 is
(a) negative (b) positive
(c) 0 (d) none of these
6. The intercept form of plane is
x y z x y z
(a) + + =1 (b) − − =1
a b c a b c
(c) ax + by + cz = 1 (d) none of these
(Bundelkhand 2005)
7. The equation of the plane parallel to x-axis is
(a) y = 0 (b) z = 0
(c) ax + d = 0 (d) by + cz + d = 0
(Kumaun 2008)
8. The angle between the plane z = 0 and x + y = 0 is
(a) 60° (b) 90°
(c) 180° (d) none of these
9. The angle between the planes 3 x − 4 y + 5z = 0 and 2 x − y − z = 5 is
π π
(a) (b)
2 3
π π
(c) (d)
4 6 (Kumaun 2011, 14)
10. The equation of the XOY plane is
(a) x = 0 (b) = 0
(c) z = 0 (d) none of these
(Kumaun 2014)

Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks “……”, so that the following statements are complete and correct.

1. The equation ax + by + cz + d = 0 represents a …… .

2. The direction cosines of normal to the plane 4 x − y − 8z + 7 = 0 directed
from the origin to the plane are …… .
 G-108

3. 2 x + 3 y + 4z = 0 is the equation of a plane which passes through the …… .

(Meerut 2001)
4. α ( x − l) + β ( y − m) + γ (z − n) = 0 represents a plane passing through the
point …… . (Meerut 2001)
5. Equation of the plane through a given point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and perpendicular to
a line whose direction ratios are a, b, c is …… .
6. The equation of the plane which cuts off intercepts a, b, c from the axes is
…… .
7. The intercept made by the plane 3 x + 4 y + 8z = 2 on y-axis is …… .
8. The equation of the plane x − 2 y + 2z − 9 = 0 in normal form is …… .
9. The planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2 = 0
are perpendicular if and only if …… .
10. The equation of the plane through the point (1, 4, –2) and parallel to the
plane −2 x + y − 3z = 7 is …… .
11. The equation of the plane parallel to the zx-plane and at a distance ‘ b’from it is
given by …… .
12. The length of the perpendicular drawn from the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) to the plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is …… .
13. The length of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to the plane
x + 4 y − 8z + 18 = 0 is …… .
14. The perpendicular distance of the point (2 , − 1, − 4) from the plane
3 x − 4 y + 12 z = 9 is …… .
15. The distance between the parallel planes x + y − z + 4 = 0 and
x + y − z + 5 = 0 is …… .
16. The length of the perpendicular from the origin to a plane is 5 units and the
direction ratios of a normal to the plane are 2 , 3, − 6. The equation of the
plane is …… . (Meerut 2002)
17. The equation of the plane passing through the origin and parallel to the plane
4 x − 9 y + 7z + 3 = 0 is …… .
18. The foot of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to a plane is (12 , − 4, 3).
The equation of the plane is …… .
19. The angle between the normals to the planes 2 x − y + z = 13 and
x + y + 2 z = 9 is …… .
20. Two points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) will lie on the same side of the plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0 if ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d and ax2 + by2 + cz 2 + d
are of the …… signs.
 G-109

21. The bisector of the acute angle between the planes 2 x − y + 2 z + 3 = 0 and
3 x − 2 y + 6z + 8 = 0 is …… .
22. Two planes represented by ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2
+ 2 fyz + 2 gzx + 2hxy = 0
will be perpendicular if …… .
23. The areas of projections of ∆ ABC on the coordinate planes yz , zx , xy are
respectively A x , A y , Az . If A is the area of ∆ ABC, then A2 = …… .

True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.

1. The number of arbitrary constants in the general equation of a plane is 3.

2. The planes x − y + z = 7 and 3 x + 2 y − z + 9 = 0 are perpendicular to each
other.
3. The planes 3 x − 4 y + 8z + 7 = 0 and 6 x + 8 y + 16z + 9 = 0 are parallel to
each other.
4. The planes 3 x + 4 y + 9z = 8 and 6 x + 8 y + 18z − 7 = 0 are parallel to each
other.
5. The angle between the planes 2 x − y − 2z − 6 = 0 and 3 x + 2 y − 6z − 12 = 0
in which the origin lies is acute.

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (a)
6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (c)

Fill in the Blank(s)

4 1 8
1. plane 2. − , , 3. origin
9 9 9
4. (l, m, n) 5. a ( x − x1 ) + b ( y − y1 ) + c (z − z1 ) = 0
x y z 1
6. + + =1 7.
a b c 2
1 2 2
8. x− y+ z =3 9. a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c 2 = 0
3 3 3
10. 2 x − y + 3z + 8 = 0 11. y=b
 G-110

|ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d | 47

12. 13. 2 14.
2
a +b 2
+c 2 13
1
15. 16. 2 x + 3 y − 6z = 35
3
17. 4 x − 9 y + 7z = 0 18. 12 x − 4 y + 3z = 169 19. π / 3
20. same 21. 23 x − 13 y + 32 z + 45 = 0
22. a + b + c = 0 23. A x 2 + A y2 + Az 2

True or False
1. T 2. T 3. F 4. T 5. F

¨
 G-111

5
T he S traight L ine

1 The Equations of a Straight Line

very equation of the first degree in x , y , z represents a plane. Also as two
E planes intersect in a line, therefore the two equations together represent that
line. Thus ax + by + cz + d = 0 and a′ x + b′ y + c ′z + d′ = 0
represent a straight line.
These are called the general equations of a straight line.

2 Equations of the Straight Line in the Symmetrical Form

To find the equations of a straight line passing through a given point A (α , β , γ ) and having
direction cosines l , m, n. (Kumaun 2001)
Let P ( x , y , z ) be any point on the line such that AP = r.
Now projecting AP on the x-axis, we have
x−α
x − α = lr or =r.
l
Similarly projecting AP on the y and z-axes, we have
 G-112

y−β z −γ
= r, =r.
m n
x −α y−β z−γ
∴ = =
l m n
are the equations of a straight line in the
symmetrical form.
Alternative method: (By vectors).
Let P ( x , y , z ) be any point on the line AP ,
where A (α , β , γ ) is the given point.
→ → → r r
∴ AP = OP − OA = r − a = ( xi + yj + zk) − (αi + βj + γk)
= ( x − α) i + ( y − β) j + (z − γ ) k . …(1)
Since l , m, n are the direction cosines
→
of the line AP, therefore AP = r t$ ,
where AP = r and t$ is the unit
vector along AP given by

t$ = li + mj + nk .
→
∴ AP = r t$ = r (li + mj + nk). …(2)
From (1) and (2),
r r
r − a = r t$
or ( x − α) i + ( y − β) j + (z − γ ) k = r (li + mj + nk).
∴ x − α = lr , y − β = mr , z − γ = nr .
x −α y−β z−γ
Hence = = ⋅ are the required equations of the line.
a b c
Corollary 1: The equations of the straight line passing through (α , β , γ ) and
x −α y−β z−γ
having direction cosines proportional to a, b, c are = = ⋅
a b c
Corollary 2: Any point on the line. Any point P ( x , y , z ) on the line
x−α y−β z −γ
= = = r (say) is (α + lr, β + mr, γ + nr ).
l m n
Here, l, m, n are the d.c.’s of the line and r is the distance of any point P ( x , y , z ) on
the line from the given point (α , β , γ ).
Similarly any point on the line
x−α y−β z −γ
= = = r (say) is (α + ar, β + br, γ + cr ).
a b c
It should be noted here that ‘ r’ is not the actual distance of any point P ( x , y , z )
on the line from the given point (α , β , γ ).
 G-113

3 Line through Two given Points

(Meerut 2010B)
To find the equations of a straight line through two given points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
( x2 , y2 , z 2 ).
The direction cosines of the line will be proportional to x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z 2 − z1
and it passes through ( x1 , y1 , z1 ).
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Therefore the equations of the line will be = = ⋅
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1

Alternate method: (By vectors).

Let A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) be
the given points and P ( x, y, z ) be any
point on the line AB .
→ →
Since the vectors AP and AB are
→ →
collinear, therefore AP = t AB ,
where t is some scalar
or ( x − x1 ) i + ( y − y1 ) j + (z − z1 ) k
= t {( x2 − x1 ) i + ( y2 − y1 ) j + (z 2 − z1 ) k}.
∴ x − x1 = t ( x2 − x1 ), y − y1 = t ( y2 − y1 )
and z − z1 = t (z 2 − z1 ).
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Hence, = =
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
are the required equations of a line through two given points.

Example 1: Find the co-ordinates of the point of intersection of the line

x +1 y + 3 z −2
= = with the plane 3 x + 4 y + 5z = 20.
1 3 2
(Kumaun 2015)
x +1 y+3 z −2
Solution: Suppose = = = r , (say).
1 3 2
∴ (−1 + r , − 3 + 3r , 2 + 2r) are the co-ordinates of any point on the line.

If this point lies on the plane 3 x + 4 y + 5z = 20, then

3 (r − 1) + 4 (3r − 3) + 5 (2r + 2) = 20.
∴ 25r = 25 or r = 1.
Putting the value of r we get the required co-ordinates of the point as (0, 0, 4).
 G-114

Example 2: Find the distance of the point (2 , 3, 4) from the point where the line
x−3 y−4 z −5
= = meets the plane x + y + z = 22 .
1 2 2
Solution: Any point on the line is (3 + r , 4 + 2r , 5 + 2r).
If it also lies on the plane x + y + z = 22 , then
3 + r + 4 + 2r + 5 + 2r = 22 or 5r = 10.
∴ r =2.
Putting the value of r we get the required co-ordinates of the point as (5, 8, 9).
∴ the required distance = the distance between (2 , 3, 4) and (5, 8, 9)
= (5 − 2)2 + (8 − 3)2 + (9 − 4)2
= 9 + 25 + 25 = 59 .
Example 3: Find the distance of the point (1, 3, 4) from the plane 2 x − y + z = 3
x y z
measured parallel to the line = = ⋅ (Meerut 2007B, 08, 12)
2 −1 −1
Solution: Line through (1, 3, 4) parallel to the given line is
x −1 y−3 z −4
= = = r , (say).
2 −1 −1
Any point on this line is (1 + 2r , 3 − r , 4 − r).
If it also lies on the plane 2 x − y + z = 3, then
2 (1 + 2 r) − (3 − r) + 4 − r = 3 or 2 + 4r − 3 + r + 4 − r = 3
or 4r = 0 or r = 0.
Putting the value of r we get the co-ordinates of the point as (1, 3, 4).
Distance required = the distance between the points (1, 3, 4) and (1, 3, 4) which is
obviously zero.
Example 4: Find the co-ordinates of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to
the plane 3 x + 4 y − 6z + 1 = 0. Find also the co-ordinates of the point on the line which is at
the same distance from the foot of the perpendicular as the origin is.
(Bundelkhand 2005; Meerut 13B)
Solution: The equation of the given plane is
3 x + 4 y − 6 z + 1 = 0. …(1)
The d.r.’s of the normal to the plane (1) are 3, 4, − 6.
∴ d.r.’s of the line perpendicular to the plane (1) are
3, 4, − 6.
Hence the equations of the line passing through (0, 0, 0) and
perpendicular to the plane (1) are
x y z
= = = r (say). …(2)
3 4 −6
 G-115

∴ any point P on the line (2) is (3r, 4r, − 6r). …(3)

If this point lies on the plane (1), then
3 (3r) + 4 (4r) − 6 (−6r) + 1 = 0
or r = − 1 / 61 ⋅
Putting this value of r i. e., r = − 1 / 61 in (3), the coordinates of the foot of the
−3 −4 6 
perpendicular P are  , , ⋅
 61 61 61
Now if Q ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) be the point on the line which is at the same distance from the
foot of the perpendicular as the origin is, then P is the middle point of OQ .
x1 + 0 −3 y + 0 −4 z1 + 0 6
∴ = , 1 = and =
2 61 2 61 2 61
−6 −8 12
giving x1 = , y1 = , z1 = ⋅
61 61 61
−6 −8 12
∴ the co-ordinates of Q are  , , ⋅
 61 61 61

Comprehensive Exercise 1

x−2 y +1 z −2
1. (i) Find the point in which the line = = meets the
3 4 12
plane x − 2 y + z = 20. (Rohilkhand 2013)
(ii) Find the distance from the point (3, 4, 5) to the pont where the line
x−3 y−4 z −5
= = meets the plane x + y + z = 2.
1 2 2 (Kumaun 2009)
2. Find the coordinates of the point where the line joining the points (2, − 3, 1)
and (3, − 4, − 5) meets the plane 2 x + y + z = 7.
(Kumaun 2007; Rohilkhand 08)
3. Show that the distance of the point of intersection of the line
x−3 y−4 z −5
= = and the plane x + y + z = 17 from the point (3, 4, 5)
1 2 2
is 3.
x + 1 y − 12 z − 7
4. Find the points in which the line = = cuts the surface
−1 5 2
11x 2 − 5 y 2 + z 2 = 0. (Meerut 2004, 05, 07, 09B; Kanpur 06)
5. Find the distance of the point (1, − 2, 3) from the plane x − y + z = 5
x y z
measured along a line parallel to = = ⋅ (Kanpur 2010)
2 3 −6
6. Find the image of the point (1, 3, 4) in the plane 2 x − y + z + 3 = 0.
(Meerut 2004, 05, 06B, 07, 10; Rohilkhand 08)
 G-116

7. A variable plane makes intercepts on the co-ordinate axes the sum of whose
squares is constant and equal to k 2 . Show that the locus of the foot of the
perpendicular from the origin to the plane is
( x −2 + y −2 + z −2 ) ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )2 = k 2 . (Garhwal 2001)

A nswers 1
1. (i) (8, 7, 26) (ii) 6 2. (1, − 2, 7)
4. (1, 2 , 3); (2 , − 3, 1) 5. 1 6. (− 3, 5, 2)

4 Transformation of the General Form of the Equations of

a Straight Line to Symmetrical Form
To transform the equations a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0, a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2 = 0 of a
straight line to the symmetrical form.
Let the general form of the equations of the straight line be given by the equations
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 
⋅ …(1)
a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2 = 0
Now we are required to write down the symmetrical form of the straight line given
by the equations (1). For this we must know (i) the direction cosines or direction
ratios of the line and (ii) the co-ordinates of a point on the line. To find these two
we proceed as follows :
Step 1: To find the direction cosines or the direction ratios of the line given
by the equations (1).
Let l, m, n be the direction cosines or direction ratios of the line. Since the line is
common to both the planes, therefore it is perpendicular to the normals of both the
planes. The direction ratios of the normals to the planes given by equations (1) are
a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c 2 respectively. Hence we have
la1 + mb1 + nc1 = 0 and la2 + mb2 + nc 2 = 0.
Solving these equations for l, m, n, we have
l m n
= = ⋅
b1 c 2 − b2 c1 c1 a2 − c 2 a1 a1 b2 − a2 b1
∴ the direction ratios of the line are
b1 c 2 − b2 c1 , c1 a2 − c 2 a1 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 . …(2)

Step 2: To find the co-ordinates of a point on the line given by the equations
(1).
 G-117

The co-ordinates of a point on a line can be chosen in many ways. One of these ways
is that we choose the point as the one where the line cuts the xy-plane (i. e., the plane
z = 0), provided the line is not parallel to the plane z = 0 i. e., provided
a1 b2 − a2 b1 ≠ 0. Putting z = 0 in both the equations given by (1), we get
a1 x + b1 y + d1 = 0, a2 x + b2 y + d2 = 0.
Solving these equations for x, y, we get
x y 1
= = ⋅
b1 d2 − b2 d1 d1 a2 − d2 a1 a1 b2 − a2 b1
Hence the co-ordinates of a point on the line (1), where it cuts the plane z = 0 are
 b1 d2 − b2 d1 d1 a2 − d2 a1 
 , , 0 ⋅ …(3)
 a1 b2 − a2 b1 a1 b2 − a2 b1 
Hence the equations of the line in symmetrical form are
 b d − b2 d1   d a − d2 a1 
x− 1 2  y− 1 2 
 a1 b2 − a2 b1   a1 b2 − a2 b1  z −0
= = ⋅
b1 c 2 − b2 c1 c1 a2 − c 2 a1 a1 b2 − a2 b1
Note: If a1 b2 − a2 b1 = 0, then instead of taking z = 0 we should take the point
where the line cuts x = 0 plane or y = 0 plane.

Example 5: Find in symmetrical form the equations of the line

3 x + 2 y − z − 4 = 0 = 4 x + y − 2z + 3 and find its direction cosines.
(Meerut 2005B)
Solution: The equations of the given line in general form are
3 x + 2 y − z − 4 = 0, 4 x + y − 2z + 3 = 0. …(1)
Let l, m, n be the d.c.’s of the line (1). Since the line is common to both the planes, it
is perpendicular to the normals to both the planes.
Hence we have 3l + 2m − n = 0, 4l + m − 2n = 0.
Solving these, we get
l m n l m n
= = or = = ⋅
− 4 +1 − 4 + 6 3 − 8 −3 2 −5
∴ the d.r.’s of the line (1) are − 3, 2 , − 5.
We have, (−3)2 + 22 + (−5)2 = 38.
∴ The d.c.’s l, m, n of the line (1) are given by
3 2 5
l=− , m= , n=− ⋅
38 38 38
Now to find the co-ordinates of a point on the line given by (1), let us find the point
 G-118

where it meets the plane z = [Link] z = 0 in the equations given by (1), we have
3 x + 2 y − 4 = 0, 4 x + y + 3 = 0.
Solving these, we get
x y 1 x y 1
= = or = =
6 + 4 −16 − 9 3 − 8 10 −25 −5
giving x = − 2 , y = 5.
∴ The line meets the plane z = 0 in the point (−2 , 5, 0) and has direction ratios as
−3, 2 , − 5. Therefore the equations of the given line in symmetrical form are
x+2 y−5 z −0
= = ⋅
−3 2 −5

Example 6: The planes 3 x − y + z + 1 = 0, 5 x + y + 3z = 0 intersect in the line PQ.

Find the equation to the plane through the point (2 , 1, 4) and perpendicular to PQ .
Solution: Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of PQ . Since the normal to each of
the given planes is perpendicular to the line PQ , therefore
3l − m + n = 0 and 5l + m + 3n = 0.
l m n
∴ = =
−3 − 1 5 − 9 3 + 5
l m n
or = = ⋅
1 1 −2
Since we have to find the equation of the plane which is perpendicular to PQ ,
therefore the coefficients of x , y and z in its equation must be quantities
proportional to l, m, n so let the equation of this plane be x + y − 2 z + λ = 0.
If it passes through the point (2 , 1, 4), then
2 +1− 8 + λ = 0 or λ = 5.
Hence the required equation is
x + y − 2 z + 5 = 0.

Comprehensive Exercise 2

1. Find in symmetrical form the equations of the line

x + y + z + 1 = 0 = 4 x + y − 2 z + 2 and find its direction cosines.
2. Find the angle between the lines x + 2 y − 2z = 11, x − 2 y + z = 9 and
x−3 y+5 z −1
= = ⋅
1 −3 2
3. Prove that the lines x = ay + b, z = cy + d and x = a ′ y + b ′ , z = c ′ y + d ′
are perpendicular if aa ′ + cc ′ + 1 = 0.
(Kanpur 2006, 09; Rohilkhand 07; Bundelkhand 09; Kumaun 09)
 G-119

4. Find the equations to the line through the point (1, 2 , 3) parallel to the line
x − y + 2z − 5 = 0 ; 3 x + y + z − 6 = 0. (Avadh 2013)
5. (i) Show that the lines 2 x + 3 y − 4z = 0, 3 x − 4 y + z = 7
and 5 x − y − 3z + 12 = 0, x − 7 y + 5z − 6 = 0 are parallel.
(ii) Show that the lines x + y − z = 5, 9 x − 5 y + z = 4 and
6 x − 8 y + 4z = 3, x + 8 y − 6z + 7 = 0 are parallel. (Kumaun 2008)
6. Show that the lines 3 x + 2 y + z = 5, x + y − 2 z = 3
and 2 x − y − z = 0, 7 x + 10 y − 8z = 15 are mutually perpendicular.

A nswers 2
x +1/ 3 y +2/3 z + 0 −1 2 −1
1. = = ; , ,
−1 2 −1 6 6 6
 1  x −1 y − 2 z − 3
2. cos −1   4. = =
 406  −3 5 4

5 Angle between a Straight Line and a Plane

(Rohilkhand 2005)
To find the co-ordinates of the point of intersection of a given line and a given plane and to
deduce the conditions that :
(i) the line may be parallel to the plane,
(ii) the line may be perpendicular to the plane, and
(iii) the line may be lying in the plane.
Let the equations of the given straight line in symmetrical form be
x−α y−β z −γ
= = = r (say). …(1)
l m n
and the equation of the given plane be
ax + by + cz + d = 0. …(2)
The co-ordinates of any point on the line (1) are
(α + lr , β + mr , γ + nr). …(3)
If this point lines on the plane (2), then
a (α + lr) + b ( β + mr) + c (γ + nr) + d = 0
or r (al + bm + cn) + a α + bβ + cγ + d = 0
a α + bβ + cγ + d
or r=− ⋅
al + bm + cn
 G-120

Substituting this value of r in (3), we get the point of intersection of a given line and
a given plane.

Corollary 1: Conditions of parallelism of a line and a plane:

(Bundelkhand 2005; Agra 06)
x−α y−β z −γ
To deduce the conditions that the line = = may be parallel to the plane
l m n
ax + by + cz + d = 0.
If the line (1) is parallel to the plane (2), then this line must be perpendicular to the
normal to the plane (2).
∴ al + bm + cn = 0.
Again the point (α , β, γ ) should not lie on the plane i. e., we must have
aα + bβ + cγ + d ≠ 0, for otherwise the line (1) will not be simply parallel to the
plane (2) but it will lie in the plane (2).
∴ al + bm + cn = 0 and aα + bβ + cγ + d ≠ 0
are the required conditions.
Corollary 2: Condition of perpendicularity: If the line (1) is perpendicular
to the plane (2), then it must be parallel to the normal of the plane (2), so that
a b c
= =
l m n
is the required condition of perpendicularity.
Corollary 3: Conditions for a line to lie in a plane: If the line (1) lies in the
plane (2), then for all values of r the point (α + lr , β + mr , γ + nr) will lie on the
plane (2) i. e., a (α + lr) + b ( β + mr) + c (γ + nr) + d = 0
or r (al + bm + cn) + (aα + bβ + cγ + d ) = 0 is true for all values of r .
∴ The coefficient of r = 0 and the constant term = 0
i. e., al + bm + cn = 0 and aα + bβ + cγ + d = 0,
which are the required conditions.

x−α y−β z −γ
Example 7: Find the equation of the plane through the line = =
l m n
x−α′ y−β′ z −γ ′
and parallel to the line = = ⋅
l′ m′ n′
x−α y−β z −γ
Solution: Any plane through the line = = is
l m n
a ( x − α) + b ( y − β)) + c (z − γ ) = 0 …(1)
where al + bm + cn = 0. …(2)
 G-121

x−α′ y−β′ z −γ ′
Since the plane (1) is parallel to the line = = ,therefore
l′ m′ n′
al ′ + bm ′ + cn ′ = 0. …(3)
From (2) and (3), we have
a b c
= = ⋅
mn ′ − m ′ n nl ′ − n ′ l lm ′ − l ′ m
Putting the proportionate values of a, b , c in (1), the required equation of the plane
is
(mn ′ − m ′ n) ( x − α) + (nl ′ − n ′ l ) ( y − β) + (lm ′ − l ′ m) (z − γ ) = 0.

Example 8: Find the equation of the plane through the line

P ≡ ax + by + cz + d = 0, Q ≡ a ′ x + b ′ y + c ′ z + d ′ = 0
and parallel to the line x / l = y / m = z / n.
Solution: The equation of any plane through the line P = 0, Q = 0 i. e., through the
line of intersection of the planes P = 0 and Q = 0 is
P + λQ = 0 …(1)
or (ax + by + cz + d ) + λ (a ′ x + b ′ y + c ′ z + d ′ ) = 0
or (a + λa ′ ) x + (b + λb ′ ) y + (c + λc ′ ) z + d + λd ′ = 0. …(2)
The d.c.’s of the normal to the plane (2) are proportional to
a + λa ′ , b + λb ′ , c + λc ′.
The plane (2) [or (1)] will be parallel to the line x / l = y / m = z / n if the normal to
the plane (2) is perpendicular to the line x / l = y / m = z / n. Hence we have
(a + λa ′ ) l + (b + λb ′ ) m + (c + λc ′ ) n = 0
or λ (a ′ l + b ′ m + c ′ n) = − (al + bm + cn)
or λ = − (al + bm + cn) / (a ′ l + b ′ m + c ′ n).
Putting this value of λ in (1), the required equation of the plane is given by
P − {(al + bm + cn) / (a ′ l + b ′ m + c ′ n)} Q = 0
or P (a ′ l + b ′ m + c ′ n) = Q (al + bm + cn).

Comprehensive Exercise 3

1. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the line of intersection
of the planes u1 ≡ a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and
u2 ≡ a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2 = 0 and is parallel to x-axis.
2. Find the equation of the plane through the line
3 x − 4 y + 5z = 10, 2 x + 2 y − 3z = 4 and parallel to the line x = 2 y = 3z .
3. Find the direction cosines of the line whose equations are x + y = 3 and
x + y + z = 0 and show that it makes an angle of 30° with the plane
y − z + 2 = 0.
 G-122

4. Find the equation of the plane through the points (2 , − 1, 0), (3, − 4, 5)
and parallel to the line 3 x = 2 y = z .
5. Find the equation of the plane through (2 , 1, 4) perpendicular to the line of
intersection of the planes 3 x + 4 y + 7z + 4 = 0 and x − y + 2z + 3 = 0.

A nswers 3
1 1
1. u1 a2 = u2 a1 2. x − 20 y + 27 z = 14 3. 0, ,−
√2 √2
4. 33 x − 4 y − 9z − 70 = 0 5. 15 x + y − 7z − 3 = 0

6 Plane through a given Line

(Equations of the given Line in the Symmetrical Form)
x−α y−β z −γ
The equation of any plane through the line = = is
l m n
a ( x − α) + b ( y − β) + c (z − γ ) = 0 where al + bm + cn = 0.
The equations of the given line in symmetrical form are
x−α y−β z −γ
= = ⋅ …(1)
l m n
The equation of any plane through (α, β, γ ) is
a ( x − α) + b ( y − β) + c (z − γ ) = 0. …(2)
If it passes through the given line, its normal is perpendicular to
the given line
i. e., al + bm + cn = 0. …(3)
Form (2) and (3), the equation of any plane through the given line is
a ( x − α) + b ( y − β) + c ( z − γ ) = 0, where al + bm + cn = 0.
Corollary: Plane through one line and parallel to another line.
x−α y−β z −γ
The equation of the plane through the line = = , and parallel to the
l1 m1 n1

y x − α y−β z − γ
x z
line = = is  l1 m1 n1  = 0.
l2 m2 n2  
 l2 m2 n2 
x−α y−β z −γ
The equation of any plane through the line = = is
l1 m1 n1
 G-123

a ( x − α) + b ( y − β) + c (z − γ ) = 0, …(1)
where al1 + bm1 + cn1 = 0. …(2)
x y z
If it is parallel to the line = = , its normal is perpendicular to this line
l2 m2 n2
i. e., al2 + bm2 + cn2 = 0. …(3)
Eliminating a, b, c from (1), (2), (3), we get
x − α y − β z − γ
 l1 m1 n1  = 0, which is the required equation.
 
 l2 m2 n2 

Example 9: Find the equation of the plane through the point (α ′ , β ′ , γ ′ ) and through the
x−α y−β z −γ
line whose equations are = = ⋅
l m n
Solution: The equations of the given line are
x−α y−β z −γ
= = ⋅ …(1)
l m n
The equation of any plane through the line (1) is
a ( x − α) + b ( y − β) + c (z − γ ) = 0 …(2)
where al + bm + cn = 0. …(3)
If the plane (2) passes through the point (α ′ , β ′ , γ ′ ), then from (2)
a (α ′ − α) + b ( β ′ − β) + c (γ ′ − γ ) = 0 …(4)
Eliminating a, b, c from(2), (4), (3), we get
 x−α y−β z −γ
α ′ − α β ′ − β γ ′ − γ  = 0, which is the required equation.
 
 l m n 

Example 10: Find the equation of the plane which contains the two parallel lines
x +1 y − 2 z x−3 y+4 z −1
= = and = = ⋅
3 2 1 3 2 1
Solution: The equations of the two parallel lines are
x +1 y − 2 z −0
= = …(1)
3 2 1
x−3 y + 4 z −1
and = = ⋅ …(2)
3 2 1
The equation of any plane through the line (1) is
 G-124

a ( x + 1) + b ( y − 2) + cz = 0, …(3)
where 3a + 2 b + c = 0 . …(4)
The line (2) will also lie on the plane (3) if the point (3, − 4, 1) lying on the line (2)
also lies on the plane (3). Hence
a (3 + 1) + b (−4 − 2) + c . 1 = 0
or 4a − 6b + c = 0 …(5)
Solving (4) and (5), we get
a b c
= = ⋅
8 1 −26
Putting these proportional values of a, b, c in (3) the required equation of the plane
is
8 ( x + 1) + 1 . ( y − 2) − 26 z = 0
or 8 x + y − 26z + 6 = 0.

Example 11: Show that the plane through the point (α, β, γ ) and the line
x py + q rz + s
x = py + q = rz + s is given by α pβ + q r γ + s = 0.
 
1 1 1 
(Meerut 2001; Kumaun 11)
Solution: The equations of the given line are x = py + q = rz + s,
or in symmetrical form are
x−0 y + (q / p) z + (s / r)
= = …(1)
1 1/ p 1/ r
The equation of any plane through the line (1) is
a ( x − 0) + b ( y + q / p) + c (z + s / r) = 0 …(2)
where 1 . a + (1 / p) . b + (1 / r) . c = 0. …(3)
The plane (2) will also pass through the point (α, β, γ ) if
aα + b ( β + q / p) + c (γ + s / r) = 0. …(4)
Eliminating a, b, c from the equations (2), (4) and (3), the equation of the required
plane is
x y + q/ p z + s/r x py + q rz + s 
α β + q/ p γ + s/r =0 or α pβ + q rγ + s  = 0.
 
1 1/ p 1/ r 1 1 1 
[Multiplying the second and third columns by p and r respectively.]

Example 12: Find the equation of the plane through the point (2 , − 1, 1) and the line
4 x − 3 y + 5 = 0 = y − 2z − 5.
Solution: The given equations of the line are
 G-125

4 x − 3 y + 5 = 0, y − 2z − 5 = 0.
The equation of any plane through the given line is
(4 x − 3 y + 5) + λ ( y − 2z − 5) = 0 …(1)
If the plane (1) passes through the point (2 , − 1, 1), we have
4 (2) − 3 (−1) + 5 + λ (−1 − 2 . 1 − 5) = 0
or 16 − 8λ = 0 or λ =2.
Putting λ = 2 in (1), the equation of the required plane is
4 x − 3 y + 5 + 2 ( y − 2z − 5) = 0 or 4 x − y − 4z = 5.

Comprehensive Exercise 4

x−2 y−3 z −4
1. Find the equations of the planes through the line = = and
2 3 5
parallel to the co-ordinate axes.

2. x −1 y+6 z +1
Prove that the equation of the plane through the line = =
3 4 2
x−2 y −1 z +4
and parallel to = = is 26 x − 11 y − 17z − 109 = 0 and
2 −3 5
show that the point (2 , 1, − 4) lies on it.

3. Find the equation of the plane determined by the parallel lines

x−4 y−3 z −2 x−3 y+2 z
= = and = = ⋅
1 −4 5 1 −4 5
4. Find the equation of the plane which contains the line
x = ( y − 3)/ 2 = (z − 5)/ 3
and which is perpendicular to the plane 2 x + 7 y − 3z = 1.
5. Show that the equation to the plane containing the line
x +1 y − 3 z + 2
= = and the point (0, 7, − 7) is x + y + z = 0. Hence show
−3 2 1
x y−7 z +7
that the line = = also lies in the same plane.
1 2 −3 (Garhwal 2001)
6. Find the equation of the plane containing the line y + z = 1, x = 0
b c
x z
and parallel to the line − = 1, y = 0.
a c
7. The plane lx + my = 0 is rotated about its line of intersection with the plane
z = 0, through an angle α. Prove that the equation of the plane in its new
position islx + my ± z √ (l2 + m2 ) tan α = 0. (Meerut 2000, 06B)
 G-126

A nswers 4
1. 5 y − 3z − 3 = 0; 5 x − 2z − 2 = 0; 3 x − 2 y = 0
3. 11x − y − 3z − 35 = 0 4. 9 x − 3 y − z + 14 = 0
x y z
6. − − +1= 0
a b c

7 Foot and Length of Perpendicular from a Point to

a Line
(A) Line in symmetrical form:
To find the perpendicular distance of a point P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), from a given line when its
equations are given in the symmetrical form.
Let the equations of the given line in symmetrical form be
x−α y−β z −γ
= = = r (say). …(1)
l m n
The co-ordinates of any point N on the line (1) are
(α + lr, β + mr , γ + nr). …(2)
If N be the foot of the perpendicular from P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) to (1), then the line PN is
perpendicular to (1). The direction ratios of the line PN are
α + lr − x1 , β + mr − y1 , γ + nr − z1 . …(3)
As the line (1) is perpendicular to PN, using the condition
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c 2 = 0, we get
l (α + lr − x1 ) + m ( β + mr − y1 ) + n (γ + nr − z1 ) = 0
or r (l 2 + m2 + n2 ) = l ( x1 − α) + m ( y1 − β) + n (z1 − γ )
l ( x1 − α) + m ( y1 − β) + n (z1 − γ )
or r= ⋅ …(4)
l 2 + m2 + n2
Substituting this value of r from (4) in (2), we can determine the co-ordinates of N ,
the foot of perpendicular, and then PN can be easily calculated.

Corollary: Equations of the perpendicular line. The equations of the

perpendicular from the point P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) to the line (1) are given by
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = ⋅
α + lr − x1 β + mr − y1 γ + nr − z1
 G-127

(B) Line in general form:

To find the equations of the perpendicular line from the point P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) to a line whose
equations are given by
ax + by + c z + d = 0 = a ′ x + b ′ y + c ′ z + d ′ .
The equations of the given line in general form are
ax + by + c z + d = 0, a ′ x + b ′ y + c ′ z + d ′ = 0 …(1)
The perpendicular from a given point P to a given line is the intersection of the two
planes namely (i) the plane through the given point P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and also through
the given line ; and (ii) the plane through the point P perpendicular to the given
line. Now the equation of any plane through the line (1) is given by
(ax + by + c z + d ) + λ (a ′ x + b ′ y + c ′ z + d ′ ) = 0 …(2)
If this plane (2) passes through P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), then
(ax1 + by1 + c z1 + d ) + λ (a′ x1 + b ′ y1 + c ′ z1 + d ′ ) = 0
ax1 + by1 + c z1 + d
or λ =− ⋅
a ′ x1 + b ′ y1 + c ′ z1 + d ′
Substituting this value of λ in (2), the equation of the plane through the point P
and the line (1) is given by
ax + by + c z + d a ′ x + b ′ y + c ′z + d ′
= ⋅ …(3)
ax1 + by1 + c z1 + d a ′ x1 + b ′ y1 + c ′ z1 + d ′
Also if l, m, n be the d.c.’s of the given line (1), then we have
al + bm + cn = 0 and a ′ l + b ′ m + c ′ n = 0.
Solving these, we get
l m n
= = ⋅
bc ′ − b ′ c ca ′ − c ′ a ab ′ − a′ b …(4)
Now we are to find the equation of the second plane which passes through P and is
perpendicular to the line (1).
Since the plane is perpendicular to the line (1), therefore d.r.’s of its normal are
proportional to l, m, n given by (4).
∴ the equation of the plane perpendicular to the line (1) and passing through
P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is
l ( x − x1 ) + m ( y − y1 ) + n (z − z1 ) = 0 …(5)
Therefore the equations of the perpendicular line from the point P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) to
the line (1) are given by the equations (4) and (5).

Example 13: Find the equations of the perpendicular from the point (3, − 1, 11) to the line
x y−2 z −3
= = ⋅ Find also the co-ordinates of the foot of the perpendicular. Hence find
2 3 4
the length of the perpendicular. (Kanpur 2006; Kumaun 12)
 G-128

Solution: The given point is P (3, − 1, 11) and the equations of the given line are
x−0 y−2 z −3
= = = r (say). …(1)
2 3 4
The co-ordinates of any point N on the line (1) are
(2 r, 3r + 2 , 4r + 3). …(2)
Let this point N be the foot of the perpendicular from the point P (3, − 1, 11) to the
line (1). Then the d.r.’s of the perpendicular PN are
2r − 3, (3r + 2) − (−1), (4r + 3) − 11
or 2r − 3, 3r + 3, 4r − 8. …(3)
The d.r.’s of the given line (1) are 2 , 3, 4.
Now PN is perpendicular to the line (1). The condition of perpendicularity gives
(2 r − 3) . 2 + (3r + 3) . 3 + (4r − 8) . 4 = 0,
or 29r − 29 = 0, or r = 1.
Putting the value of r in (2), the foot N of the perpendicular is the point (2 , 5, 7).
Putting the value of r in (3), the d.r.’s of PN are −1, 6, − 4.
Hence the equations of the perpendicular PN from the point P (3, − 1, 11) to the
x−3 y +1 z − 11
line (1) are = = ⋅
−1 6 −4
The length of the perpendicular PN
= the distance between the points P (3, − 1, 11) and N (2 , 5, 7)
= (3 − 2)2 + (−1 − 5)2 + (11 − 7)2
= 1 + 36 + 16 = 53.

Example 14: Find the distance of the point P (3, 8, 2) from the line
x −1 y−3 z −2
= = measured parallel to the plane 3 x + 2 y − 2 z + 17 = 0.
2 4 3
Solution: The equations of the given line are
x −1 y − 3 z −2
= = = r (say). …(1)
2 4 3
Any point Q on the line (1) is (2 r + 1, 4r + 3, 3r + 2).
Now P is the point (3, 8, 2) and hence d.r.’s of PQ are
(2 r + 1) − 3, (4r + 3) − 8, (3r + 2) − 2 i. e., 2 r − 2 , 4r − 5, 3r .
It is required to find the distance PQ measured parallel to the plane
3 x + 2 y − 2 z + 17 = 0. …(2)
Now PQ is parallel to the plane (2) and therefore PQ will be perpendicular to the
normal to the plane (2). Hence, we have
(2 r − 2) (3) + (4r − 5) (2) + (3 r) (−2) = 0
 G-129

or 8r − 16 = 0, or r = 2 .
Putting the value of r , the point Q is (5, 11, 8).
∴ Required distance = The distance between P (3, 8, 2) and Q (5, 11, 8)
= (3 − 5)2 + (8 − 11)2 + (2 − 8)2 = 4 + 9 + 36 = 7.

8 Projection of a Line on a given Plane

Definition 1: The projection of a line on a given plane is the line of intersection of the two
planes namely (i) the given plane and (ii) the plane through the given line and perpendicular
to the given plane.
Definition 2: If P be the point of intersection of the given line with the given plane and Q
be the foot of the perpendicular from any point on the line to the plane, then the line PQ is called
the projection of the given line on the given plane.

x −1 y +1 z −3
Example 15: Find the equations of the projection of the line = = on
2 −1 4
the plane x + 2 y + z = 6. (Rohilkhand 2012)
Solution: The equations of the given line are
x −1 y +1 z −3
= = …(1)
2 −1 4
and the given plane is x + 2 y + z = 6. …(2)
The equation of any plane through the given line (1) is
a ( x − 1) + b ( y + 1) + c (z − 3) = 0 …(3)
where 2a − b + 4c = 0 …(4)
The plane (3) will be perpendicular to the plane (2), if a + 2b + c = 0 …(5)
a b c
Solving (4) and (5), we get = = ⋅
−9 2 5
Putting these proportionate values of a, b, c in (3), we have
− 9 ( x − 1) + 2 ( y + 1) + 5 (z − 3) = 0
or 9 x − 2 y − 5z + 4 = 0 …(6)
The equations (2) and (6) together are the equations of the line of projection.
Alternate Method: (Use of definition 2)
x −1 y +1 z −3
The given line is = = = r (say). …(1)
2 −1 4
Any point P on this line (1) is (2r + 1, − r − 1, 4r + 3).
If P lies on the given plane x + 2 y + z = 6, then
2r + 1 + 2 (− r − 1) + 4r + 3 = 6, or r = 1.
 G-130

Putting this value of r , the point of intersection P of the line (1) and the given
plane is (3, − 2 , 7).
Now evidently the line (1) passes through the point (1, − 1, 3) and hence this is a
point on the given line (1). We are to find the foot of the perpendicular Q from
(1, − 1, 3) to the given plane.
The d.r.’s of the normal to the given plane are 1, 2 , 1and hence these are d.r.’s of the
line through (1, − 1, 3) and perpendicular to the given plane, and therefore the
x −1 y +1 z −3
equations of this perpendicular line are = = = r1 (say).
1 2 1
Any point on it is (r1 + 1, 2 r1 − 1, r1 + 3).
If this be the point Q, then it will lie on the given plane x + 2 y + z = 6. So we have
r1 + 1 + 2 (2 r1 − 1) + r1 + 3 = 6 or r1 = 2 / 3.
Putting this value of r1 , the foot of the perpendicular Q is (5 / 3, 1 / 3, 11 / 3).
∴ the required equations of the projection i. e., the equations of the line PQ joining
5 1 11
the points P (3, − 2 , 7) and Q  , ,  are
3 3 3 
x−3 y+2 z −7 x−3 y+2 z −7
= = or = = ⋅
5 1 11 4 −7 10
3− −2 − 7−
3 3 3

Comprehensive Exercise 5

1. Find the equations of the perpendicular from the point (1, 6, 3) to the line
x y −1 z −2
= = ⋅ Find also the co-ordinates of the foot of the perpendicular.
1 2 3
(Kanpur 2011)
2. Find the equations of the perpendicular from the origin to the line
ax + by + cz + d = 0 = a ′ x + b ′ y + c ′ z + d ′ = 0.
x y z
3. The equations to AB referred to rectangular axes are = = ⋅
2 −3 6
Through a point P (1, 2 , 5), PN is drawn perpendicular to AB and PQ is
drawn parallel to the plane 3 x + 4 y + 5z = 0 to meet AB in Q. Find the
equations to PN and PQ and the co-ordinates of N and Q.

A nswers 5
1. x − 1 = 0, 2 y + 3z = 21; (1, 3, 5)
2. (ad ′ − a ′ d ) x + (bd ′ − b ′ d ) y + (cd ′ − c ′ d ) z = 0 and
(bc ′ − b ′ dc ) x + (ca ′ − c ′ a ) y + (ab ′ − a ′ b ) z = 0
 G-131

x −1 y−2
z − 5 x −1 y − 2 z − 5
3. = ;
= = = ;
3 −176 −89 4 −13 −8
 52 − 78 156
N , ,  ; Q (3, − 9 / 2,9)
 49 49 49 

9 Coplanar Lines
To find the condition that two given lines may intersect and to obtain the equation of the plane
containing them. (Kumaun 2000)
Let the equations to the given lines be
x−α y−β z −γ
= = …(1)
l m n
x−α′ y−β′ z −γ ′
and = = ⋅
l′ m′ n′ …(2)
If the lines intersect, they lie in a plane. Any plane through the line (1) is
a ( x − α) + b ( y − β) + c (z − γ ) = 0 …(3)
where al + bm + cn = 0. …(4)
If the plane (3) contains the line (2), then
a (α ′ − α) + b ( β ′ − β) + c (γ ′ − γ ) = 0 …(5)
and al ′ + bm ′ + cn ′ = 0 …(6)
Eliminating a, b and c between (4), (5) and (6), the condition for lines (1) and (2) to
α ′ − α β ′ − β γ ′ − γ 
be coplanar is given by  l m n  = 0.
 
 l′ m′ n′ 
Also eliminating a, b and c between (3), (4) and (6), we get the equation to the plane
x−α y−β z −γ
containing the given lines as λ m n = 0.
l′ m′ n′
Another Method: Any point on the line (1) is (α + lr , β + mr, γ + nr) and any
point on the line (2) is (α ′ + l ′ r ′ , β ′ + m′ r ′ , γ ′ + n ′ r ′ ).
If the lines are coplanar i. e., they intersect, then they must have a common point.
Therefore α + lr = α ′ + l ′ r ′ or α − α ′ + lr − l ′ r ′ = 0
β − β ′ + mr − m ′ r ′ = 0, and γ − γ ′ + nr − n ′ r ′ = 0.
Eliminating r and r ′, we have
α − α ′ l l ′ α ′ − α β′−β γ ′ − γ
β − β ′ m m ′ = 0 or  l m n  = 0.
   
γ − γ ′ n n ′  l′ m′ n′ 
 G-132

10 Condition for the Two Lines to Intersect

To find the condition that two given lines (one in symmetrical form and the other in
general form) may intersect and to obtain the equation of the plane containing them.
Let the equations of the given lines be
x−α y−β z −γ
= = …(1)
l m n
and a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 = a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2 …(2)
The equation of any plane through the line (2) is
(a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 ) + λ (a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2 ) = 0 …(3)
or (a1 + λa2 ) x + (b1 + λb2 ) y + (c1 + λc 2 ) z + (d1 + λd2 ) = 0.
If this plane is parallel to the line (1), then we have
l (a1 + λa2 ) + m (b1 + λb2 ) + n (c1 + λc 2 ) = 0
or λ (a2 l + b2 m + c 2 n) = − (a1 l + b1 m + c1 n)
a l + b1 m + c1 n
or λ =− 1 ⋅ …(4)
a2 l + b2 m + c 2 n
Putting this value of λ in (3) the equation of the plane through the line (2) and
parallel to the line (1) is given by
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 a x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2
= 2 ⋅
a l+b m+c n a l+b m+c n …(5)
1 1 1 2 2 2

If the line (1) lies in this plane, then the point (α, β, γ ) on the line (1) must satisfy (5)
and so the condition for the lines (1) and (2) to be coplanar is
a1α + b1β + c1 γ + d1 a α + b2 β + c 2 γ + d2
= 2 ⋅
a l+b m+c n a l+b m+c n …(6)
1 1 1 2 2 2

If the condition (6) is satisfied, the lines (1) and (2) are intersecting (or coplanar)
and the plane containing both the lines is given by the equation (5).

11 The Condition that Two Lines whose Equations are

given in General Form may Intersect
To find the condition that two lines whose equations are given in general form may
intersect.
Let the equations of the two lines be
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 = a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2 …(1)
and a3 x + b3 y + c 3 z + d3 = 0 = a4 x + b4 y + c 4 z + d4 …(2)
If these two lines are coplanar, then they intersect and let (α, β, γ ) be their point of
intersection.
 G-133

The co-ordinates of this point must satisfy the equations of the four planes
representing the two lines.
∴ we have
a1α + b1β + c1 γ + d1 = 0, a2 α + b2 β + c 2 γ + d2 = 0,
a3 α + b3 β + c 3 γ + d3 = 0 and a4 α + b4 β + c 4 γ + d4 = 0.
Eliminating α, β, γ from these we have the required condition as
 a1 b1 c1 d1 
 a2 b2 c2 d2 
  = 0.
a b3 c3 d3
 3 
 a4 b4 c4 d4 
Note: In numerical examples it is convenient to solve after transforming the
given equations (general form) into the symmetrical form.

x +1 y−3 z +2 x y−7 z +7
Example 16: Show that the lines = = and = =
−3 2 1 1 −3 2
[Link] the co-ordinates of the point of intersection and the equation to the plane
containing them. (Kanpur 2009; Kumaun 09, 13; Rohilkhand 09, 11)
x +1 y − 3 z +2
Solution: Any point on the line = = = r1 (say)
−3 2 1
is (−1 − 3r1 , 3 + 2 r1 , − 2 + r1 ) …(1)
x y−7 z +7
and any point on the line = = = r2 (say)
1 −3 2
is (r2 , 7 − 3r2 , − 7 + 2 r2 ) …(2)
If the two given lines intersect (i. e., are coplanar) then for some values of r1 and r2
the above two points (1) and (2) must coincide i. e.,
−3r1 − 1 = r2 , or 3r1 + r2 = − 1 …(3)
2 r1 + 3 = − 3r2 + 7 or 2 r1 + 3r2 = 4 …(4)
and r1 − 2 = 2 r2 − 7 or r1 − 2 r2 = − 5 …(5)
Solving (3) and (4), we get
r1 = − 1, r2 = 2 .
These values of r1 and r2 also satisfy the third equation (5).
Hence the given lines intersect.
Substituting these values of r1 and r2 in (1) or (2), we get the required co-ordinates
of the point of intersection as (2 , 1, − 3).
Also the equation of the plane containing the given lines is
 G-134

x +1 y −3 z +2
−3 2 1 =0
1 −3 2
or ( x + 1) (4 + 3) − ( y − 3) (−6 − 1) + (z + 2) (9 − 2) = 0
or x + y + z = 0.

Example 17: Prove that the lines

x y z x y z x y z
= = , = = , = = will lie in one plane if
α β γ aα bβ c γ l m n
l m n
(b − c ) + (c − a) + (a − b) = 0.
α β γ
(Kanpur 2006; Rohilkhand 12; Kumaun 12)

Solution: We observe that all the three given lines pass through the origin O and
hence they will be co-planar if they are perpendicular to a line through the origin O.
Let d.c.’s of this line through the origin O be l1 , m1 , n1 .
Hence if this line is perpendicular to the given lines, we have
l1α + m1β + n1 γ = 0 …(1)
l1 l + m1 m + n1 n = 0 …(2)
l1 aα + m1 bβ + n1 cγ = 0 …(3)
Eliminating l1 , m1 , n1 from (1), (2) and (3) we have the required condition as
α β γ  1 1 1 
 l m n = 0 or  l / α m /β n / γ = 0
   
 aα bβ cγ   a b c 

or − (l / α) (c − b) + (m / β) (c − a) − (n / γ ) (b − a) = 0,
expanding the determinant with respect to the second row
l m n
or (b − c ) + (c − a) + (a − b) = 0.
α β γ

x −1 y−2 z −3
Example 18: Show that the lines = = and
2 3 4
4 x − 3 y + 1 = 0 = 5 x − 3z + 2
are coplanar. Also find their point of intersection.
(Bundelkhand 2014; Rohilkhand 10)
Solution: The equations of the given lines are
x −1 y − 2 z −3
= = = r (say) …(1)
2 3 4
and 4 x − 3 y + 1 = 0, 5 x − 3z + 2 = 0. …(2)
The coordinates of any point on the line (1) are
 G-135

(2r + 1, 3r + 2 , 4r + 3). …(3)

The lines (1) and (2) will intersect (i. e., will be coplanar) if the point (3) also lies on
the line (2).
This point satisfies both the equations of the line (2), if we have
4 (2r + 1) − 3 (3r + 2) + 1 = 0 or r = −1
and 5 (2r + 1) − 3 (4r + 3) + 2 = 0 or r = − 1.
As both the values of r are the same, the two given lines intersect.
Putting this value of r in (3), the point of intersection is (−1, − 1, − 1).

Comprehensive Exercise 6

1. (i) Show that the lines ( x + 3) / 2 = ( y + 5) / 3 = − (z − 7) / 3 and

( x + 1) / 4 = ( y + 1) / 5 = − (z + 1) are coplanar. Find the equation of the
plane containing them. (Purvanchal 2007)

(ii) Show that the lines 7 x − 4 y + 7z + 16 = 0 = 4 x + 3 y − 2z + 3 and

x − 3 y + 4z + 6 = 0 = x − y + z + 1 are coplanar.
2. Prove that the lines ( x − 1) / 2 = ( y − 2) / 3 = (z − 3) / 4 and
( x − 2) / 3 = ( y − 3) / 4 = (z − 4) / 5 are coplanar; find their point of
intersection. Also find the equation of the plane in which they lie.
(Meerut 2003; Rohilkhand 08; Kanpur 10; Kashi 13; Kumaun 15)
3. (i) Show that the two given lines are coplanar :
1 1 1 1 1
x = ( y − 2) = (z + 3) ; ( x − 2) = ( y − 6) = (z − 3). Also find
2 3 2 3 4
the point of intersection and the equation of the plane in which they lie.

x −1 y −1 z −1 x −4 y −6 z −8
(ii) Show that the lines = = and = = are
1 2 3 2 3 4
coplanar. (Kumaun 2009, 14)

4. Prove that the lines

x−a y−b z −c x−a′ y−b′ z −c ′
= = and = =
a′ b′ c ′ a b c
intersect and find the co-ordinates of the point of intersection and the
equation of the plane in which they lie. (Meerut 2000)
x −4 y + 3 z +1 x − 1 y + 1 z + 10
5. Prove that the lines = = and = =
1 −4 7 2 −3 8
intersect, and find the co-ordinates of their point of intersection.
(Kanpur 2007)
 G-136

x y z x y z
6. Prove that the lines = = ; = =
l1 m1 n1 l2 m2 n2
l1 m1 n1
x y z
and = = will be co-planar if l2 m2 n2 = 0.
l3 m3 n3
l3 m3 n3

7. Prove that the lines x = ay + b = cz + d and x = αy + β = γz + δ are coplanar if

(aβ − bα) (γ − c ) − (cδ − dγ ) (α − a) = 0.
8. Show that the following pairs of lines are coplanar :
1 1 1
(i) ( x + 4) = ( y + 6) = − (z − 1) and
3 5 2
3 x − 2 y + z + 5 = 0 = 2 x + 3 y + 4 z − 4 . Also find their point of
intersection and the equation of the plane in which they lie.
(ii) x − 4 = − ( y + 1) / 2 = z and 4 x − y + 5z − 7 = 0 = 2 x − 5 y − z − 3.
Also find the equation of the plane containing them. (Kumaun 2008)
(iii) ( x − 3) / 3 = − ( y − 2) / 4 = z + 1 and
x + 2 y + 3z = 0 = 2 x + 4 y + 3z + 3. Also find the point of
intersection.
x y z
9. Find the equation of the plane through the line = =
l m n
and perpendicular to the plane containing the lines
x y z x y z
= = and = = ⋅
m n l n l m
10. Find the foot and hence the length of the perpendicular from the point
x − 15 y − 29 z − 5
(5, 7, 3) to the line = = ⋅ Find the equations of the
3 8 −5
perpendicular. Also find the equation of the plane in which the perpendicular
and the given straight line lie. (Purvanchal 2011)

A nswers 6
1. 6x − 5 y − z = 0 2. (−1, − 1, − 1;
) x−2 y+z =0
3. x − 2 y + z + 7 = 0; (2, 6, 3)
 x y z
4. (a + a ′ , b + b ′ , c + c ′ );  a b c = 0 5. (5 , −7, 6)
 
a ′ b′ c ′
8. (i) 45 (−4) − 17 (−6) + 25 (1) + 53 = 0; (2 , 4, − 3)
(ii) x + 2 y + 3z = 2 (iii) (9, − 6, 1)
 G-137

9. (m − n) x + (n − l ) y + (l − m) z = 0
10. Foot N (9, 13, 15); Length of the perpendicular from (5, 7, 3) is 14.
x−5 y−7 z −3
Equation of the perpendicular are = = ;
2 3 6
Equation of the required plane 9 x − 4 y − z − 14 = 0.

12 Equations of a Straight Line Intersecting Two

given Lines
Case I: The equations of the two lines are given in symmetrical form.
Let the given lines be
x − α1 y − β1 z − γ1
= = = r1 (say),
l1 m1 n1 …(1)

x − α2 y − β2 z − γ2
and = = = r2 (say).
l2 m2 n2 …(2)

Any point on the line (1) is P (l1 r1 + α1 , m1 r1 + β1 , n1 r1 + γ 1 )

and any point on the line (2) is Q (l2 r2 + α 2 , m2 r2 + β 2 , n2 r2 + γ 2 ).
We are required to find the equations of a line which intersects the lines (1) and
(2). Let the required line intersect the lines (1) and (2) in the points P and Q
respectively.
The required line is one which joins the points P and Q . The values of r1 and r2 will
be determined by some additional given conditions.
Case II: The equations of the two lines are given in general form.
Let the equations of the given lines be
u1 = 0 = v1 and u2 = 0 = v2 .
Then the equations of the required line intersecting both the given lines are
u1 + µ1 v1 = 0 and u2 + µ 2 v2 = 0,
where the values of µ1 and µ 2 are determined by some additional given conditions.

Example 19: A line with direction cosines proportional to 2 , 7, − 5 is drawn to intersect

x−5 y−7 z +2 x+3 y−3 z −6
the lines = = and = = ⋅
3 −1 1 −3 2 4
Find the co-ordinates of the points of intersection and the length intercepted on it.
Solution: The given lines are
 G-138

x−5 y−7 z +2
= = = r1 (say), …(1)
3 −1 1
x+3 y−3 z −6
and = = = r2 (say). …(2)
−3 2 4
Any point P on (1) is (3r1 + 5, − r1 + 7, r1 − 2),
and any point Q on (2) is (−3r2 − 3, 2r2 + 3, 4r2 + 6).
The direction ratios of QP are
(3r1 + 3r2 + 8, − r1 − 2r2 + 4, r1 − 4r2 − 8). …(3)
Let the line with d.r.’s 2 , 7, − 5 meet the lines (1) and (2) in the points P and Q
respectively. Then the d.r.’s (2 , 7, − 5) will be proportional to the d.r.’s given by (3).
3r1 + 3r2 + 8 − r1 − 2r2 + 4 r1 − 4r2 − 8
∴ = = ⋅ …(4)
2 7 −5
From the first two of (4), we get 7 (3r1 + 3r2 + 8) = 2 (− r1 − 2 r2 + 4)
or 23r1 + 25r2 + 48 = 0. …(5)
And from the 1st and 3rd of (4), we get 2 (r1 − 4r2 − 8) = − 5 (3r1 + 3r2 + 8)
or 17r1 + 7r2 + 24 = 0. …(6)
Solving (5) and (6), we get r1 = r2 = − 1.
Putting these values of r1 and r2 the co-ordinates of the points of intersection are
P (2 , 8, − 3) and Q (0, 1, 2).
The required length intercepted by the lines (1) and (2) on the line with d.r.’s
2 , 7, − 5
= PQ = (2 − 0)2 + (8 − 1)2 + (−3 − 2)2
= 4 + 49 + 25 = 78 .
x−2 y−8 z +3
Note: The equations of the line PQ are given by = = ⋅
2 7 −5

Example 20: Find the equations of the straight line through the origin and cutting each of
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
the lines = = and = = ⋅
l1 m1 n1 l2 m2 n2
(Agra 2007)
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Solution: Equation of any plane through the first line = =
l1 m1 n1
is a ( x − x1 ) + b ( y − y1 ) + c (z − z1 ) = 0, …(1)
where al1 + bm1 + cn1 = 0. …(2)
If the plane (1) passes through the origin (0, 0, 0), then from (1)
ax1 + by1 + c z1 = 0. …(3)
Eliminating a, b, c from (1), (3) and (2), the equation of the plane through the
origin and through the first line is
 G-139

 x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 
 x1 y1 z1  = 0.
 
 l1 m1 n1 
Adding the second row to the first row, we get
x y z
 x1 y1 z1  = 0
 
 l1 m1 n1 
or (n1 y1 − m1 z1 ) x + (l1 z1 − n1 x1 ) y + (m1 x1 − l1 y1 ) z = 0. …(4)
Similarly the plane through the origin and through the second line is
x y z 
 x2 y2 z 2  = 0
 
 l2 m2 n2 
or (n2 y2 − m2 z 2 ) x + (l2 z 2 − n2 x2 ) y + (m2 x2 − l2 y2 ) z = 0. …(5)
The planes (4) and (5) together give the required line.

Comprehensive Exercise 7

1. Find the equations to the planes through the point (1, 0, − 1) and the lines
4 x − y − 13 = 0 = 3 y − 4z − 1 and y − 2z + 2 = 0 = x − 5 and show that
the equations to the line through the given point which intersects the two
given lines can be written as x = y + 1 = z + 2 .
2. Find the equations to the straight line drawn from the origin to intersect the
lines 2 x + 5 y + 3z − 4 = 0 = x − y − 5z − 6 and
3 x − y + 2z − 1 = 0 = x + 2 y − z − 2 .
1
3. Find the equations to the line drawn parallel to x = y = z , so as to
4
meet the lines 5 x − 6 = 4 y + 3 = z and 2 x − 4 = 3 y + 5 = z .
4. A line with direction cosines proportional to 2 , 1, 2 meets each of the lines
given by the equations x = y + a = z , x + a = 2 y = 2z .
Find the co-ordinates of each of the points of intersection.
5. Find the equations to the line intersecting the lines
x − 1 = y = z − 1, 2 x + 2 = 2 y = z + 1
1 1
and parallel to the line ( x − 1) = ( y − 1) = (z − 2).
2 3
6. Find the equations to the straight line drawn through the origin which will
intersect both the lines
x −1 y + 3 z − 5 x−4 y + 3 z − 14
= = and = = ⋅
1 4 3 2 3 4
 G-140

A nswers 7
1. x + 2 y − 3z − 4 = 0 and x + y − 2z − 3 = 0
2. 4 x + 17 y + 19z = 0 and 5 x − 4 y + 5z = 0
3. 15 x − 76 y + 16z − 75 = 0 and 4 x − 21 y + 5z − 43 = 0
1 1
4. (3a, 2a, 3a); (a, a, a) 5. ( x − 1) = y = (z − 1)
2 3
6. 9 x − 2 y − 3z = 0

13 Perpendicular Distance Formula for the Line

To find the perpendicular distance of a point from a line and the
co-ordinates of the foot of the perpendicular.
Let P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) be a given point and let AB be a
given line. Let the equations of the line AB in
symmetrical form be
x−α y−β z −γ
= = , …(1)
l m n
where l, m, n are the d.c.’s of (1). The line (1) is
passing through the point A (α, β, γ ) and has
direction cosines l, m, n. From P draw PN
perpendicular to AB . Now it is required to find PN. From the right angled ∆ APN,
we have
PN 2 = AP 2 − AN 2 . …(2)
Now AP = the distance between (α, β, γ ) and P ( x1 , y1 , z1 )

= ( x1 − α)2 + ( y1 − β)2 + (z1 − γ )2 , …(3)

and AN = projection of AP on AB i. e., the projection of AP on a line
whose d.c.’s are l, m, n
= ( x1 − α) l + ( y1 − β) m + (z1 − γ ) n. …(4)
Putting the values from (3) and (4) in (2), we get
PN 2 = {( x1 − α)2 + ( y1 − β)2 + (z1 − γ )2 } − {( x1 − α) l
+ ( y1 − β) m + (z1 − γ ) n}2
= {( x1 − α)2 + ( y1 − β)2 + (z1 − γ )2 } (l 2 + m2 + n2 )
−{( x1 − α) l + ( y1 − β) m + (z1 − γ ) n}2
[ ∵ l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1]
 G-141

= { m (z1 − γ ) − n ( y1 − β)}2 + { n ( x1 − α) − l (z1 − γ )}2

+ { l ( y1 − β) − m ( x1 − α)}2
[By using Lagrange’s identity]
2 2 2
 m n   n l   l m 
=  +  +  ⋅
 y1 − α z1 − γ   z1 − γ x1 − α  x1 − α y1 − β
…(5)

Note: In the equations (1) of the line AB , l, m, n have been taken as the actual
direction cosines of the line. In case direction ratios a, b, c of AB are given, we
should either first find the direction cosines of AB or we should divide the R.H.S. of
(5) by (a2 + b 2 + c 2 ).
To find the co-ordinates of the foot of the perpendicular N.
Since N, the foot of the perpendicular, is a point on the line AB given by (1), its
co-ordinates may be written as
(lr + α , mr + β , nr + γ ). …(6)
The d.r.’s of PN are lr + α − x1 , mr + β − y1 , nr + γ − z1 .
Also PN is perpendicular to AB .
∴ (lr + α − x1 ) . l + (mr + β − y1 ) . m + (nr + γ − z1 ) . n = 0
or r (l 2 + m2 + n2 ) = l ( x1 − α) + m ( y1 − β) + n (z1 − γ )
or r = l ( x1 − α) + m ( y1 − β) + n (z1 − γ ) [ ∵ l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1]
Putting this value of r in (6) the co-ordinates of N are obtained.

Example 21: From the point P (1, 2 , 3), PN is drawn perpendicular to the straight line
1 / 3 ( x − 2) = 1 / 4 ( y − 3) = 1 / 5 (z − 4).
Find the distance PN, the equations to PN and co-ordinates of N.
Solution: The equations of the given line AB (say) are
( x − 2) / 3 = ( y − 3) / 4 = (z − 4) / 5 = r (say) …(1)
The line (1) is passing through the point A (2 , 3, 4). Since N , the foot of the
perpendicular, is a point on the line (1) [i. e., AB ], the co-ordinates of N may be
written as (3r + 2 , 4r + 3, 5r + 4) …(2)
∴ d.r.’s of PN are
3r + 2 − 1, 4r + 3 − 2 , 5r + 4 − 3 i. e., are 3r + 1, 4r + 1, 5r + 1. …(3)
The d.r.’s of the line AB whose equations are given by (1), are 3, 4, 5.
Since PN is perpendicular to AB , we have
 G-142

3 . (3r + 1) + 4 . (4r + 1) + 5 . (5r + 1) = 0, or r = − 6 / 25.

Putting the value of r in (2), we get N ≡ (32 / 25, 51 / 25, 14 / 5).
∴ PN = the distance between the points P and N
  32  2  51 2
14 2
3
=   − 1 +  − 2 +  − 3  = ⋅
25   25  5  5
 
Putting the value of r in (3), the d.r.’s of PN are 7 / 25, 1 / 25, − 5 / 25 i. e.,are 7, 1, − 5.
∴ the equations to PN i. e., of a line passing through P (1, 2 , 3) and having d.r.’s
x −1 y − 2 z −3
7, 1, –5 are = = ⋅
7 1 −5
Example 22: Find the locus of a point which moves so that its distance from the line
x = y = − z is twice its distance from the plane x − y + z = 1.
Solution: Let the given point be P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) whose locus is required to be found.
The equations of the given line AB are
x / 1 = y / 1 = z / (−1). …(1)
The line (1) is clearly passing through A (0, 0, 0) and has d.r.’s 1, 1, − 1. Hence d.c.’s
l, m, n of (1) are 1 / 3, 1 / 3, − 1 / 3.
Let p1 be the perpendicular distance of P from the line (1), then by article 4.13, we
2 2 2
 1/ 3 −1 / 3  − 1 / 3 1/ 3   1/ 3 1/ 3 
have p12 =   +  + 
y
 1 − 0 z1 − 0   1z − 0 x1 − 0  x1 − 0 y1 − 0
1
or p12 = {(z1 + y1 )2 + (− x1 − z1 )2 + ( y1 − x1 )2 }
3
2
= ( x12 + y12 + z12 + y1 z1 + z1 x1 − x1 y1 ) …(2)
3
Let p2 be the perpendicular distance of P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) from the plane x − y + z = 1.
Then
x − y1 + z1 − 1
p2 = 1 ⋅ …(3)
1+1+1
According to the condition given in the question, p1 = 2 p2 .
Squaring, we get p12 = 4 p2 2
2 4
or ( x12 + y12 + z12 + y1 z1 + z1 x1 − x1 y1 ) = ( x1 − y1 + z1 − 1)2
3 3
or x12 + y12 + z12 + y1 z1 + z1 x1 − x1 y1 = 2 ( x12 + y12 + z12 + 1
− 2 x1 y1 + 2 x1 z1 − 2 x1 − 2 y1 z1 + 2 y1 − 2z1 )
2 2 2
or x1 + y1 + z1 − 5 y1 z1 + 3z1 x1 − 3 x1 y1 − 4 x1 + 4 y1 − 4z1 + 2 = 0.
∴ the required locus of P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is given by
x2 + y2 +z 2
− 5 yz + 3zx − 3 xy − 4 x + 4 y − 4z + 2 = 0.
 G-143

Comprehensive Exercise 8

1. Find the distance of (−2 , 1, 5) from the line through (2 , 3, 5) whose direction
cosines are proportional to 2 , − 3, 6.

2. Prove that the equations of the perpendicular from the point (1, 6, 3) to the
y −1 z −2 x −1 y − 6 z −3
line x = = are = = and the co-ordinates of
2 3 0 −3 2
the foot of the perpendicular are (1, 3, 5).
3. How far is the point (4 , 1, 1) from the line of intersection of
x + y + z −4 =0 = x −2y − z −4?
4. Find the length of the perpendicular drawn from origin to the line
x + 2 y + 3z + 4 = 0 = 2 x + 3 y + 4z + 5. Also find the equations of this
perpendicular and the co-ordinates of the foot of the perpendicular.

A nswers 8
4 61 3 √ (42)
1. 3.
7 14
x y z √ (21)
4. (2 / 3, − 1 / 3, − 4 / 3) ; = = ;
2 −1 −4 3

14 Intersection of Three Planes

Let the equations of three planes be given by
u1 ≡ a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0, …(1)
u2 ≡ a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2 = 0, …(2)
and u3 ≡ a3 x + b3 y + c 3 z + d3 = 0, …(3)
where u1 , u2 and u3 denote respectively the left hand members in the equations
(1), (2) and (3). No two of these three planes are parallel.
We know that two non-parallel planes intersect in a straight line and hence we get
three lines of intersection by taking two planes at a time out of the three planes
given by (1), (2) and (3). There arise the following three cases :
Case I: The three lines of intersection explained above may coincide i. e.,the three
given planes have a common line of intersection.
Case II: The three lines of intersection explained above may be parallel to each
 G-144

other and no two of them coincide. In this case the three given planes form a
triangular prism.
Case III: The three lines of intersection explained above may intersect in a
common point. In this case the three planes intersect in a point.
Before proceeding to prove the actual theorem, for convenience, we make use of
some notations given as follows :
Consider the matrix (or a rectangular array)
a1 b1 c1 d1
D = a2 b2 c2 d2 …(i)
a3 b3 c3 d3
Let the determinant obtained by omitting the first column in (i) be denoted by ∆1
 b1 c1 d1 
i. e., we put ∆1 =  b2 c2 d2  ⋅
 
 b3 c3 d3 
Similarly, the determinants obtained by omitting the second, third and fourth
columns will be denoted respectively by ∆ 2 , ∆ 3 and ∆ 4 . Thus we put
 a1 c1 d1   a1 b1 d1   a1 b1 c1 

∆ 2 = a2 c2  
d2 , ∆ 3 = a2 b2  
d2 , ∆ 4 = a2 b2 c2  ⋅
     
 a3 c3 d3   a3 b3 d3   a3 b3 c3 
The symmetrical form of the line of intersection of the planes (1) and (2) is
 b d − b2 d1   d a − d2 a1 
x− 1 2  y− 1 2 
 a1 b2 − a2 b1   a1 b2 − a2 b1  z −0
= = , …(4)
b1 c 2 − b2 c1 c1 a2 − c 2 a1 a1 b2 − a2 b1
where a1 b2 − a2 b1 ≠ 0.
Now we shall discuss the three cases given above in detail as follows :
Case I: The three planes intersect in a common line:
The equation of any plane through the line of intersection of the planes (1) and (2)
is given by u1 + λu2 = 0
or (a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 ) + λ (a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d2 ) = 0
or (a1 + λa2 ) x + (b1 + λb2 ) y + (c1 + λc 2 ) z + (d1 + λd2 ) = 0. …(5)
If the three given planes intersect in a common line, then for some value of λ the
plane (5) should represent the plane (3). Thus comparing the coefficients in the
equations (5) and (3), we have
a1 + λa2 b + λb2 c + λc 2 d + λd2
= 1 = 1 = 1 = µ (say).
a3 b3 c3 d3
∴ a1 + λ a2 − µa3 = 0, b1 + λb2 − µb3 = 0, c1 + λc 2 − µc 3 = 0,
and d1 + λd2 − µd3 = 0.
 G-145

Now we are to eliminate two arbitrary constants λ and µ and this can be done from
any three out of the four equations given above. Hence eliminating λ and µ from
any three equations taken at a time out of these four equations, we have the
 a1 b1 c1   a1 b1 d1 
conditions as a2 b2 c 2  = 0 i. e., ∆ 4 = 0, a2 b2 d2  = 0 i. e., ∆ 3 = 0
   
 a3 b3 c3   a3 b3 d3 
 a1 c1 d1   b1 c1 d1 
 a2 c2 d2  = 0 i. e., ∆ 2 = 0, b2 c2 d2  = 0 i. e., ∆1 = 0.
   
 a3 c3 d3   b3 c3 d3 
Hence the three planes (1), (2) and (3) will have a common line of
intersection if ∆ 4 = 0, ∆ 3 = 0, ∆ 2 = 0 and ∆1 = 0.
Case II: The three planes form a triangular prism:
The three planes will form a triangular prism if the line of intersection of any two
planes is parallel to the third plane and does not lie in it.
The line of intersection of the planes (1) and (2) is given by (4). The line (4) will be
parallel to the plane (3) if
a3 (b1 c 2 − b2 c1 ) + b3 (c1 a2 − c 2 a1 ) + c 3 (a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) = 0
 a1 b1 c1 
i. e.,  a2 b2 c 2  = 0 i. e., ∆ 4 = 0.
 
 a3 b3 c 3 
The line (1) will not lie in the plane (3) if
 b d − b2 d1   d1 a2 − d2 a1 
a3  1 2  + b3   + c 3 . 0 + d3 ≠ 0
 a1 b2 − a2 b1   a1 b2 − a2 b1 
i. e., a3 (b1 d2 − b2 d1 ) + b3 (d1 a2 − d2 a1 ) + d3 (a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) ≠ 0
 a1 b1 d1 
i. e.,  a2 b2 d2  ≠ 0 i. e., ∆ 3 ≠ 0.
 
 a3 b3 d3 
Hence the three planes will form a triangular prism if
∆ 4 = 0 and ∆ 3 ≠ 0 or ∆ 2 ≠ 0 or ∆1 ≠ 0 .
Case III: The three planes intersect in a point:
The three planes will intersect in a point if the line of intersection of the planes (1)
and (2) given by (4), is neither parallel to nor lie in the plane (3). Rather than the
line (4) must meet the plane (3) in a point.
Thus the condition that the three planes meet in a point is that ∆ 4 ≠ 0.
Alternative method: Solving the equations (1), (2) and (3) by the method of
determinants [This method is called Cramer’s Rule], we have
 G-146

x −y z −1
= = =
b1 c1 d1   a1 c1 d1   a1 b1 d1  a1 b1 c1 
b2 c2 d2   a2 c2 d2   a2 b2 d2  a2 b2 c2 
       
b3 c3 d3   a3 c3 d3   a3 b3 d3  a3 b3 c3 
x −y z −1 ∆ ∆ ∆
or = = = or x = − 1 , y = 2 , z = − 3 ⋅ …(6)
∆1 ∆2 ∆3 ∆4 ∆4 ∆4 ∆4
Hence the three planes will intersect in the point whose coordinates are given by
(6) if ∆ 4 ≠ 0.

Working Rule: Let the three planes be given by the equations (1), (2) and (3).
Now proceed as follows :
(1) First evaluate ∆ 4 . If ∆ 4 ≠ 0, then the three planes intersect in a point whose
co-ordinates are given by the relations (6) above.
(2) If ∆ 4 = 0, then evaluate ∆ 3 , ∆ 2 and ∆ 1 .
(i) If ∆ 3 ≠ 0 (or ∆ 1 ≠ 0 or ∆ 2 ≠ 0), then the three planes form a triangular
prism.
(ii) If ∆ 3 = 0, ∆ 2 = 0 and ∆ 1 = 0, then the three planes intersect in a
common line.
Remark: If ∆ 4 = 0 and ∆ 3 = 0 and at least one of the three common minors
a1 b2 − a2 b1 , a2 b3 − a3 b2 and a1 b3 − a3 b1 of ∆ 4 and ∆ 3 is not zero, then it can be
proved algebraically that ∆ 2 = 0 and ∆1 = 0. Consequently in this case the three
planes will have a common line of intersection.

Example 23: Find the nature of the intersection of the sets of planes :
(i) x − 2 y + 2 z = 3, 2 x + 3 y − z = 5, 3 x − 4 y + 5z = 10 ;
(ii) 2 x + 4 y + 2 z = 7, 5 x + y − z = 9, x − y − z = 6 ;
(iii) x + 2 y + z = 0, 3 x + y − 2 z = 1, 3 x − 4 y − 7z = 2 .
Solution: (i) The equations of the given planes are
x −2y +2 z −3 =0 …(1)
2x + 3 y − z − 5 = 0 …(2)
3 x − 4 y + 5z − 10 = 0. …(3)
The rectangular array of coefficients is
1 −2 2 −3
D = 2 3 −1 −5 . …(4)
3 −4 5 −10
 G-147

Omitting the fourth column from (4), we have

 1 −2 2

∆4 = 2 3 −1 ⋅
 
3 − 4 5
Expanding this determinant along the first row, we have
∆ 4 = 1 (15 − 4) − (−2) [10 − (−3)] + 2 (−8 − 9)
= 1 . 11 + 2 . 13 + 2 . (−17) = 3, which is ≠ 0.
Hence the given planes intersect in a point.
(ii) The equations of the given planes are
2 x +4y +2 z −7 =0 …(1)
5x + y − z − 9 = 0 …(2)
x − y − z − 6 = 0. …(3)
The rectangular array of coefficients is
2 4 2 −7
D = 5 1 −1 −9 …(4)
1 −1 −1 −6
Omitting the fourth column from (4), we have
2 4 2

∆4 = 5 1 −1 ⋅
 
 1 −1 −1
Expanding by means of the first row, we have
∆ 4 = 2 (−1 − 1) − 4 [− 5 − (−1)] + 2 (−5 − 1) = − 4 + 16 − 12 = 0.
Since ∆ 4 = 0, therefore the three planes either intersect in a line or form a
triangular prism. Now omitting the third column from (4), we have
2 4 −7

∆3 = 5 1 −9
 
 1 −1 −6
= 2 (−6 − 9) − 4 [− 30 − (− 9)] + (−7) (− 5 − 1)
= − 30 + 84 + 42 = 96, which is ≠ 0.
Hence the given three planes form a triangular prism, as no two of the three planes
are parallel.
(iii) The equations of the given planes are
x+2 y+z =0 …(1)
3x + y − 2 z − 1 = 0 …(2)
3 x − 4 y − 7z − 2 = 0. …(3)
The rectangular array of coefficients is
 G-148

1 2 1 0
D= 3 1 −2 −1 …(4)
3 −4 −7 −2
Omitting the fourth column from (4), we have
1 2 1

∆4 = 3 1 −2 ⋅
 
3 −4 −7
Expanding this determinant along the first row, we have
∆ 4 = 1 (− 7 − 8) − 2 [− 21 − (− 6)] + 1 (− 12 − 3)
= − 15 + 30 − 15 = 0.
Since ∆ 4 = 0, therefore the three planes either intersect in a line or form a
triangular prism.
Now omitting the third column from (4), we have
1 2 0
∆ 3 = 3 1 −1
 
3 −4 −2
= 1 (− 2 − 4) − 2 [− 6 − (− 3)] + 0 = − 6 + 6 = 0.
Similarly, we find that
1 1 0  2 1 0
∆ 2 = 3 −2 −1 = 0 and ∆1 =  1 −2 −1 = 0.
   
3 −7 −2  −4 −7 −2
Hence the given three planes intersect in a line.

Comprehensive Exercise 9

1. Examine the nature of the intersection of the sets of the planes :

(i) x − y + z = 3, 2 x + 5 y + 3z = 0, 3 x − 2 y − 6z + 1 = 0 ;
(ii) 3 x + 2 y + z = 6, 5 x + 4 y + 3z = 4, 3 x + 4 y + 5z + 12 = 0 ;
(iii) x − y + z − 4 = 0, 2 x − y − z + 4 = 0, x + y − 5z + 14 = 0 ;
(iv) 2 x − 3 y − z = − 3, x + 2 y + 3z = 2 and − x + 2 y + z = 2.
(Kumaun 2010, 15)
2. Examine the nature of the intersection of the sets of planes :
(i) x + 2 y − 5z = 1, 4 x + y + z = 2, 6 x + y + 3z = 3;
(ii) x + 4 y + 6z = 5, 2 x + 5 y + 9z = 10, x + 3 y + 5z = 5 ;
(iii) x − y + z = 2, 2 x − 3 y + 4z = 8, x + y + z = 2;
(iv) x + 3 y − z = 6, x + 2 y + 4z + 5 = 0, 2 x + 6 y − 2z + 7 = 0.
 G-149

3. Show that the planes

2 x − 3 y − 7z = 0, 3 x − 14 y − 13z = 0, 8 x − 31 y − 33z = 0
pass through one line and find its equations. (Meerut 2011)
4. Prove that the planes x + ay + (b + c ) z + d = 0, x + by + (c + a) z + d = 0,
x + cy + (a + b) z + d = 0, pass through one line. (Rohilkhand 2008)
5. Prove that the planes x = y sin ψ + z sin φ , y = z sin θ + x sin ψ, and
x y z
z = x sin φ + y sin θ will intersect in the line = = if
cos θ cos φ cos ψ
1
θ + φ + ψ = π.
2

A nswers 9
1. (i) The planes intersect at a point
(ii) The planes have a common line of intersection
(iii) The planes form a triangular prism
(iv) The planes have a common line of intersection
2. (i) The planes form a triangular prism
(ii) The planes have a common line of intersection
(iii) The planes intersect at a point
(iv) The plane (3) and (1) are parallel, and the plane (2) intersects them
x y z
3. = =
−59 5 −19

15 Shortest Distance between Two Lines

Skew lines: Skew lines are those lines which do not intersect or the lines which do not lie in
a plane.
Shortest distance: The length of the line intercepted between two lines which is
perpendicular to both is the shortest distance between them. The straight line which is
perpendicular to each of the two skew lines is called the line of shortest distance.
The shortest distance is sometimes abbreviated as S.D.

16 The Shortest Distance between any Two

Non-intersecting Lines is Perpendicular to Both
To prove that the shortest distance between any two non-intersecting lines is perpendicular to
both.
 G-150

Let AB and CD be two non-intersecting lines L P B

and LM a line perpendicular to both of them. A R
RS is the portion of LM intercepted between
AB and CD. Now we have to prove that RS is
the shortest distance between AB and CD.
C S
Let P and Q be any points on AB and CD
Q D
respectively. RS is the projection of PQ on LM. M
If θ is the angle between PQ and LM, then
RS
RS = PQ cos θ or = cos θ.
PQ
RS
Since cos θ < 1, therefore <1
PQ
or RS < PQ i. e., RS is the shortest distance.

17 Length and Equations of the Line of Shortest Distance

To find the length and equations of the shortest distance between lines whose equations are
given.
1st Method: Projection Method: The equations of the skew lines being
given in symmetrical form. (Bundelkhand 2006)
Let the equations of the given lines be
x−α y−β z −γ
= = …(1)
l m n
x−α′ y−β′ z −γ ′
and = = …(2)
l′ m′ n′
Let λ , µ , ν be the direction cosines of the S.D. Since S.D. is perpendicular to each
of the given lines, therefore lλ + mµ + nν = 0 and l ′ λ + m′ µ + n ′ ν = 0.
λ µ ν
∴ = =
mn ′ − m′ n nl ′ − n ′ l lm′ − l ′ m
1
= ⋅
(mn ′ − m′ n) + (nl ′ − n ′ l)2 + (lm′ − l ′ m)2
2

mn ′ − m′ n nl ′ − n ′ l
∴ λ = 2
, µ= ,
√ { Σ (mn ′ − m′ n) } √ { Σ (mn ′ − m′ n)2 }
lm′ − l ′ m
ν= ⋅
√ { Σ (mn ′ − m′ n)2 }
If P (α, β, γ ) is any point on the line (1) and Q (α ′ , β ′ , γ ′ ) is any point on the line
(2), then the S.D. will be the projection of the line PQ joining these points on the
line whose d.c.’s are λ , µ , ν.
 G-151

∴ S.D. = (α − α ′ ) λ + ( β − β ′ ) µ + (γ − γ ′ ) ν
(α − α ′ ) (mn ′ − m′ n) + ( β − β ′ ) (nl ′ − n ′ l) + (γ − γ ′ ) (lm′ − l ′ m)
=
√ {Σ (mn ′ − m′ n)2 }
α − α ′ β−β′ γ − γ ′
= l m n  √ { Σ (mn ′ − m′ n)2 }.
 
 l′ m′ n′ 
Equation of the plane containing the line (1) and the S.D. is
x − α y − β z − γ
 l m n = 0 …(3)
 
 λ µ ν 
Equation of the plane containing the line (2) and the S.D. is
x − α ′ y − β ′ z − γ ′
 l′ m′ n ′ = 0 …(4)
 
 λ µ ν 
Equations (3) and (4) taken together will represent the equations of the line of
shortest distance.
Note: If the lines are coplanar, the S.D. between them is zero.
α − α ′ β − β ′ γ − γ ′
Then  l m n  = 0.
 
 l′ m′ n′ 
Or Two lines are coplanar if the shortest distance between them is zero.

Another method (By vectors):

Let the equations of the given lines be
→ → → → → →
r = a +t b and r = a ′ + t b ′,
→ →
where a and a ′ are the position vectors of the points P (α, β, γ ) and Q (α ′ , β ′ , γ ′ )
→ →
and b , b ′ are the unit vectors along AB and CD . (Refer fig. of article 16.)
→ →
Thus b = li + mj + nk and b ′ = l ′ i + m ′ j + n ′ k where (l, m, n) and (l ′ , m ′ , n ′ ) are
the d.c.’s of AB and CD respectively.
RS, the S.D. between the lines, is perpendicular to both and hence parallel to
→ →
b × b ′. Also it is the projection of PQ upon RS.
∴ RS = PQ cos θ, where θ is the angle between PQ and RS
→ → → → → →
PQ • RS ( a ′ − a ) • ( b × b ′ )
= =
→ → →
| RS | |( b × b ′ )|
 G-152

{(α ′ − α) i + ( β ′ − β) j + (γ ′ − γ ) k } • [(li + mj + nk) × (l ′ i + m′ j + n′ k)]

=
|(li + mj + nk) × (l′ i + m′ j + n′ k)|
α ′ − α β′−β γ ′ − γ
= l m n  ÷ √ { Σ (mn ′ − m′ n)2 }.
 
 l′ m′ n′ 
Equation of the plane containing AB and RS is
→ → → → →
[ r − a, b , b × b ′ ] = 0 …(1)
→ → → → →
[∵ it contains the vectors r − a , b and b × b ′]
Similarly the equation of the plane containing CD and RS is
→ → → → →
[ r − a′, b′, b × b′] = 0 …(2)
The line of intersection of the planes (1) and (2) will be the required line of the S.D.
2nd Method: General co-ordinates: The equations of the two lines being
given in symmetrical form :
Let the equations of the two lines be
x−α y−β z −γ
= = = r (say) …(1)
l m n
x−α′ y−β′ z −γ ′
and = = = r ′ (say). …(2)
l′ m′ n′
Any point on (1) is P (lr + α , mr + β, nr + γ )
and any point on (2) is Q (l ′ r ′ + α ′ , m ′ r ′ + β ′ , n ′ r ′ + γ ′ ).
Let the line joining the points P and Q be the shortest distance. Then PQ is
perpendicular to (1) and (2) both. The d.c.’s of this line PQ are proportional to
lr + α − l ′ r ′ − α ′ , mr + β − m ′ r ′ − β ′ , nr + γ − n ′ r ′ − γ ′ .
Since PQ is perpendicular to (1) and (2) both, therefore
l (lr + α − l ′ r ′ − α ′ ) + m (mr + β − m′ r ′ − β ′ )
+ n (nr + γ − n ′ r ′ − γ ′ ) = 0
and l ′ (lr + α − l ′ r ′ − α ′ ) + m ′ (mr + β − m ′ r ′ − β ′ )
+ n ′ (nr + γ − n ′ r ′ − γ ′ ) = 0.
Solve these two equations to determine the values of r and r ′ . Then putting these
values in the coordinates of the points P and Q , we get the two points at which the
S.D. meets the two lines.
∴ S.D. = the distance between the points P and Q ,
and equations of S.D. are the equations of the line joining the points P and Q .
Note: This method is useful when the coordinates of P and Q are also required.
3rd Method: (One line in general form and the other in symmetrical form):
This method is generally used when the equations of one line are given in general
form while those of the other line in the symmetrical form.
 G-153

Let the equations of one line be

u1 = 0 = ν1 …(1)
and the equations of the second line be
x−α y−β z −γ
= = ⋅ …(2)
l m n
Equation of any plane through the line (1) is
u1 + λν1 = 0. …(3)
Find λ such that the plane (3) is parallel to the line (2) and then put this value of λ
in (3).
Then the length of shortest distance is equal to the length of perpendicular from
any point, say, (α, β, γ ) on the line (2) to the plane through the line (1) and parallel
to the line (2).
4th Method: (Both the lines in general form):
Let the equations of the lines be
u1 = 0 = ν1 …(1) and u2 = 0 = ν2 …(2)
Then planes containing respectively the lines (1) and (2) are
u1 + λν1 = 0 …(3) and u2 + µν2 = 0. …(4)
Choose λ and µ such that the planes(3) and (4) are parallel.
Then the required shortest distance is the distance between these parallel planes.
Note: For convenience we generally reduce the given equations of the straight
lines to symmetrical form and then use the method I or II as explained above.

Example 24: Find the shortest distance between the lines

x −1 y − 2 z −3 x−2 y−4 z −5
= = ; = = ⋅
2 3 4 3 4 5
Show also that the equations of the shortest distance are
11x + 2 y − 7z + 6 = 0 = 7 x + y − 5z + 7.
(Rohilkhand 2008, 13; Kanpur 2005; Kumaun 11)
Solution: The given lines are
x −1 y − 2 z −3
= = = r1 (say) …(1)
2 3 4
x−2 y−4 z −5
and = = = r2 (say). …(2)
3 4 5
Method 1: (Projection method): Let l, m, n be the d.c.’s of the line of S.D.
Since it is perpendicular to both the given lines (1) and (2), therefore we have
 G-154

2 l + 3m + 4n = 0 ; 3l + 4m + 5n = 0.
Solving these, we get
l m n
= =
15 − 16 12 − 10 8 − 9

l m n l 2 + m2 + n2 1
or = = = = ⋅
−1 2 −1 2 2
(−1) + (2) + (−1) 2 6
−1 2 −1
∴ The d.c.’s of S.D. are , , ⋅
6 6 6
Now A (1, 2 , 3) is a point on the line (1) and B (2 , 4, 5) is a point on the line (2).
The length of S.D.
= the projection of join of A and B on the line whose d.c.’s are
−1 2 −1
, ,
6 6 6
1 2 1 1
=− (2 − 1) + (4 − 2) − (5 − 3) = ⋅
6 6 6 6
The equations of S.D.
The equation of the plane through the line (1) and S.D. is
 x − 1 y − 2 z − 3
 2 3 4  = 0 or 11x + 2 y − 7z + 6 = 0 …(3)
 
 −1 2 −1 
And the equation of the plane through the line (2) and the S.D. is
x − 2 y − 4 z − 5
 3 4 5  = 0 or 7 x + y − 5z + 7 = 0 …(4)
 
 −1 2 −1 
∴ From equations (3) and (4) the equations of the S.D. are
11x + 2 y − 7z + 6 = 0, 7 x + y − 5z + 7 = 0.
Method 2: Any point P on the line (1) is (2 r1 + 1, 3r1 + 2 , 4r1 + 3), …(3)
and any point Q on the line (2) is (3r2 + 2 , 4r2 + 4, 5r2 + 5). …(4)
The d.r.’s of the line PQ are
(3r2 + 2) − (2 r1 + 1), (4r2 + 4) − (3r1 + 2), (5r2 + 5) − (4r1 + 3)
or 3r2 − 2 r1 + 1, 4r2 − 3r1 + 2 , 5r2 − 4r1 + 2 . …(5)
If PQ is the line of shortest distance, then PQ is perpendicular to both the given
lines (1) and (2) and, therefore, we have
2 (3r2 − 2 r1 + 1) + 3 (4r2 − 3r1 + 2) + 4 (5r2 − 4r1 + 2) = 0
and 3 (3r2 − 2 r1 + 1) + 4 (4r2 − 3r1 + 2) + 5 (5r2 − 4r1 + 2) = 0
or 38 r2 − 29 r1 + 16 = 0 and 50 r2 − 38 r1 + 21 = 0.
Solving these equations, we get r1 = 1 / 3, r2 = − 1 / 6.
 G-155

Substituting the values of r1 and r2 in (3), (4) and (5), we have the co-ordinates of P
5 13 3 10 25
and Q as P  , 3 ,  , Q  , , 
3 3   2 3 6
1 1 1
and the d.r.’s of the line of shortest distance PQ as − , , − i. e., −1, 2 , − 1.
6 3 6
∴ the length of S.D. = the distance between the points P and Q
  3 5 2 10 2 2
 +  25 − 13 
=  −  +  − 3 
 3  6 3 
 2 3
 1 2  1 2  1 2  1
=   −  +   + −   = ⋅
6   3   
6  6

The equations of S.D. are either given by equations (3) and (4) of method 1 above
or we can write the equations of a line passing through the point P and having d.r.’s
−1, 2 , − 1.

Example 25: Find the shortest distance between the lines

x−3 y−8 z −3 x+3 y+7 z −6
= = , = = ⋅
3 −1 1 −3 2 4
Find also its equations and the points in which it meets the given lines.
(Meerut 2002, 05B, 07B, 12; Bundelkhand 2006;
Kanpur 2009, 11; Purvanchal 10, 11; Kumaun 12, 14)
Solution: The equations of the given lines are
x−3 y−8 z −3
= = = r1 (say) …(1)
3 −1 1
x+3 y+7 z −6
and = = = r2 (say). …(2)
−3 2 4
Any point P on the line (1) is (3r1 + 3, − r1 + 8, r1 + 3), …(3)
and any point Q on the line (2) is (−3r2 − 3, 2r2 − 7, 4r2 + 6) …(4)
The d.r.’s of the line PQ are
(−3r2 − 3) − (3r1 + 3), (2 r2 − 7) − (− r1 + 8), (4r2 + 6) − (r1 + 3)
or − 3r2 − 3r1 − 6, 2r2 + r1 − 15, 4r2 − r1 + 3. …(5)
If PQ be the line of S.D., then PQ is perpendicular to both the given lines (1) and
(2), and so we have
3 (−3r2 − 3r1 − 6) − 1 . (2 r2 + r1 − 15) + 1 . (4r2 − r1 + 3) = 0
and − 3 (−3r2 − 3r1 − 6) + 2 . (2 r2 + r1 − 15) + 4 (4r2 − r1 + 3) = 0
or −7r2 − 11r1 = 0 and 29r2 + 7r1 = 0.
Solving these equations, we get r1 = r2 = 0.
Substituting these values of r1 and r2 in (3), (4) and (5), we have the co-ordinates of
P and Q as P (3, 8, 3) and Q (−3, − 7, 6)
 G-156

and the d.r.’s of the line of shortest distance PQ are −6, − 15, 3 or −2 , − 5, 1.
The length of S.D. = the distance between the points P and Q
= (−3 − 3)2 + (−7 − 8)2 + (6 − 3)2 = 3 30 .
Also the line of shortest distance PQ is the line passing through P (3, 8, 3) and
having d.r.’s −2 , − 5, 1.
So its equations are given by
x−3 y−8 z −3 x−3 y−8 z −3
= = or = = ⋅
−2 −5 1 2 5 −1

Example 26: Find the length and position of the shortest distance between the lines
x y +1 z −2
= = , 5 x − 2 y − 3z + 6 = 0 = x − 3 y + 2z − 3.
4 3 2
(Meerut 2005, 09B; Rohilkhand 13)
Solution: The equations of the given lines are
x y +1 z −2
= = …(1)
4 3 2
and 5 x − 2 y − 3z + 6 = 0, x − 3 y + 2 z − 3 = 0. …(2)
The equation of any plane through the line (2) is
(5 x − 2 y − 3z + 6) + λ ( x − 3 y + 2 z − 3) = 0
or (5 + λ ) x + (−2 − 3λ ) y + (−3 + 2) z + (6 − 3λ ) = 0. …(3)
If the plane (3) is parallel to the line (1), then the normal to the plane (3) will be
perpendicular to the line (1) and so we have
4 (5 + λ ) + 3 (−2 − 3λ ) + 2 (− 3 + 2 λ ) = 0 or λ = 8.
Putting this value of λ in (3), the equation of the plane through the line (2) and
parallel to the line (1) is given by
13 x − 26 y + 13z − 18 = 0. …(4)
Clearly, A (0, − 1, 2) is a point on the line (1).
∴ Length of the shortest distance
= The length of perpendicular from the point A (0, − 1, 2) to the plane (4)
13 . 0 − 26 . (−1) + 13 (2) − 18 34 17 √ 6
= 2 2 2
= = ⋅
√ {(13) + (−26) + (13) } 13 √ 6 39
The position of S.D. i.e., the equations of shortest distance.
The equation of the plane through the line (1) and perpendicular to the plane (4) is
given by
 x y + 1 z − 2  x y + 1 z − 2
4 3 2  = 0 or 134 3 2 = 0
   
13 −26 13  1 −2 1 
or x (3 + 4) − ( y + 1) (4 − 2) + (z − 2) (− 8 − 3) = 0
 G-157

or 7 x − 2 y − 11z + 20 = 0. …(5)
Again if the plane (3) which is any plane through the line (2) is perpendicular to the
plane (4), we have
2
13 (5 + λ ) − 26 (− 2 − 3λ ) + 13 (− 3 + 2 λ ) = 0 or λ = − ⋅
3
Putting this value of λ i. e., λ = − 2 / 3 in (3), the equation of the plane through the
line (2) and perpendicular to the plane (4) is given by
13 x − 13z + 24 = 0 …(6)
∴ The equations (5) and (6) together are the required equations of the S.D.

Example 27: Find the length and equations of the shortest distance between
3 x − 9 y + 5z = 0 = x + y − z
and 6 x + 8 y + 3z − 13 = 0 = x + 2 y + z − 3.
Solution: Here we shall use method IV of article 17.
The equations of the planes through the given lines are
(3 x − 9 y + 5z ) + λ 1 ( x + y − z ) = 0
and (6 x + 8 y + 3z − 13) + λ 2 ( x + 2 y + z − 3) = 0
or x (3 + λ 1 ) + y (− 9 + λ 1 ) + z (5 − λ 1 ) = 0 …(1)
and x (6 + λ 2 ) + y (8 + 2λ 2 ) + z (3 + λ 2 ) − (13 + 3λ 2 ) = 0. …(2)
If the planes (1) and (2) are parallel, then their coefficients are proportional and so
we have
3 + λ1 − 9 + λ1 5 − λ1
= = = k (say). …(3)
6 + λ2 8 + 2 λ2 3 + λ2
Taking the ratios 1st, 2nd and 3rd with k respectively in (3), we get
(3 + λ 1 ) = k (6 + λ 2 ) or 3 + λ 1 − 6k − kλ 2 = 0 …(4)
(−9 + λ 1 ) = k (8 + 2 λ 2 ) or − 9 + λ 1 − 8 k − 2 kλ 2 = 0 …(5)
(5 − λ 1 ) = k (3 + λ 2 ) or 5 − λ 1 − 3k − kλ 2 = 0. …(6)
Subtracting (6) from (4), we have
−2 + 2 λ 1 − 3k = 0. …(7)
Subtracting 2 times (6) from (5), we have
− 19 + 3λ 1 − 2k = 0. …(8)
Solving (7) and (8), we have
λ 1 = 53 / 5, k = 32 / 5.
Putting the values of λ 1 and k in (4), we get
λ 2 = − 31 / 8.
Substituting the values of λ 1 and λ 2 in (1) and (2), the equations of the parallel
planes through the given lines are
17 x + 2 y − 7z = 0 …(9)
 G-158

and 17 x + 2 y − 7z − 11 = 0. …(10)
The required S.D. is the distance between the parallel planes (9) and (10).
Any point on the plane (9) is (0, 0, 0).
∴ The length of S.D.
= the length of perpendicular from (0, 0, 0) to the plane (10)
0 + 0 − 0 − 11 11
= =
2 2 2
√ {(17) + (2) + (−7) } √ (342) [Numerically]

The equations of S.D.

The equation of any plane through the first given line is
x (3 + λ 1 ) + y (− 9 + λ 1 ) + z (5 − λ 1 ) = 0 …(11)
[See equation (1)]
If the plane (11) is perpendicular to (9) or (10), we have
17 (3 + λ 1 ) + 2 (− 9 + λ 1 ) − 7 (5 − λ 1 ) = 0 or λ 1 = 1 / 13.
Putting the value of λ 1 in (11) the equation of the plane through the 1st given line
and perpendicular to the plane (9) or (10) is given by
10 x − 29 y + 16z = 0. …(12)
Again the equation of any plane through the 2nd given line is
x (6 + λ 2 ) + y (8 + 2 λ 2 ) + z (3 + λ 2 ) − (13 + 3λ 2 ) = 0. …(13)
[See equation (2)]
If the plane (13) is perpendicular to (9) or (10), we have
17 (6 + λ 2 ) + 2 (8 + 2λ 2 ) − 7 (3 + λ 2 ) = 0
or λ 2 = − 58 / 7.
Putting the value of λ 2 in (13), the equation of the plane through the 2nd given
line and perpendicular to the plane (9) or (10) is given by
13 x + 82 y + 55z − 109 = 0. …(14)
The equations (12) and (14) are the required equations of the shortest distance.

Note: We can solve the above problem by reducing both the lines to symmetrical
form and then using method I or II. The problem can also be solved by reducing
only one line to symmetrical form and then using method III.

Comprehensive Problems 10

1. Find the length of the shortest distance between the lines

x−3 y − 5 z − 2 x +1 y +1 z +1
= = ; = = ⋅
1 −2 1 7 −6 1
(Meerut 2000, 06B; Rohilkhand 05, 09, 09B; Kanpur 06)
 G-159

2. Find the equations of the shortest distance and its length between the lines
x −3 y − 5 z − 7 x +1 y +1 z +1
= = ; = = .
1 −2 1 7 −6 1
(Rohilkhand 2005; Kanpur 08; Lucknow 11; Meerut 12;
Kumaun 09, 15)
x −1 y−2 z −3
Show also that its equations are given by = =
2 3 4
3. Find the length of the shortest distance between the lines
x −3 y − 5 z − 7 x +1 y +1 z +1
= = ; = = .
1 −2 1 7 −6 −1
Find also its equations. (Meerut 2006B; Kanpur 06, 10)
4. Find the shortest distance between the lines
x −1 y − 2 z − 3 x − 2 y−3 z −4
= = ; = = ⋅
2 3 4 3 4 5
Hence show that the lines are coplanar.(Bundelkhand 2005; Meerut 07B)
5. Find the points on the lines
x−6 −x y+9 z −2
= − ( y − 7) = z − 4 and = =
3 3 2 4
which are nearest to each other. Hence find the shortest distance between the
lines and also its equations.
6. Find the equations of the straight line perpendicular to both the lines
x −1 y −1 z +2 x+2 y−5 z +3
= = ; = = ⋅
1 2 2 2 −1 2
7. Find the length and equations of the common perpendicular to the two lines
x+3 y−6 z x+2 y z −7
= = ; = = ⋅
−4 3 2 −4 1 1 (Meerut 2010B)
8. Show that the shortest distance between any two opposite edges of the
tetrahedron formed by the planes
y + z = 0, z + x = 0, x + y = 0, x + y + z = a is 2 a / √ 6
and that the three lines of shortest distance intersect at the point
x = y = z = − a. (Garhwal 2002)
9. Show that the shortest distance between the lines x + a = 2 y = − 12z and
x = y + 2a = 6z − 6a is 2a. (Meerut 2011)
10. Find the length of the shortest distance between the z-axis and the line
x + y + 2 z − 3 = 0 = 2 x + 3 y + 4 z − 4. (Kumaun 2010)
11. Find the shortest distance between the z-axis and the line
ax + by + c z + d = 0 = a ′ x + b ′ y + c ′ z + d ′ . (Kumaun 2008)
Show also that it meets the z-axis at a point whose distance from the origin is
(ab ′ − d ′ b) (bc ′ − b ′ c ) + (c a ′ − c ′ a) (ad ′ − a ′ d )
⋅
(bc ′ − b ′ c )2 + (c a ′ − c ′ a)2
 G-160

12. Show that the equation of the plane containing the line
y / b + z / c = 1, x = 0 and parallel to the line x / a − z / c = 1, y = 0 is
x / a − y / b − z / c + 1 = 0 and if 2d is the shortest distance, then show that
d −2 = a −2 + b −2 + c −2 . (Meerut 2008; Rohilkhand 06; Avadh 09)
13. Show that the shortest distance between the diagonals of a rectangular
parallelopiped and the edges not meeting it are
bc ca ab
, ,
√ (b + c ) √ (c + a ) √ (a + b 2 )
2 2 2 2 2

where a, b, c are the lengths of the edges.

A nswers 10
34
1. ; − 11x − 2 y + 7z + 29 = 0, 27 x + 26 y − 33z − 34 = 0
29
x −3 y −5 z −7
2. 2 29 ; = = 3. 6 3 4. 0
2 3 4
x−3 y−8 z −3
5. P (3, 8, 3), Q (−3, − 7, 6) ; 3 √ (30); = =
2 5 −1
x−2 y − 3 z −1
6. = =
7 4 −5
7. 32 x + 34 y + 13z = 108 , 4 x + 11 y + 5z = 27; 9
(db ′ − d ′ b) (bc ′ − b ′ c ) + (ca ′ − c ′ a) (ad ′ − a ′ d )
10. 2 11.
(bc ′ − b ′ c )2 + (ca ′ − c ′ a)2

18 The Equations of Two Non-intersecting (Skew) Lines

To show that by a proper choice of axes the equations of two skew lines can be given by the
equations y = x tan α, z = c ; y = − x tan α, z = − c .
In the adjoining figure let AB and A′ B ′ be the two given skew (non-intersecting)
lines, and let CD of length 2 c be the shortest distance between them.
Take the axis of z along DC and O , the middle point of DC , as the origin. Draw OK
and OL parallel to AB and A′ B ′ respectively and take the plane KOL as the plane
z = 0. Take the internal and external bisectors of the angle KOL as the axes of x and
y respectively. In the figure, OX and OY represent the axes of x and y respectively.
Let the angle between the lines OK and OL (i. e., between the given lines AB and
A′ B ′) be 2 α .
 G-161

As explained above the line OK (which is parallel to AB) is inclined at angles

1 1
α , π − α , π with x , y, z axes respectively and therefore, the d.c.’s of OK (i. e., of
2 2
1 1
AB) are cos α , cos ( π − α), cos π i. e., cos α , sin α , 0.
2 2
1 1
Again the line OL (which is parallel to A′ B ′) is inclined at angles − α , π + α , π
2 2
with the co-ordinate axes respectively and, therefore, the d.c.’s of OL (i. e., of A′ B ′)
1 1
are cos (− α), cos ( π + α), cos π or cos α , − sin α , 0.
2 2
Now it is required to find the equations of the given skew lines AB and A′ B ′ .
Since CD = 2 c and O is the middle point of CD , therefore OC = OD = c . Hence
the co-ordinates of the points C and D (on the z-axis) are (0, 0, c ) and (0, 0, − c )
respectively.
Thus we see that the given line AB has d.c.’s cos α , sin α , 0 and passes through the
point C (0, 0, c ) and hence its equations are
x−0 y−0 z −c
= = or y = x tan α , z = c . …(1)
cos α sin α 0
Also, the line A′ B ′ has d.c.’s cos α , − sin α , 0 and passes through the point
D (0, 0, − c ) and hence its equations are
x−0 y−0 z +c
= = or y = − x tan α , z = − c . …(2)
cos α − sin α 0
The equations (1) and (2) are the required equations of the given skew lines AB
and A′ B ′.
If we put tan α = m, the equations (1) and (2) become
y = mx , z = c and y = − mx , z = − c . …(3)
The equations (3) may be written as
x y z −c x y z +c
= = and = = ⋅
1 m 0 1 −m 0 …(4)

Example 28: Prove that the locus of a variable line which intersects the three given lines
y = mx , z = c ; y = − mx , z = − c ; y = z , mx = − c
is the surface y 2 − m2 x 2 = z 2
− c 2. (Meerut 2006, 07, 10; Kanpur 08)
Solution: The equations of the given lines are
y = mx , z = c ; …(1)
y = − mx , z = − c ; …(2)
and y = z , mx = − c . …(3)
 G-162

We know that any line intersecting the lines (1) and (2) is given by two planes, one
through each line.
The equation of any plane through the line (1) is
( y − mx) + λ (z − c ) = 0. …(4)
Also, the equation of any plane through the line (2) is
( y + mx) + µ (z + c ) = 0. …(5)
The planes (4) and (5) intersect in a line and if this line meets the line (3), then
putting mx = − c and z = y in (4) and (5), we have

( y + c ) + λ ( y − c ) = 0 and ( y − c ) + µ ( y + c ) = 0
y+c y−c
or λ =− and µ = − ⋅
y−c y+c
Multiplying these relations, we get λµ = 1. …(6)
The required locus is obtained by eliminating λ and µ between (4), (5) and (6) and
so eliminating λ and µ between these equations, the required locus is given by
 ( y − mx)   y + mx 
−  × −  =1
 z +c   z −c 
or y 2 − m2 x 2 = z 2
− c 2.

Example 29: A variable line intersects the x-axis and the curve x = y, y 2 = cz and is
parallel to the plane x = 0. Prove that it generates the paraboloid x y = cz .
Solution: The equation of any plane through x-axis i. e., y = 0 = z is
y = λz . …(1)
The equation of any plane parallel to the plane x = 0 is
x = µ. …(2)
The planes (1) and (2) intersect in a line which intersects the x-axis and is parallel to
the plane x = 0. If this line meets the curve x = y, y 2 = cz , we have by putting
x = y in (2),
y=µ. …(3)
y cy cy
From (1), λ = = = 2 [∵ cz = y 2]
z cz y
or λ =c/y or λ = c /µ , [Using (3)]
or λµ = c . …(4)
The required locus is given by eliminating λ and µ between (1), (2) and (4), and is
( y / z) x = c
or xy = cz .
 G-163

Comprehensive Exercise 11

1. Find the surface generated by the lines which intersect the lines
y = mx, z = c ; y = − mx, z = − c and x-axis.
2. Show that the straight lines which intersect the three lines
y − z = 1, x = 0 ; z − x = 1, y = 0 and x − y = 1, z = 0 lie on the surface
whose equation is x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yz − 2zx − 2 xy − 1 = 0.

3. Prove that the locus of a line which meets two lines y = ± mx, z = ± c and the
circle x 2 + y 2 = a2 , z = 0 is
c 2 m2 (cy − mzx)2 + c 2 ( yz − cmx)2 = a2 m2 (z 2 − c 2 ).
4. Find the surface generated by a straight line which meets two lines
y = mx, z = c ; y = − mx, z = − c at the same angle.
5. Show that the locus of lines which meet the lines
x+a y z x−a y z
= = ; = =
0 sin α − cos α 0 sin α cos α
at the same angle is ( xy cos α − az sin α) (z x sin α − ay cos α) = 0.
6. P, P ′ are two variable points on two given non-intersecting lines and PP ′ is
of constant length 2k. Find the surface generated by PP ′ .
7. Find the equation to the surface generated by a straight line which is parallel
to the line y = mx, z = nx and intersects the ellipse
x2 y2
+ = 1, z = 0.
a2 b2
8. How many lines can be drawn from a point to intersect two non-coplanar
lines neither of which passes through the point? Find the equations of the
lines or line which can be drawn from the point (2 , − 1, 3) to intersect the lines
x −1 y − 2 z −3 x−4 y z +3
= = ; = = ⋅ (Bundelkhand 2005)
2 3 4 4 5 3

A nswers 11
1. cy = mz x 4. (mcx − yz ) (cy − mzx) = 0
6. c 2 (mzx − cy)2 + c 2 m2 ( yz − mc x)2 = m2 (λ2 − c 2 ) (z 2 − c 2 )2
1 1
7. 2
( xn − z )2 + 2
( yn − mz )2 = n2
a b
8. 1; 12 x + 4 y − 9z + 7 = 0 and 11x − 10 y + 2z − 28 = 0
 G-164

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. The direction cosines of any straight line perpendicular to z-axis are
(a) 0, cos α , sin α (b) cos α , 0, sin α
(c) cos α , sin α , 0 (d) cos α , sin α , 1 (Agra 2007)
2. The equations of the straight line passing through the point (2 , 5, 7) and
parallel to y-axis are
x−2 y−5 z −7 x−2 y−5 z −7
(a) = = (b) = =
0 1 0 1 0 1
x+2 y+5 z +7 x−2 y−5 z −7
(c) = = (d) = =
0 1 0 1 1 0
3. Perpendicular distance of the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) from the z-axis is

(a) x12 + y12 (b) y12 + z12

(c) z12 + x12 (d) none of these

4. Image of the point (−5, 3, 2) in the yz-plane is
(a) (5, 3, 2) (b) (2 , 3, − 5)
(c) (−5, − 3, 2) (d) (5, 3, − 2) (Agra 2007)
5. The shortest distance between the lines x + a = 2 y = − 12z and
x = y + 2a = 6z − 6a is
(a) 0 (b) a
(c) 2 a (d) none of these
6. The equation of the plane through (2 , 1, 4) perpendicular to the line of
intersection of the planes 3 x + 4 y + 7z + 4 = 0 and x − y + 2 z + 3 = 0 is
(a) 15 x + y − 7z − 3 = 0 (b) 15 x − y − 7z − 3 = 0
(c) 15 x + y + 7z − 3 = 0 (d) 15 x + y + 7z + 3 = 0
7. The symmetrical form of the line x + 2 y + 3z + 4 = 0,
2 x + 3 y + 4z + 5 = 0 is
x +2 y −3 z −0 x −2 y +3 z −0
(a) = = (b) = =
1 2 −1 −2 1 −1
x −2 y + 3 z −0
(c) = = (d) none of these
−1 2 −1
(Kumaun 2008)
 G-165

8. The equation of z-axis in symmetrical form is

x y z x y z
(a) = = (b) = =
1 0 0 0 1 0
x y z
(c) = = (d) none of these
0 0 1 (Kumaun 2010)

Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks “……”, so that the following statements are complete and correct.
1. If two planes are not parallel, they intersect in a …… .
2. The equations of the straight line passing through a given point ( x1 , y1 , z1 )
and having direction cosines l, m, n are …… .
3. The equations of the straight line passing through the points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) are …… . (Meerut 2001)
4. The equations of the straight line passing through the point (2 , − 3, 5) and
having its direction cosines proportional to 2 , − 1, 3 are …… .
x +1 y − 3 z −5
5. The direction cosines of the straight line = = are …… .
2 1 −2
6. The coordinates of any point P on the straight line
x−3 y−4 z −5
= = are …… .
1 2 −2
7. The coordinates of the two points on the straight line
x−2 y+3 z +1
= =
6 2 3
which are at a distance 14 from the point (2 , − 3, − 1) are …… .
8. The equations of the straight line passing through the point (2 , − 5, − 3) and
x−5 y+2 z −4
parallel to the straight line = = are …… .
−1 3 5
9. The equations of the straight line parallel to
x −1 y − 2 z x−2 y−2 z
= = are = = ⋅ (Meerut 2001)
2 3 4 … … 8
10. The direction cosines of the straight line y = 0, z = 0 are …… .
11. The equations of the straight line x − y = 0, z = 1 in symmetrical form are
…… .
12. The direction cosines l, m, n of the straight line
3 x + 2 y − 5z = 0 = 4 x + 2 y − 3z + 3 satisfy the equations …… .
13. The straight line 3 x + 2 y − z − 4 = 0, 4 x + y − 2z + 3 = 0 meets the
xy-plane at the point …… .
14. The equations of the straight line passing through the point (2 , 3, − 7) and
perpendicular to the plane 2 x − 3 y + 4z = 7 are …… .
 G-166

x y z
15. The line = = is perpendicular to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0,if ……
l m n
(Meerut 2001)
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
16. The conditions for the line = = to be parallel to the
l m n
plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 but not lying in it are …… .(Bundelkhand 2005)
x−3 y +4 z
17. The angle between the straight line = = and the plane
1 −1 0
y − z + 2 = 0 is …… .
18. The foot of perpendicular from (2 , 3, 4) to the plane x + y − z + 4 = 0 is ……
19. The equation of the plane containing the straight line
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= =
l1 m1 n1
x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
and parallel to the straight line = = is …… .
l2 m2 n2
20. The straight lines
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
= = and = =
l1 m1 n1 l2 m2 n2
are coplanar if …… .
21. The shortest distance between two intersecting straight lines is …… .
22. Two lines are …… if the shortest distance between them vanishes.
23. The shortest distance between two skew lines is …… to both the lines.
24. The shortest distance between two non-intersecting lines is the projection of
the straight line joining any two points on these lines on a straight line
perpendicular to …… .

True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.
x +1 y − 2 z +4
1. The straight line = = is parallel to the plane
1 3 −5
6 x + 8 y + 6z = 7.
x−2 y+9 z −6
2. The straight line = = is perpendicular to the plane
3 5 1
6 x + 10 y − 2 z = 9.
x−2 y −1 z +1
3. The straight line = = lies in the plane 2 x + 3 y − 7z = 5.
5 6 4
x +1 y + 3 z +5 x−2 y−4 z −6
4. The lines = = and = = are coplanar.
3 5 7 1 4 7
5. Two parallel straight lines are always coplanar.
 G-167

6. If two straight lines intersect, they are always coplanar.

7. Two non-coplanar lines are always intersecting lines.
8. The lines x = ay + b, z = cy + d and x = a ′ y + b ′ , z = c ′ y + d ′ are
perpendicular if aa ′ + cc ′ + 1 = 0.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
9. The conditions that the line = = is parallel to the plane
l m n
ax + by + cz + d = 0 but does not lie in it are
al + bm + c n = 0, ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d = 0.
10. Straight line which is perpendicular to each of the two skew lines is called the
line of shortest distance.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
11. The symmetrical form of straight line is = = .
l m n

A nswers
Multiple Choice Questions
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (c)
6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (c)

Fill in the Blank(s)

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
1. straight line 2. = =
l m n
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x −2 y+3 z−5
3. = = 4. = =
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1 2 −1 3

2 1 2
5. , ,− 6. (r + 3, 2 r + 4, − 2 r + 5)
3 3 3
7. (14, 1, 5) and (−10, − 7, − 7)

x−2 y+5 z +3
8. = = 9. 4 ; 6
−1 3 5
x−0 y−0 z −1
10. 1, 0, 0 11. = =
1 1 0
12. 3l + 2 m − 5n = 0, 4l + 2 m − 3n = 0 13. (−2 , 5, 0)
x−2 y−3 z +7 a b c
14. = = 15. = =
2 −3 4 l m n
16. al + bm + c n = 0, ax1 + by1 + c z1 + d ≠ 0
1 4 17
17. π / 6 18.  , , 
3 3 3 
 G-168

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1

19.  l1 m1 n1  = 0 20. l1 m1 n1  = 0
   
 l2 m2 n2   l2 m2 n2 
21. 0 22. coplanar
23. perpendicular 24. both these lines

True or False
1. T 2. F 3. F 4. T 5. T
6. T 7. F 8. T 9. F 10. T
11. T

¨
 Krishna's

VECTOR ANALYSIS
C hapters

1. Multiple Products
1.

1. Differentiation of Vectors
2.

1. Gradient, Divergence and Curl

3.

1. Integration of Vectors
4.

1. Line Integrals
5.

1. Green's, Gauss's and Stoke's Theorems

6.
 V-3

1
M ultiple P roducts

1 Triple Products
e know that the vector product a × b of two vectors a and b is itself a vector
W quantity. Therefore we can multiply it by another vector c both scalarly and
vectorially. The product (a × b) • c is called scalar triple product, which is a pure
number. On the other hand the product (a × b) × c is called vector triple product,
which is again a vector quantity.
Note. Since a • b is a scalar quantity, therefore the products (a • b) • c and
(a • b) × c are meaningless. Moreover in the product (a × b) • c we can omit the
parentheses and we can simply write it as a × b • c. Obviously the product a × b • c
has meaning only if we regard it as the product (a × b) • c .

2 Scalar Triple Product

The scalar product of two vectors one of which is itself the vector product of two vectors is a
scalar quantity called “Scalar Triple Product”. Thus if a , b and c be three vectors, then
(a × b) • c is called the scalar triple product of these three vectors.
Since the scalar triple product involves both the signs of ‘cross’ and ‘dot’ therefore
it is sometimes also called the mixed product.
 V-4

Geometrical Interpretation of Scalar Triple Product.

Let us consider a parallelopiped whose coterminous edges OA , OB , OC have the
lengths and directions of the vectors a, b, c respectively. Let V be the volume of this
parallelopiped. We shall regard V, as necessarily n C
F
positive.
G
φ E
Let a × b = n. Then from our definition of vector
product, the vector n is perpendicular to the face O B
OADB , and its modulus n is the measure of the area of θ
A
the parallelogram OADB . Also, by definition, the D

vectors a, b and n form a right handed triad.

→
Let φ denote the angle between the directions of the vectors OC and n. Then the
vectors a, b and c will form a right handed or a left handed triad according as φ is
acute or obtuse.
Now (a × b) • c = |(a × b)||c|cos φ = |n||c|cos φ
= (area of the parallelogram OADB).(OC cos φ)
[∵ |c| = OC ]
Now OC cos φ will be positive or negative according as φ is acute or obtuse. Its
absolute value will give us the length of the perpendicular from C to the plane of the
parallelogram OADB .

Now the volume V of the parallelopiped = (Area of the parallelogram OADB) ×

length of the perpendicular from C on this parallelogram. Therefore
(a × b) • c = + V , if φ is acute i. e., if a, b, c form a right handed triad and
(a × b) • c = − V, if φ is obtuse i. e., if a, b, c form a left handed triad.

Now we know that if the vectors a, b, c form a right handed triad, then the vector
triads b, c, a and c, a, b are also right handed. Hence each of the products (b × c) • a
and (c × a) • b will have the same value + V or − V according as a, b, c form a right
handed or a left handed triad. Thus we conclude that in all the cases
(a × b) • c = (b × c) • a = (c × a) • b.
Now a • b = b • a and a × b = − b × a.
∴ (a × b) • c = c • (a × b) = (b × c) • a
= a • (b × c) = (c × a) • b = b • (c × a)
= − (b × a) • c = – c • (b × a) = – (c × b) • a
= – a • (c × b) = – (a × c) • b = – b • (a × c).

From this we conclude that the value of a scalar triple product depends on the cyclic order of
the factors and is independent of the position of the dot and cross. These may be interchanged at
pleasure. However, an anticyclic permutation of the three factors changes the value of the
product in sign but not in magnitude. (Important)
 V-5

Notation: In view of the properties discussed above, the scalar triple product is
usually written as (a × b) • c = [abc] or [a, b, c]. This notation takes into consideration
only the cyclic order of the three vectors and disregards the unimportant positions of dot and
cross. Thus [abc] = [bca] = [cab] = – [cba] etc.
The signs of dot and cross can be inserted at pleasure i. e.,
[a, b, c] = a • (b × c) or = (a × b) • c .
Note 1: If i , j , k constitute an orthogonal right handed triad of unit vectors,
then [i, j, k] = (i × j) • k = k • k = 1.
Note 2: The scalar triple product [abc] is positive or negative according as a, b, c
form a right handed or a left handed triad of vectors.

3 Distributive Law for Vector Product

To prove that a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c , where a , b, c are any three vectors.
Let r ≡ a × (b + c) – a × b – a × c …(1)
Now forming the scalar product of both sides of (1) with an arbitrary vector d, we
get
d • r = d • [a × (b + c) – a × b – a × c] …(2)
or d • r = d • [a × (b + c)] – d • (a × b) – d • (a × c)
[Since scalar product is distributive]
Now in a scalar triple product the positions of dot and cross can be interchanged
without affecting its value. Therefore from (2), we get
d • r = (d × a) • (b + c) – (d × a) • b – (d × a) • c
= (d × a) • b + (d × a) • c – (d × a) • b – (d × a) • c
[Since scalar product is distributive]
= 0.
Therefore either d = 0, or r = 0 or d is perpendicular to r. But the vector d is
arbitrary. Therefore we can take it to be non-zero and not perpendicular to r.
Hence r = 0 i. e., a × (b + c) – a × b – a × c = 0
i. e., a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c.

4 Properties of Scalar Triple Product

(i) The value of a scalar triple product, if two of its vectors are equal, is zero.
We have [aab] = a • (a × b).
Now a × b is a vector perpendicular to the plane of a and b.
Therefore a • (a × b) = 0.
(ii) The value of a scalar triple product, if two of its vectors are parallel, is zero.
Let a, b, c be three vectors such that a and b are parallel i. e., b = ta, where t is
some scalar.
 V-6

Now [abc] = (a × b) • c = (a × ta) • c = t (a × a) • c = t (0 • c)

[∵ a × a = 0]
= 0.
(iii) The necessary and sufficient condition that three non-parallel and non-zero vectors
a, b, c be coplanar is that [abc] = 0.
Let a, b, c be three coplanar vectors. Now a × b is a vector perpendicular to
the plane of a and b. Since a, b, c are coplanar, therefore a × b is also
perpendicular to c. Now the dot product of two perpendicular vectors is
equal to zero. Hence (a × b) • c = 0 i. e., [abc] = 0. Therefore the condition
is necessary.
The condition is also sufficient: Because if [abc] = 0 i. e., (a × b) • c = 0,
then c is perpendicular to a × b. But a × b is a vector perpendicular to the
plane of a and b. Since c is perpendicular to a × b, therefore c is parallel to
the plane of a and b.
Hence a , b, c are coplanar.
(iv) Since the distributive law holds for both scalar and vector products, it holds also for
the scalar triple product.
Thus [a , b + d , c + r] = [abc] + [abr] + [adc] + [adr], the cyclic order of the
factors being maintained in each term.

5 To Express The Value of The Scalar Triple Product [abc]

In Terms of Rectangular Components of The Vectors
Let a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k ,
c = c1 i + c 2 j + c 3 k .
Now b × c = (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k) × (c1 i + c 2 j + c 3 k)
i j k
= b1 b2 b3
 
c1 c2 c 3

= (b2 c 3 − b3 c 2 ) i − (b1 c 3 − b3 c1 ) j + (b1 c 2 − b2 c1 ) k .

∴ a • (b × c) = (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k) • [(b2 c 3 − b3 c 2 ) i
− (b1 c 3 − b3 c1 ) j + (b1 c 2 − b2 c1 ) k]
= a1 (b2 c 3 − b3 c 2 ) − a2 (b1 c 3 − b3 c1 ) + a3 (b1 c 2 − b2 c1 )
[∵ i • i = j • j = k • k = 1 and i • j = j • k = k • i = 0]
a1 a2 a3
∴ 
[abc] = b1 b2 b3 …(1)
 
c1 c2 c 3
 V-7

 c1 c2 c 3  a1 a2 a3
Also (a × b) • c = c • (a × b) = a1 a2 a3 =  b1 b2 b3
   
 b1 b2 b3  c1 c2 c 3

showing that the value of a scalar triple product is independent of the positions of
dot and cross.

Note: If OA , OB , OC be three concurrent edges of a parallelopiped and if

(a1 , a2 , a3 ), (b1 , b2 , b3 ), (c1 , c 2 , c 3 ) be the rectangular coordinates of A , B , C
referred to O as origin, then the determinant (1) gives the volume of that
parallelopiped.

6 To Express the Scalar Triple Product [a, b, c] in Terms

of any Three non-Coplanar Vectors l, m, n
Let a = a1 l + a2 m + a3 n , b = b1 l + b2 m + b3 n ,
and c = c1 l + c 2 m + c 3 n .
Now b × c = (b1 l + b2 m + b3 n) × (c1 l + c 2 m + c 3 n)
= b1 c1 l × l + b1 c 2 l × m + b1 c 3 l × n + b2 c1 m × l
+ b2 c 2 m × m + b2 c 3 m × n + b3 c1 n × l
+ b3 c 2 n × m + b3 c 3 n × n
= (b2 c 3 − b3 c 2 ) m × n − (b1 c 3 − b3 c1 ) n × l
+ (b1 c 2 − b2 c1 ) l × m
[∵ l × l = 0 and l × m = – m × l etc.]
∴ a • (b × c) = (a1 l + a2 m + a3 n) • [(b2 c 3 − b3 c 2 ) m × n
− (b1 c 3 − b3 c1 ) n × l + (b1 c 2 − b2 c1 ) l × m]
= a1 (b2 c 3 − b3 c 2 ) [lmn] − a2 (b1 c 3 − b3 c1 ) [lmn]
+ a3 (b1 c 2 − b2 c1 ) [lmn] .
[∵ [lmn] = [mnl] = [nlm] and all the scalar
triple products of the type [lml] in
which two vectors are equal vanish]
a1 a2 a3
Hence, [abc] = b1 b2 b3 [lmn ].
 
c1 c2 c 3

Note: Since [i , j, k] = 1, therefore article 5 is particular case of article 6.

 V-8

Example 1: Find the volume of the parallelopiped whose edges are represented by
a = 2 i − 4 j+ 5 k, b = i − j+ k, c = 3 i − 5 j + 2 k.
Solution: The required volume of the parallelopiped is equal to the absolute
value of [a b c].
2 −4 5
Now [a b c] =  1 −1 1
 
3 −5 2
= 2 (−2 + 5) + 4 (2 − 3) + 5 (−5 + 3)= 6 − 4 − 10 = − 8.
Neglecting the negative sign, we get the volume of the parallelopiped = 8 cubic
units.

Example 2: Find the constant p such that the vectors a = 2 i − j + k , b = i + 2 j − 3 k ,

c = 3 i + p j + 5 k are coplanar. (Kumaun 2013)
Solution: If the vectors a, b, c are coplanar, then we should have [abc] = 0.
2 −1 1
Now [a b c] =  1 2 −3
 
3 p 5
= 2 (10 + 3 p) + 1 (5 + 9) + 1 ( p − 6) = 7 p + 28.
∴ [abc] will be zero if 7 p + 28 = 0 or p = − 4.
Hence for the given vectors to be coplanar, we should have p = − 4.

Example 3: Prove that the four points 4 i + 5 j + k, – ( j + k), (3 i + 9 j + 4 k) and

4 ( – i + j + k) are coplanar. (Kumaun 2012)
Solution: Let A , B , C , D be the four given points whose position vectors
referred to some origin O are
4 i + 5 j + k , − ( j + k), (3 i + 9 j + 4 k) and 4 (− i + j + k).
→ → →
If the four points A, B, C, D are coplanar, then the vectors AB, AC and AD
should also be coplanar.
→
We have AB = position vector of B − position vector of A
= − ( j + k) − (4 i + 5 j + k) = − 4 i − 6 j − 2 k = a (say).
→
Similarly AC = (3 i + 9 j + 4 k) − (4 i + 5 j + k) = − i + 4 j + 3 k = b (say),
→
and AD = 4 (− i + j + k) − (4 i + 5 j + k) = − 8 i − j + 3 k = c (say).
Now the vectors a , b, c will be coplanar if [a b c] = 0.
 V-9

 −4 −6 −2
Now [a b c] =  −1 4 3
 
 −8 −1 3
= − 4 (12 + 3) + 6 (− 3 + 24) − 2 (1 + 32)
= − 60 + 126 − 66 = 0.
∴ The points A, B, C, D are coplanar.

Example 4: Show that the four points − a + 4b − 3c, 3a + 2b − 5c, − 3a + 8b − 5c

and − 3a + 2b + c are coplanar.
Solution: Let A, B, C and D be the points whose position vectors are respectively
− a + 4b − 3c , 3a + 2b − 5c , − 3a + 8b − 5c and −3a + 2b + c.
→
We have AB = position vector of B − position vector of A
= 3a + 2b − 5c − (− a + 4b − 3c) = 4a − 2b − 2c ,
→
AC = position vector of C − position vector of A
= (− 3a + 8b − 5c) − (− a + 4b − 3c) = − 2a + 4b − 2c ,
→
and AD = (− 3a + 2b + c) − (− a + 4b − 3c) = − 2a − 2b + 4c .
→ → →
Now the scalar triple product of the vectors AB, AC and AD
 4 −2 −2
→ → →
= [ AB, AC , AD] =  −2 4 −2 [a bc] [Refer article 6]
 
 −2 −2 4
= {4 (16 − 4) + 2 (− 8 − 4) − 2 (4 + 8)} [a b c]
= (48 − 24 − 24) [a b c] = 0 [a b c] = 0.
→ → →
Since the scalar triple product of the vectors AB, AC and AD is zero, therefore
these vectors are coplanar. Hence the points A, B, C and D are coplanar.

Example 5: If a, b, c are the position vectors of A, B, C prove that a × b + b × c + c × a

is a vector perpendicular to the plane of ABC .
→ → →
Solution: We have AB = b – a , BC = c – b and CA = a – c.
Let d = a × b+ b × c + c × a .
→
Now d • AB = d • (b – a) = (a × b + b × c + c × a) • (b – a)
= (a × b) • b − (a × b) • a + (b × c) • b – (b × c) • a
+ (c × a) • b – (c × a) • a
= [abb] – [aba] + [bcb] – [bca] + [cab] – [caa]
= – [bca] + [cab], since [abb] = 0 etc.
 V-10

= – [bca] + [bca], since [cab] = [bca]

= 0.
→
Therefore vector d is perpendicular to AB. Similarly, we can show that d is
→
perpendicular to BC.
Now since d is perpendicular to two lines in the plane ABC , hence it is
perpendicular to the plane ABC .

Example 6: Prove that [a + b , b + c , c + a] = 2 [abc]. (Kumaun 2010)

Solution: L.H.S.
= (a + b) • [(b + c) × (c + a)]
= (a + b) • [b × c + b × a + c × c + c × a]
= (a + b) • [b × c + c × a + b × a] , since c × c = 0
= a • (b × c) + a • (c × a) + a • (b × a) + b • (b × c)
+ b • (c × a) + b • (b × a)
= [abc] + [aca] + [aba] + [bbc] + [bca] + [bba] = [abc] + [bca],
since all the scalar triple products in which two vectors are equal vanish.
But [abc] = [bca].
Hence the L.H.S. = 2 [abc].

l • a l•b l • c
Example 7: Prove that [lmn] [abc]=m • a m• b m • c⋅
 
n • a n• b n • c
Solution: Let l = l1 i + l2 j + l3 k , m = m1 i + m2 j + m3 k ,
n = n1 i + n2 j + n3 k ; a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k ,
b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k , c = c1 i + c 2 j + c 3 k .

Now L.H.S. = [lmn] [abc]

 l1 l2 l3  a1 a2 a3
=  m1 m2 m3 b1 b2 b3
  
 n1 n2 n3  c1 c2 c 3
l1 a1 + l2 a2 + l3 a3 l1 b1 + l2 b2 + l3 b3
= m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 m1 b1 + m2 b2 + m3 b3
n1 a1 + n2 a2 + n3 a3 n1 b1 + n2 b2 + n3 b3
l1 c1 + l2 c 2 + l3 c 3
m1 c1 + m2 c 2 + m3 c 3
n1 c1 + n2 c 2 + n3 c 3
by the rule for the multiplication of determinants of the same order.
 V-11

Now l • a = (l1 i + l2 j + l3 k) • (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k)

= l1 a1 + l2 a2 + l3 a3 , etc.

 l •a l•b l•c 
Hence the L.H.S. = m • a m• b m • c ⋅
 
 n•a n• b n•c 

Example 8: Prove that if l , m , n be three non-coplanar vectors, then

 l•a l•b l 
[lmn] (a × b) = m • a m• b m ⋅
 
 n•a n• b n
Solution: Let
l = l1 i + l2 j + l3 k , m = m1 i + m2 j + m3 k , n = n1 i + n2 j + n3 k ,
and a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k .
 l1 l2 l3  i j k
Now [lmn ] =  m1 m2 m3 and ( a × b) =  a1 a2 a3⋅
   
 n1 n2 n3   b1 b2 b3
 l1 l2 l3  i j k
∴ [lmn ] ( a × b) =  m1 m2 m3 a1 a2 a3
  
 n1 n2 n3  b1 b2 b3
 l1 i + l2 j + l3 k l1 a1 + l2 a2 + l3 a3 l1 b1 + l2 b2 + l3 b3 
= m1 i + m2 j + m3 k m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 m1 b1 + m2 b2 + m3 b3.
 
 n1 i + n2 j + n3 k n1 a1 + n2 a2 + n3 a3 n1 b1 + n2 b2 + n3 b3 
Now l • a = (l1 i + l2 j + l3 k) • (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k)
= l1 a1 + l2 a2 + l3 a3 etc.
l l•a l • b  l • a l•b l
∴ [lmn] (a × b) =m m • a m • b=m • a m• b m⋅
   
n n•a n • b n • a n• b n

Comprehensive Exercise 1

1. Define scalar triple product of three vectors a , b, c and interpret the same
geometrically.

2. Define scalar triple product of u , v , w . Prove that the value of the scalar
triple product of u , v , w remains unchanged if the cyclic order of the vectors
is maintained.
 V-12

3. If a, b, c are any three vectors, prove that

a • (b × c) = b • (c × a) = c • (a × b) .
4. Prove that a • b × c = a × b • c .
5. Show that i • j × k = 1.
6. Show that [λa + µb, c , d] = λ [a , c , d] + µ [b, c, d].
7. Prove that [i – j, j – k , k – i] = 0.
8. Find the volume of the parallelopiped whose edges are represented by
(i) a = 2i − 3 j + 4k , b = i + 2 j – k , c = 3i – j + 2k .
(ii) a = i − 2 j + 3k , b = 2i + j − k , c = j + k .
9. Show that the vectors i − 2 j + 3k , − 2i + 3 j − 4k , i − 3 j + 5k are coplanar.
10. Show that the vectors 2a − b + 3c , a + b − 2c and a + b − 3c are
non-coplanar where a , b, c are non-coplanar vectors.
[Hint: Show that the scalar triple product of the three given vectors is not
zero.]
11. Prove that the four points 6a − 4b + 10 c , − 5a + 3b − 10 c ,4a − 6b − 10 c and
2b + 10 c are coplanar.
12. Show that the vectors a , b, c are coplanar if b + c , c + a , a + b are coplanar.
13. Prove that four points with position vectors a , b, c , d are coplanar if and only
if [b, c , d] + [c , a , d] + [a , b, d] = [a , b, c].

A nswers 1
8. (i) 7 cubic units, (ii) 12 cubic units.

7 Vector Triple Product

The vector product of two vectors one of which is itself the vector product of two vectors is a vector
quantity called a “Vector Triple Product”. Thus if a, b and c be three vectors,the
products of the form a × (b × c) and (a × b) × c etc. are called “Vector Triple
Products”.
Theorem: To prove that a × (b × c) = (a • c) b – (a • b) c .

Let r = a × (b × c) and b × c = d .
Since b × c = d , therefore d is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing b and
c. Also r = a × d . Therefore r is a vector perpendicular to both a and d. Now the
vector r is perpendicular to the vector d, whereas the vector d is perpendicular to
the plane containing b and c. Therefore the vector r must lie in the plane containing
 V-13

b and c. Hence the vector r can be expressed linearly in terms of b and c in the form
r = l b + mc , …(1)
where l and m are scalars.
Since r is perpendicular to a , therefore r • a = 0.
∴ (l b + mc) • a = 0 or l (b • a) + m (c • a) = 0.
l −m
∴ = = λ (say).
c • a b• a
Putting the values of l and m in (1), we get
r = λ (c • a) b − λ (b • a) c = λ [(c • a) b – (b • a) c] …(2)
Now we are to find the value of λ.
Consider unit vectors j and k,the first parallel to b and the second perpendicular to
it in the plane containing b and c. Then we may write b = b2 j and
c = c2 j + c3 k .
In terms of j and k and the other unit vector i of the right handed system, the
remaining vector a may be written as
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k .
Now b × c = b2 j × (c 2 j + c 3 k) = b2 c 2 j × j + b2 c 3 j × k = b2 c 3 i
[∵ j × j = 0 and j × k = i]
∴ r = a × (b × c) = (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k) × (b2 c 3 i)
= a1 b2 c 3 i × i + a2 b2 c 3 j × i + a3 b2 c 3 k × i
= a3 b2 c 3 j − a2 b2 c 3 k …(3)
[∵ i × i = 0, j × i = – k and k × i = j ]
Also r = λ [(c • a) b – (b • a) c]
= λ [(c 2 j + c 3 k) • (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k) b2 j
− (b2 j) • (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k) (c 2 j + c 3 k)]
= λ [c 2 a2 b2 j + c 3 a3 b2 j − b2 a2 c 2 j − b2 a2 c 3 k]
[∵ i • i = 1, i • j = 0 etc.]
= λ [a3 b2 c 3 j − a2 b2 c 3 k]. …(4)
Now from (3) and (4) we conclude that λ = 1.
Hence a × (b × c) = (c • a) b – (b • a) c = (a • c) b – (a • b) c
[∵ c • a = a • c]
Corollary: (a × b) × c = – [c × (a × b)]
= – [(c • b) a – (c • a) b] = (c • a) b – (c • b) a .
Rule to remember a × (b × c). It is a vector to be expressed linearly in terms of b
and c which are the vectors within the brackets. Also
a × (b × c) = [Dot product of a and c] b
− [Dot product of a and b] c.
Similarly we may remember (a × b) × c .
 V-14

8 Vector Triple Product is not Associative

If a , b, c be three vectors, then a × (b × c) gives a vector which lies in the plane of b
and c and which is perpendicular to a . Moreover (a × b) × c gives a vector which lies
in the plane of a and b and which is perpendicular to c. Hence, in general,
a × (b × c) ≠ (a × b) × c . Thus in the case of vector triple product the position of
brackets cannot be, in general, changed without altering the value of the product.

Example 9: Prove that a × (b × c) + b × (c × a) + c × (a × b) = 0 .

Solution: We have
a × (b × c) = (a • c) b – (a • b) c , b × (c × a) = (b • a) c – (b • c) a ,
and c × (a × b) = (c • b) a – (c • a) b.
Adding these three expressions, we get
a × (b × c) + b × (c × a) + c × (a × b)
= (a • c) b – (a • b) c + (b • a) c – (b • c) a + (c • b) a – (c • a) b
= 0. [∵ a • c = c • a , a • b = b • a , b • c = c • b]

Example 10: Show that the vectors a × (b × c), b × (c × a), c × (a × b) are coplanar.
Solution: Let r1 = a × (b × c), r 2 = b × (c × a), r 3 = c × (a × b).
Now first prove that r1 + r 2 + r3 = 0, as we have done in the previous exercise.
Since there exists a linear relation between the vectors r1 , r 2 , r 3 therefore any of
these vectors can be expressed as a linear combination of the other two. Hence
these three vectors are coplanar.

Example 11: If a = i − 2 j + k , b = 2i + j + k , c = i + 2 j – k , find a × (b × c).

Solution: We have
a × (b × c) = (a • c) b – (a • b) c
= [(i − 2 j + k) • (i + 2 j – k)] (2i + j + k)
− [(i − 2 j + k) • (2i + j + k)] (i + 2 j – k)
= (1 − 4 − 1) (2i + j + k) − (2 − 2 + 1) (i + 2 j – k)
= (− 8i − 4 j − 4k) − (i + 2 j − k) = − 9i − 6 j − 3k .

Example 12: Show that i × (a × i) + j × (a × j) + k × (a × k) = 2a .

(Kumaun 2009)
Solution: We have
i × (a × i) = (i • i) a – (i • a) i = a – (i • a) i [∵ i • i = 1]
j × (a × j) = ( j • j) a – ( j • a) j = a – ( j • a) j [∵ j • j = 1]
 V-15

and k × (a × k) = (k • k) a – (k • a) k = a – (k • a) k . [∵ k • k = 1]
Adding these three expressions, we get
i × (a × i) + j × (a × j) + k × (a × k)
= 3a − (i • a) i – ( j • a) j – (k • a) k
= 3a – [(a • i) i + (a • j) j + (a • k) k]. [∵ a • j = j • a etc.]
Now we shall show that
a = (a • i) i + (a • j) j + (a • k) k .
Let a = xi + yj + zk .
Taking dot product of both sides with i , j and k successively, we get
x = a • i , y = a • j, z = a • k .
∴ a = (a • i) i + (a • j) j + (a • k) k .
Hence i × (a × i) + j × (a × j) + k × (a × k) = 3a – a = 2a .

Example 13: Show that i × ( j × k) = 0.

Solution: We have i × ( j × k) = i × i [∵ j × k = i ]
= 0. [∵ i × i = 0 ]
2
Example 14: Show that [a × b , b × c , c × a] = [abc] , and express the result by
means of determinants. (Kumaun 2011)
Solution: We have
[a × b, b × c , c × a] = (a × b) • [(b × c) × (c × a)].
Let us first find the value of (b × c) × (c × a).
Let b × c = d.
Then (b × c) × (c × a) = d × (c × a) = (d • a) c – (d • c) a
= [(b × c) • a] • c − [(b × c) • c] a
= [bca] c – [bcc] a = [abc] c ,
since [bcc] = 0 and [bca] = [abc].
∴ [a × b, b × c , c × a] = (a × b) • [abc] c
= [abc] (a × b) • c = [abc] [abc] = [abc] 2 .
Second part: Let
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k ,
c = c1 i + c 2 j + c 3 k.
 a1 a2 a3
We have [abc ] =  b1 b2 b3⋅
 
 c1 c2 c 3
i j k
Again a × b =  a1 a2 a3
 
 b1 b2 b3
 V-16

= (a2 b3 − b2 a3 ) i + (b1 a3 − a1 b3 ) j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) k .

i j k
Similarly b × c =  b1 b2 b3
 
 c1 c2 c 3

= (b2 c 3 − b3 c 2 ) i + (c1 b3 − b1 c 3 ) j + (b1 c 2 − c1 b2 ) k

i j k
and c × a =  c1 c2 c 3
 
 a1 a2 a3

= (c 2 a3 − a2 c 3 ) i + (a1 c 3 − a3 c1 ) j + (c1 a2 − a1 c 2 ) k .
∴ [a × b, b × c, c × a]
 a2 b3 − b2 a3 b1 a3 − a1 b3 a1 b2 − a2 b1
=  b2 c 3 − b3 c 2 c1 b3 − b1 c 3 b1 c 2 − b2 c1
 
 c 2 a3 − c 3 a2 a1 c 3 − a3 c1 c1 a2 − c 2 a1

C1 C2 C3 A1 A2 A3

= A1 A2 A3 = B1 B2 B3,
   
B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3
where the capital letters A1 , A2 , A3 etc. denote the cofactors of the corresponding
a1 a2 a3
small letters a1 , a2 , a3 etc. in the determinant b1 b2 b3⋅
 
c1 c2 c 3

Since [abc] 2 = [a × b, b × c , c × a],

2
a1 a2 a3 A1 A2 A3
∴ b b2 b3 = B1 B2 B3⋅
1   
c1 c2 c 3 C1 C2 C3

Example 15: Prove that (a × b) × (a × c) • d = (a • d) [abc] .

Solution: Let a × b = r .
Then (a × b) × (a × c) = r × (a × c) = (r • c) a – (r • a) c
= [(a × b) • c] a – [(a × b) • a] c
= [abc] a – [aba] c = [abc] a , since [aba] = 0.
Therefore (a × b) × (a × c) • d = [abc] a • d = (a • d) [abc] .

1
Example 16: If a , b, c be three unit vectors such that a × (b × c) = b, find the angles
2
which a makes with b and c , b and c being non-parallel. (Kumaun 2009)
1
Solution: It is given that a × (b × c) = b .
2
 V-17

1
∴ (a • c) b – (a • b) c = b,
2

or  a c – 1 b – (a b) c = 0. …(1)
 •  •
 2
Since b and c are non-parallel, therefore for the existence of the relation (1) the
coefficients of b and c should vanish separately. Therefore, we get
1 1
a • c − = 0, i. e., a • c = and a • b = 0.
2 2
Let θ and φ be the angles which a makes with b and c respectively. Since a , b, c are
unit vectors, we have
a • b = cos θ = 0 ⇒ θ = 90 ° ,
1
and a • c = cos φ = ⇒ φ = 60 ° .
2

Example 17: Prove that (a × b) × c = a × (b × c), if and only if (c × a) × b = 0 .

Solution: We have (a × b) × c = a × (b × c)
if and only if (c • a) b – (c • b) a = (a • c) b – (a • b) c
i. e., if and only if – (c • b) a = – (a • b) c, since c • a = a • c
i. e., if and only if (c • b) a – (a • b) c = 0
i. e., if and only if (b • c) a – (b • a) c = 0, since c • b = b • c anda • b = b • a
i. e., if and only if (c × a) × b = 0.
Note: (c × a) × b = 0 is possible when (i) a and c are collinear because then
c × a = 0 or (ii) b is parallel to c × a i. e., b is perpendicular to both c and a or (iii) at
least one of the vectors a, b, c is a null vector.

Comprehensive Exercise 2

1. Evaluate (b × c) × a,
where a = 2i + 3 j − 5k , b = – i + j + k , and c = 4i + 2 j + 6k.
2. (i) Verify the formula for vector triple product
a × (b × c) = (a • c) b – (a • b) c
by taking a = i + j, b = – i + 2k , c = j + k.
(ii) Verify a × (b × c) = (a • c) b – ( a • b) c for a = i – 2j+ k , b = 2i + j – k
and c = 3i – 2j + 3k . (Kumaun 2014)
3. Prove that (b × c) × (c × a) = [abc] c .
4. Prove that for any three vectors A , B and C,
(A × B) • (B × C) × (C × A) = (A • B × C) 2 .
 V-18

5. Prove that for any three vectors a , b and c , [a × b, b × c , c × a] = [abc] 2 .

Hence show that the vectors a , b, c are non-coplanar if and only if the
vectors a × b, b × c , c × a are non-coplanar.
a • a a•b a • c
6. 
Show that [a × b, b × c, c × a]= b • a b• b b • c  = [abc ]2 .
 
c • a c•b c • c
[Hint: First prove that [a × b, b × c , c × a] = [abc]2 .
For proof see Ex. 6. For the next part proceed as in Ex. 7.]
7. Prove that a × (b × a) = (a × b) × a .

A nswers 2
1. 8 (−4i + j – k).

9 Scalar Product of Four Vectors

If a , b, c , d are four vectors, the products (a × b) • (c × d), (a × d) • (b × c) etc. are
called scalar products of four vectors.
Theorem: To prove that
a • c b • c
(a × b) • (c × d) = ⋅
a • d b • d
Let a × b = r.
Then (a × b) • (c × d) = r • (c × d) .
Now in a scalar triple product the position of dot and cross may be interchanged
without altering the value of the product.
Therefore r • (c × d) = (r × c) • d.
∴ (a × b) • (c × d) = [(a × b) × c] • d = [(c • a) b – (c • b) a] • d
= (c • a) (b • d) – (c • b) (a • d)
a • c b • c
= (a • c) (b • d) – (b • c) (a • d) = ⋅
a • d b • d
This relation is known as Lagrange’s Identity.

10 Vector Product of Four Vectors

Let a , b, c , d be four vectors. Consider the vector product of the vectors a × b and
c × d . This product can be written as (a × b) × (c × d) and is called the vector
 V-19

product of four vectors. It is a vector perpendicular to a × b and, therefore coplanar

with a and b. Similarly it is a vector coplanar with c and d. Hence this vector must
be parallel to the line of intersection of a plane parallel to a and b with another plane
parallel to c and d.
Theorem: To prove that
(i) (a × b) × (c × d) = [abd] c – [abc] d
(ii) (a × b) × (c × d) = [acd] b – [bcd] a .
Proof:
(i) (a × b) × (c × d) is a vector which can be either expressed in terms of c and d or
in terms of a and [Link] express it in terms of c and d, let us put a × b = l . Then
(a × b) × (c × d) = l × (c × d) = (l • d) c – (l • c) d
= [(a × b) • d] c – [(a × b) • c] d
= [abd] c – [abc] d .
(ii) Again to express (a × b) × (c × d) in terms of a and b, let us put c × d = m .
Then (a × b) × (c × d) = (a × b) × m = – m × (a × b)
= – [(m • b) a – (m • a) b] = (m • a) b – (m • b) a
= [(c × d) • a] b – [(c × d) • b] a
= [cda] b – [cdb] a = [acd] b – [bcd] a .

Linear Relation connecting four vectors: Equating the above two expressions
for the value of (a × b) × (c × d), we get
[abd] c – [abc] d = [acd] b – [bcd] a
or [bcd] a – [acd] b + [abd] c – [abc] d = 0 , …(1)
which is the required linear relation connecting the four vectors a , b, c , d .
To find an expression for any vector r, in space, as a linear combination of
three non-coplanar vectors a , b, c .
Replacing d by r in the relation (1) just established, we get
[bcr] a – [acr] b + [abr] c – [abc] r = 0
or [abc] r = [bcr] a – [acr] b + [abr] c . …(2)
Since a , b, c are non-coplanar, therefore [abc] ≠ 0.
Therefore dividing both sides of (2) by [abc], we get
[bcr] a – [acr] b + [abr] c ,
r=
[abc]
[bcr] a + [car] b + [abr] c
or r= , since [acr] = – [car]
[abc]
[rbc] a + [rca] b + [rab] c
or r= , …(3)
[abc]
which is the required expression for r .
 V-20

11 Reciprocal System of Vectors

If a , b, c be any three non-coplanar vectors so that [abc] ≠ 0, then the three vectors a ′ , b′ , c′
defined by the equations
b× c c×a a×b
a′ = , b′ = , c′ =
[abc] [abc] [abc]

are called reciprocal system of vectors to the vectors a , b, c .

(i) To show that a • a ′ = b • b′ = c • c′ = 1.
b × c a • (b × c) [abc]
We have a • a′ = a • = = = 1.
[abc] [abc] [abc]
c×a b • (c × a) [bca] [abc]
Similarly b • b′ = b • = = = =1
[abc] [abc] [abc] [abc]
a ×b c • (a × b) [cab] [abc]
and c • c′ = c • = = = = 1.
[abc] [abc] [abc] [abc]
Note: The reason for the name reciprocal lies in the relations
a • a ′ = b • b′ = c • c′ = 1.
(ii) The scalar product of any other pair of vectors, one from each system, is zero i. e.,
a • b′ = a • c′ = b • a ′ = b • c′ = c • a ′ = c • b′ = 0.
We have
c×a a • (c × a) [aca]
a • b′ = a • = = = 0, since [aca] = 0.
[abc] [abc] [abc]
Similarly we can prove the other results.
(iii) The scalar triple product [abc] formed from three non-coplanar vectors a , b, c is the
reciprocal of the scalar triple product [a ′ b′ c′ ] formed from the reciprocal system
a ′ , b′ , c′ i.e., [abc] [a ′ b′ c′ ] = 1.
b × c  c × a (a × b) 
We have [a ′ b′ c ′ ]= a ′ • (b′ × c ′ ) = • × 
[abc]  [abc] [abc] 
(b × c) • [(c × a) × (a × b)]
= ⋅
[abc] 3
Now expanding (c × a) × (a × b) by vector triple product treating c × a as one
vector, we get
(c × a) × (a × b) = [(c × a) • b] a – [(c × a) • a] b = [cab] a – [caa] b
= [abc] a , since [caa] = 0
and [cab] = [abc].
(b × c) • [abc] a [(b × c) • a] [abc]
∴ [a ′ b′ c′ ] = =
[abc] 3 [abc] 3
 V-21

[bca] [abc] [abc] 2 1

= = = ⋅
[abc] 3 [abc] 3 [abc]
∴ [a ′ b′ c′ ] [abc] = 1.
Note 1: Since [abc] ≠ 0, therefore from the relation, [a ′ b′ c′ ] [abc] = 1, we
conclude that [a ′ b′ c′ ] ≠ 0.
Hence the vectors a ′ , b′ , c′ are also non-coplanar.
Note 2: The symmetry of results proved in properties (i), (ii) and (iii) suggest that
if a ′ , b′ , c′ is the reciprocal system to a , b, c then a , b, c is also the reciprocal
system to a ′ , b′ , c′ .
Note 3: The relation [abc] [a ′ b′ c′ ] = 1shows that the scalar triple products [abc]
and [a ′ b′ c′ ] are either both positive or both negative. Hence the two systems of
vectors a , b, c and a ′ , b′ , c′ are either both right handed or both left handed.
(iv) The orthonormal vector triads i , j, k form a self reciprocal system.
Let i ′ , j′ , k ′ be the system of vectors reciprocal to the system i , j, k .
j× k i
Then by definition i ′ = = = i.
[i j k] 1
Similarly, j′ = j and k ′ = k .
Hence the result.

Theorem: If a , b, c be three non-coplanar vectors and a ′ , b′ , c′ constitute the reciprocal

system of vectors, then any vector r can be expressed as
r = (r • a ′ ) a + (r • b′ ) b + (r • c′ ) c.
Proof: Let r be expressed as a linear combination of the non-coplanar vectors
a , b, c in the form
r = xa + yb + zc …(1)
where x, y, z are some scalars.
Multiplying both sides of (1) scalarly with b × c , we get
r • (b × c) = xa • (b × c) + yb • (b × c) + zc • (b × c)
= x [abc] + y [bbc] + z [cbc] = x [abc],
since [bbc] = 0 = [cbc] .
r • (b × c) (b × c) b× c
∴ x= = r• = r • a ′ , since a ′ = ⋅
[abc] [abc] [abc]
Similarly multiplying both sides of (1) scalarly with c × a and a × b, we can show
that
y = r • b′ and z = r • c′ .
Putting the values of x, y and z in (1), we get
r = (r • a ′ ) a + (r • b′ ) b + (r • c′ ) c . …(2)
 V-22

Note 1: In a similar manner, we can prove that

r = (r • a) a ′ + (r • b) b′ + (r • c) c′ .
Note 2: Since the system of vectors i , j , k is self-reciprocal, therefore from (2) we
conclude that r = (r • i) i + (r • j) j + (r • k) k .

Example 16: Find a set of vectors reciprocal to the set 2i + 3 j – k , i – j − 2k ,

– i + 2 j + 2k .
Solution: Let a = 2i + 3 j – k , b = i – j − 2k , c = – i + 2 j + 2k .
Let a ′ , b′ , c′ be the set of vectors reciprocal to the set a , b, c .Then by definition
b× c c×a a×b
a′ = , b′ = , c′ = ⋅
[abc] [abc] [abc]
 2 3 −1
Now [abc] =  1 −1 −2 = 2 (2) − 3 (0) − 1 (1) = 3
 
 −1 2 2

 i j k
and b×c = 1 −1 −2 = 2i + 0 j + k = 2 i + k.
 
 −1 2 2
b × c 2i + k  2 1
∴ a′ = = = i+ k ⋅
[abc] 3  3 3 

 i j k
c×a 1 − 8i + 3j − 7k
Similarly b′ = = −1 2 2 =
[abc] 3  3
 2 3 −1

i j k
a ×b 1 − 7i + 3j − 5k
and c′ = = 2 3 −1 = ⋅
[abc] 3  3
1 −1 −2

Example 17: Prove that a × {b × (c × d)} = (b • d) (a × c) − (b • c) (a × d) .

Hence expand a × [b × {c × (d × e)}].
Solution: First part: We have
a × {b × (c × d)} = a × {(b • d) c – (b • c) d}
= (b • d) (a × c) – (b • c) (a × d).
Second part: We have
b × {c × (d × e)} = b × {(c • e) d – (c • d) e}
= (c • e) (b × d) – (c • d) (b × e) .
 V-23

∴ a × [b × {c × (d × e)}] = a × [(c • e) (b × d) – (c • d) (b × e)]

= (c • e) [a × (b × d)] – (c • d) [a × (b × e)]
= (c • e) [(a • d) b – (a • b) d]
– (c • d) [(a • e) b – (a • b) e] .

Example 18: Prove that d • [a × {b × (c × d)}] = (b • d) [acd] .

Solution: a × {b × (c × d)} = a × {(b • d) c – (b • c) d}
= (b • d) (a × c) – (b • c) (a × d) .
∴ d • [a × {b × (c × d)}] = d • [(b • d) (a × c) – (b • c) (a × d)]
= (b • d) [d • (a × c)] – (b • c) [d • (a × d)]
= (b • d) [dac] – (b • c) [dad]
= (b • d) [acd],
since [dad] = 0 and [dac] = [acd].

Example 19: If the four vectors a , b, c , d are coplanar, show that (a × b) × (c × d) = 0 .

Solution: a × b is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing a and b.
Similarly c × d is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing c and d.
Since a , b, c , d are all coplanar, therefore the vectors a × b and c × d are
perpendicular to the same plane. Therefore a × b and c × d are parallel.
Now we know that the vector product of two parallel vectors is equal to a zero
vector, therefore (a × b) × (c × d) = 0 .

Example 20: Prove that

(a × b) × (c × d) + (a × c) × (d × b) + (a × d) × (b × c) = − 2 [bcd] a .
Solution: (a × b) × (c × d) = l × (c × d), where l = a × b
= (l • d) c – (l • c) d
= [(a × b) • d)] c – [(a × b) • c] d
= [abd] c – [abc] d . …(1)
Again (a × c) × (d × b) = (a × c) × m, where m = d × b
= (m • a) c – (m • c) a
= [(d × b) • a] c – [(d × b) • c] a
= [dba] c – [dbc] a = – [abd] c – [bcd] a , …(2)
since [dba] = – [abd], as we have changed the cyclic order of the vectors and
[dbc] = [bcd], as the cyclic order has been maintained.
Also (a × d) × (b × c) = (a × d) × n , where n = b × c
= (n • a) d – (n • d) a
= [(b × c) • a] d – [(b × c) • d] a
= [bca] d – [bcd] a = [abc] d – [bcd] a . …(3)
 V-24

Adding (1), (2) and (3), we get

(a × b) × (c × d) + (a × c) × (d × b) + (a × d) × (b × c) = − 2 [bcd] a .

Example 21: Prove that

[a × p, b × q , c × r] + [a × q , b × r , c × p] + [a × r , b × p, c × q] = 0.
(Kumaun 2012)
Solution: We have
[a × p, b × q , c × r] = (a × p) • [(b × q) × (c × r)]
= (a × p) • [{(b × q) • r} c – {(b × q) • c} r ]
= (a × p) • {[ bqr ] c – [ bqc ] r}
= [apc] [bqr] – [apr] [bqc] . …(1)
Again [a × q , b × r , c × p] = [b × r , c × p, a × q ]
= (b × r) • [(c × p) × (a × q)]
= (b × r) • [{(c × p) • q } a – {(c × p) • a} q ]
= [bra] [cpq] – [brq] [cpa]. …(2)
and [a × r , b × p, c × q] = [c × q , a × r, b × p]
= (c × q) • [(a × r) × (b × p)]
= (c × q) • [{(a × r) • p} b − {(a × r) • b} p ]
= [cqb] [arp] – [cqp] [arb]. …(3)
Adding (1), (2) and (3) we get
[a × p, b × q , c × r] + [a × q , b × r , c × p] + [a × r , b × p, c × q]
= [apc] [bqr] – [apr] [bqc] + [bra] [cpq]
– [brq] [cpa] + [cqb] [arp] – [cqp] [arb]
= [apc] [bqr] – [apr] [bqc] + [bra] [cpq]
– [bqr] [apc] + [bqc] [apr] – [cpq] [bra]
= 0, since [brq] = – [bqr], [cpa] = – [apc] etc.

Example 22: Prove that [a × b, c × d , e × f ] = [abd] [cef ] – [abc] [def ]

= [abe] [fcd] – [abf ] [ecd] = [cda] [bef ] – [cdb] [aef ].
(Kumaun 2012, 15)
Solution: We have [a × b, c × d , e × f ] = (a × b) • [(c × d) × (e × f )]
= (a × b) • [l × (e × f )], where l = c × d
= (a × b) • [(l • f ) e – (l • e) f ]
= (a × b) • [{(c × d) • f} e – {(c × d) • e} f ]
= [cdf ] [abe] – [cde] [abf ]
= [abe] [fcd] – [abf ] [ecd], since [cdf ] = [fcd] etc.
 V-25

Again [a × b, c × d , e × f ] = [c × d , e × f , a × b]
= (c × d) • [(e × f ) × (a × b)]
= (c × d) • [{(e × f ) • b} a – {(e × f ) • a} b]
= [cda] [efb] – [cd b] [efa]
= [cda] [bef ] – [cdb] [aef ].
and [a × b , c × d , e × f ] = [e × f , a × b , c × d]
= (e × f ) • [(a × b) × (c × d)]
= (e × f ) • [{(a × b) • d} c – {(a × b) • c} d]
= [efc] [abd] – [efd] [abc]
= [abd] [cef ] – [abc] [def ].

Example 23: Prove that (b × c) • (a × d) + (c × a) • (b × d) + (a × b) • (c × d) = 0.

Solution: We have
b • a b • d
(b × c) • (a × d) = 
c • a c • d
= (b • a) (c • d) – (c • a) (b • d) …(1)
c • b c • d
Similarly, (c × a) • (b × d) = 
a • b a • d
= (c • b) (a • d) – (a • b) (c • d) …(2)
a • c a • d
and (a × b) • (c × d) = 
b • c b • d
= (a • c) (b • d) – (b • c) (a • d) …(3)
Adding (1), (2) and (3), we get
(b × c) • (a × d) + (c × a) • (b × d) + (a × b) • (c × d) = 0,
since a • b = b • a etc.

Comprehensive Exercise 3

1. Prove the identity a × [a × (a × b)] = (a • a) (b × a). (Kumaun 2011)

2. Establish the identity [a b c] d = [b c d] a + [c a d] b + [a b d] c for any four

vectors a , b, c , d . Hence show that any vector r can always be expressed as a
linear combination of three given non-coplanar vectors.

3. Obtain a set of vectors reciprocal to the three vectors

– i + j + k, i – j + k, i + j + k.
 V-26

4. If a , b, c be a set of non-coplanar vectors and

b× c c×a a×c
a′ = , b′ = , c′ = ,
[abc] [abc] [abc]
then prove that
b′ × c′ c′ × a ′ a ′ × b′
a = ,b= and c = ⋅
[a ′ b′ c′ ] [a ′ b′ c′ ] [a ′ b′ c′ ]
5. If a , b, c and a ′ , b′ , c′ are reciprocal system of vectors, prove that
(i) a × a ′ + b × b′ + c × c′ = 0
a +b+c
(ii) a ′ × b′ + b′ × c′ + c′ × a ′ =
[a b c]
(iii) a • a ′ + b • b′ + c • c′ = 3.

A nswers 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
3. − i + k, − j + k, i + j.
2 2 2 2 2 2

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. The value of i • ( j × k) + j • (k × i) + k • (i × j) is
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) 3
2. The volume of the parallelopiped whose edges are given by
→ → →
OA = 2i − 3 j, OB = i + j – k , OC = 3i − k is
(a) 1 (b) 4
(c) 2/7 (d) None of these
3. If [a b c] is the scalar triple product of three vectors a , b and c, then [a b c] is
equal to
(a) [b a c] (b) [c b a]
(c) [b c a] (d) [a c b]
 V-27

4. If i , j, k constitute an orthogonal right handed triad of unit vectors and a is

any vector, then i × (a × i) + j × (a × j) + k × (a × k) is equal to
(a) a (b) 2a
(c) 3a (d) 0

5. [a ′, b ′, c ′] is qual to
(a) [a, b , c ] (b) [a, b , c ]2
1
(c) (d) None of these
[a, b , c ] (Kumaun 2009)

Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks “……” so that the following statements are complete and correct.

1. If { i , j, k} be a set of orthonormal unit vectors, then [i j k] = …… .

→ → →
2. If A , B , C be three non-coplanar vectors, then
→ → → → → →
A• B × C B• A × C
+ = …… .
→ → → → → →
C × A• B C• A × B
3. For any three vectors a , b, c , a × (b × c) + b × (c × a) + c × (a × b) = … .
4. If a , b, c and a ′ , b′ , c′ are reciprocal system of vectors, then
a • a ′ + b • b′ + c • c′ = …… .
5. If a , b, c are any three coplanar vectors, then (a × b) • c = …… .
(Kumaun 2008)
6. (a × b ) × c = ……… (Kumaun 2015)
7. If i, j, k are unit vectors, then (i × j) • k = ……… (Kumaun 2009)
8. Value of vector [(b+c) × (c +a)] = ………… (Kumaun 2013)

True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.

1. If x • a = x • b = x • c = 0, for some non-zero vector x , then [a b c] = 0.

2. If { i , j, k} be a set of orthonormal unit vectors, then i × ( j × k) ≠ 0 .

3. The orthonormal vector triads i , j, k form a self reciprocal system.

 V-28

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c)

Fill in the Blank(s)

1. 1 2. 0 3. 0 4. 3 5. 0
6. (c • a) b – (c • b) a 7. 1 8. b × c +c × a + b × a

True or False
1. T 2. F 3. T

¨
 V-29

D ifferentiation of V ectors

1 Vector Function
e know that a scalar quantity possesses only magnitude and has no concern
W with direction. A single real number gives us a complete representation of a
scalar quantity. Thus a scalar quantity is nothing but a real number.
Let D be any subset of the set of all real numbers. If to each element t of D , we
associate by some rule a unique real number f (t), then this rule defines a scalar
function of the scalar variable t . Here f (t) is a scalar quantity and thus f is a scalar
function.
In a similar manner we define a vector function.
Let D be any subset of the set of all real numbers. If to each element t of D, we associate by some
rule a unique vector f (t), then this rule defines a vector function of the scalar variable t.
Here f (t) is a vector quantity and thus f is a vector function.
We know that every vector can be uniquely expressed as a linear combination of
three fixed non-coplanar vectors. Therefore we may write
f (t) = f1 (t) i + f 2 (t) j + f 3 (t) k
 V-30

where i , j , k denote a fixed right handed triad of three mutually perpendicular

non-coplanar unit vectors.

2 Scalar Fields and Vector Fields

If to each point P( x , y , z ) of a region R in space there corresponds a unique scalar
f ( P), then f is called a scalar point function and we say that a scalar field f has
been defined in R .

Examples: (1) The temperature at any point within or on the surface of earth at a
certain time defines a scalar field.
(2) f ( x , y , z ) = x 2 − y 3 − 3z 2 defines a scalar field.
If to each point P ( x , y , z ) of a region R in space there corresponds a unique vector
f ( P), then f is called a vector point function and we say that a vector field f has
been defined in R.

Examples: (1) If the velocity at any point ( x, y, z ) of a particle moving in a curve

is known at a certain time, then a vector field is defined.
(2) f ( x , y , z ) = xy 2 i + 3 yz 3 j − 2 x 2 zk defines a vector field.

3 Limit and Continuity of a Vector Function

Definition 1: A vector function f (t) is said to tend to a limit l, when t tends to t0 , if for any
given positive number ε , however small, there corresponds a positive number δ such that
|f (t) − l | < ε whenever 0 < |t − t0 | < δ.

If f (t) tends to a limit l as t tends to t0 , we write lim f (t) = l .

t → t0
Definition 2: A vector function f (t) is said to be continuous for a value t0 of t if
(i) f (t0 ) is defined and
(ii) for any given positive number ε, however small, there corresponds a positive number δ
such that |f (t) − f (t0 )| < ε , whenever |t − t0| < δ.
Further a vector function f (t) is said to be continuous if it is continuous for every value of t for
which it has been defined.
We shall give here (without proof ) some important results about the limits and
continuity of a vector function.

Theorem 1: The necessary and sufficient condition for a vector function f (t) to be

continuous at t = t0 is that lim f (t) = f (t0 ).

t → t0 (Purvanchal 2014)
 V-31

Theorem 2: If f (t) = f1 (t)i + f 2 (t) j + f 3 (t)k , then f (t) is continuous if and only if
f1 (t), f 2 (t), f 3 (t) are continuous.
Theorem 3: Let f (t) = f1 (t)i + f 2 (t) j + f 3 (t)k and l = l1 i + l2 j + l3 k .

Then the necessary and sufficient conditions that lim f (t) = l are
t → t0
lim f (t) = l , lim f 2 (t) = l2 and lim f 3 (t) = l3 .
t → t0 1 1
t → t0 t → t0
Theorem 4: If f (t), g (t) are vector functions of scalar variable t and φ (t) is a scalar
function of scalar variable t , then
(i) lim [f (t) ± g(t)] = lim f (t) ± lim g(t)
t → t0 t → t0 t → t0

(ii) lim [f (t) • g(t)] =  lim f (t) •  lim g(t)

t → t0  t→ t   t→ t 
 0   0 

(iii) lim [f (t) × g(t)] =  lim f (t) ×  lim 

g(t)
t → t0   
 t → t0   t → t0 

(iv) lim [φ (t) f (t)] =  lim φ (t)  lim f (t)

t → t0  t→ t   t→ t 
 0  0 

(v) lim |f (t) | = 

 lim f (t) 
⋅
t → t0  t → t0 

4 Derivative of a Vector Function with Respect to a Scalar

Definition: Let r = f (t) be a vector function of the scalar variable t. We define
r + δr = f (t + δt).
∴ δr = f (t + δt) − f (t).
δr f (t + δt) − f (t)
Consider the vector = ⋅
δt δt
δr f (t + δt) − f (t)
If lim = lim exists, then the value of this limit, which we shall
δt → 0 δt δt → 0 δt
dr
denote by , is called the derivative of the vector function r with respect to the scalar t.
dt
Symbolically
dr (r + δr) − r f (t + δt) − f (t)
= lim = lim ⋅
dt δ t → 0 δt δ t → 0 δt
dr δr
If exists, then r is said to be differentiable. Since is a vector quantity,
dt δt
dr
therefore is also a vector quantity.
dt
 V-32

dr d2 r
Successive Derivatives: If we differentiate again, we get 2 which is called
dt dt
the second derivative of r w.r.t. t , and so on.
Thus, we continue differentiating successively upto n times and get
dr d2 r d3 r d nr
, , , …… , ,
dt dt 2 dt 3 dt n
d nr
where is called the n th diff. coeff. (or derivative) of r w.r.t. t. (Here diff. coeff.
dt n
means differential coefficient.)
dr d2 r . ..
We often represent , 2
, …… by r , r, …… respectively.
dt dt
A scalar or vector function of t is called differentiable of order n if its n th order
derivative exists.

5 Differentiation Formulae
Theorem: If a, b and c are differentiable vector functions of a scalar t and φ is a
differentiable scalar function of the same variable t, then
d da db
1. (a + b) = +
dt dt dt
d db da
2. (a • b) = a • + •b
dt dt dt
d db da
3. (a × b) = a × + × b
dt dt dt
d da dφ
4. (φa) = φ + a
dt dt dt
d da db   dc
5. [a b c] =  b c + a c + a b 
dt 
 dt  
  dt     dt  (Meerut 2013B; Purvanchal 08)

d da  db × c + a ×  b × dc ⋅
6. {a × (b × c)} = × (b × c) + a ×
dt dt  dt   dt 
(Meerut 2000; Purvanchal 08)

d {( a + δa) + ( b + δb)} − (a + b)
Proof: 1. (a + b) = lim
dt δt → 0 δt
δa + δb  δa δb
= lim = lim  + 
δt → 0 δt δt → 0  δ t dt 
δa δb d a d b
= lim + lim = + ⋅
δt → 0 δ t δt → 0 dt dt dt
 V-33

Thus the derivative of the sum of two vectors is equal to the sum of their derivatives, as it is also
in Scalar Calculus.
d da d b
Similarly we can prove that (a – b) = − ⋅
dt dt dt
In general if r1 , r2 ,……, r n are vector functions of a scalar t, then
d dr dr dr
(r1 + r2 + …… + r n ) = 1 + 2 + …… + n ⋅
dt dt dt dt
d (a + δa) • ( b + δb) − a • b
2. (a • b) = lim
dt δt → 0 δt

= lim a • b + a • δb + δa • b + δa • δb − a • b
δt → 0 δt

= lim a • δb + δa • b + δa • δb
δt → 0 δt

= lim  a • δb + δa • b + δa • δb
 
δt → 0  δt δt δt 
lim a • δb + lim δa • b + lim δa • δb
=
δt → 0 δt δt → 0 δt δt → 0 δt
db da da
= a• + • b+ • 0, since δb → zero vector as δt → 0
dt dt dt
db da
= a• + •b
dt dt
d
Note: We know that a • b = b • a. Therefore while evaluating (a • b), we should
dt
not bother about the order of the factors.

d (a + δa) × ( b + δb) − a × b
3. (a × b) = lim
dt δt → 0 δt

= lim a × b + a × δb + δa × b + δa × δb − a × b
δt → 0 δt

= lim a × δb + δa × b + δa × δb
δt → 0 δt

lim  δb δa δa 
= a × + × b+ × δb
δt → 0  δt δt δt 

= lim a × δb + lim δa × b + lim δa × δb

δt → 0 δt δt → 0 δt δt → 0 δt
db da da
=a× + × b+ × 0 , since δb → zero vector as δt → 0
dt dt dt
db da db da
=a× + × b+ 0 = a × + × b.
dt dt dt dt
 V-34

Note: We know that cross product of two vectors is not commutative because
d
a × b = – b × a . Therefore while evaluating (a × b), we must maintain the order
dt
of the factors a and b .

d (φ + δφ)(a + δa) − φa
4. (φa) = lim
dt δt → 0 δt

= lim φa + φδa + δφa + δφδa − φa

δt → 0 δt

= lim φδa + δφa + δφδa

δt → 0 δt

= lim  φ δa + δφ a + δφ δa
 
δt → 0  δt δt δt 

= lim φ δa + lim δφ a + lim δφ δa

δt → 0 δt δt → 0 δt δt → 0 δt
da dφ dφ
=φ + a+ 0 , since δa → zero vector as δt → 0
dt dt dt
da dφ da dφ
=φ + a+0=φ + a.
dt dt dt dt
Note: φa is the multiplication of a vector by a scalar. In the case of such
multiplication we usually write the scalar in the first position and the vector in the
second position.
d d d da
5. [a b c] = {a • (b × c)} = a • ( b × c) + • ( b × c) [by rule (2)]
dt dt dt dt
dc db da
= a •  b × + × c + • ( b × c) [by rule (3)]
 dt dt  dt
dc db da
= a •  b ×  + a •  × c + • ( b × c)
 dt   dt  dt
dc db   da
= a b  + a c + bc 
 dt   dt   dt
  
da db   dc
= b c  + a c + a b ⋅
 dt   dt   dt 
Note: Here [abc] is the scalar triple product of three vectors a , band c. Therefore
d
while evaluating [abc] we must maintain the cyclic order of each factor.
dt
d d da
6. {a × (b × c)} = a × (b × c) + × (b × c) [by rule (3)]
dt dt dt
db dc da
= a ×  × c + b ×  + × (b × c)
 dt dt  dt
 V- 35

db dc da
= a ×  × c + a ×  b ×  + × (b × c)
 dt   dt  dt
da db dc
= × (b × c) + a ×  × c + a ×  b ×  ⋅
dt  dt   dt 

6 Derivative of a Function of a Function

Suppose r is a differentiable vector function of a scalar variable s and s is a
differentiable scalar function of another scalar variable [Link] r is a function of t.
An increment δt in t produces an increment δr in r and an increment δs in s. When
δt → 0, δr → 0 and δs → 0.
dr δr  δs δr 
We have = lim = lim  
dt δt → 0 δt δt → 0  δt δs 
 δs  lim δr  ds dr
=  lim    = ⋅
δt → 0 δt  δt → 0 δs  dt ds

7 Derivative of a Constant Vector

A vector is said to be constant only if both its magnitude and direction are fixed. If
either of these changes then the vector will change and thus it will not be constant.
Let r be a constant vector function of the scalar variable t. Let r = c , where c is a
constant vector. Then r + δr = c .
δr 0
∴ δr = 0 (zero vector). ∴ = = 0.
δt δt
lim δr = lim 0 = 0 . dr
∴ ∴ = 0 (zero vector).
δt → 0 δt δt → 0 dt
Thus the derivative of a constant vector is equal to the null vector.

8 Derivative of a Vector Function in Terms

of its Components
Let r be a vector function of the scalar variable t . (Avadh 2014)
Let r = xi + yj + zk where the components x , y , z are scalar functions of the
scalar variable t and i, j, k are fixed unit vectors.
We have r + δr = ( x + δx) i + ( y + δy) j + (z + δz ) k .
∴ δr = (r + δr) − r = δx i + δyj + δzk .
δr δx δy δz
∴ = i+ j+ k.
δt δt δt δt
δy
∴ lim δr = lim  δx i + j+
δz 
k ⋅

δt → 0 δt δt → 0  δt δt δt 
 V-36

dr dx dy dz
∴ = i+ j+ k.
dt dt dt dt
Thus in order to differentiate a vector we should differentiate its components.
Note: If r = xi + yj + zk , then sometimes we also write it as r = ( x, y, z ). In this
2
dr  dx dy dz  d 2 r  d2 x d y d2 z 
notation = , , , = , , 2 , and so on.
dt  dt dt dt  dt 2  dt 2 dt 2 dt 

Alternative Method:
We have r = xi + yj + zk , where i , j, k are constant vectors and so their
derivatives will be zero.
dr d d d d
Now, = ( xi + yj + zk ) = ( xi ) + ( yj) + (zk )
dt dt dt dt dt
dx di dy dj dz dk
= i+ x + j+ y + k +z
dt dt dt dt dt dt
dx dy dz di
= i+ j+ k , since , etc. vanish.
dt dt dt dt

9 Some Important Results

Theorem 1: The necessary and sufficient condition for the vector function a (t) to be
da
constant is that = 0.
dt (Purvanchal 2014)
Proof: The condition is necessary. Let a (t) be a constant vector function of
the scalar variable t . Then a (t + δt) = a (t). We have
da a (t + δt) − a (t) 0
= lim = lim = 0.
dt δt → 0 δt δt → 0 δt
Therefore the condition is necessary.
da
The condition is sufficient. Let = 0. Then to prove that a is a constant
dt
vector. Let
a (t) = a1 (t) i + a2 (t) j + a3 (t) k .
da da1 da da
Then = i + 2 j+ 3 k.
dt dt dt dt
da da 1 da da
Therefore = 0 gives, i + 2 j + 3 k = 0.
dt dt dt dt
Equating to zero the coefficients of i, j and k , we get
da1 da da
= 0, 2 = 0, 3 = 0.
dt dt dt
Hence a1 , a2 , a3 are constant scalars i. e., they are independent of t . Therefore a (t)
is a constant vector function.
 V-37

Theorem 2: If a is a differentiable vector function of the scalar variable t and if | a | = a,

then
d 2 da da da
(i) (a ) = 2a ; (ii) a • =a ⋅
dt dt dt dt
Proof: (i) We have a2 = a • a = (a) (a) cos 0 = a2 .
d 2 d 2 da
Therefore (a ) = (a ) = 2a ⋅
dt dt dt
d 2 d da da da
(ii) We have (a ) = (a • a) = •a+a• = 2a • ⋅
dt dt dt dt dt
d 2 d 2 da
Also (a ) = (a ) = 2a ⋅
dt dt dt
da da da da
∴ 2a • = 2a or a• =a ⋅
dt dt dt dt
da
Theorem 3: If a has constant length (fixed magnitude), then a and are
dt
da
perpendicular provided  ≠ 0.
 dt 
Proof: Let |a | = a = constant. Then a • a = a2 = constant.
d da da
∴ (a • a) = 0 or •a+a• =0
dt dt dt
da da
or 2a • =0 or a• = 0.
dt dt
da
Thus the scalar product of two vectors a and is zero.
dt
da da
Therefore a is perpendicular to provided is not null vector i. e., provided
dt dt
da ≠ 0.
dt
Thus the derivative of a vector of constant length is perpendicular to the vector provided the
vector itself is not constant.
Theorem 4: The necessary and sufficient condition for the vector a (t) to have constant
da
magnitude is a • = 0. (Meerut 2001, 04B, 06, 07, 11, 13; Avadh 13;
dt
Kashi 10, 12; Purvanchal 11)
Proof: Let a be a vector function of the scalar variable t . Let|a| = a = constant.
Then a • a = a2 = constant.
d da da
∴ (a • a) = 0 or a• + •a=0
dt dt dt
da da
or 2a • =0 or a• = 0.
dt dt
Therefore the condition is necessary.
 V-38

da
Condition is sufficient. If a • = 0, then
dt
da da d
a• + •a=0 or (a • a) = 0
dt dt dt
or a • a = constant or a2 = constant
or a2 = constant or |a | = constant
Theorem 5: If a is a differentiable vector function of the scalar variable t, then
d  da d2 a
 a ×  = a × ⋅
dt  dt  dt 2
Proof: We have
d  da da da d2 a d2 a
 a ×  = × +a× 2 =0+a× ,
dt  dt  dt dt dt dt 2
da d2 a
since the cross product of two equal vectors is zero = a × ⋅
dt dt 2
Theorem 6: The necessary and sufficient condition for the vector a (t) to have constant
da
direction is a × = 0.
dt (Meerut 2004B, 06, 07, 10, 11, 13B; Avadh 14)
Proof: Let a be a vector function of the scalar variable t . Let A be a unit vector in
the direction of a . If a be the magnitude of a , then a = aA .
da dA da
∴ =a + A.
dt dt dt
da dA da 
Hence a× = (a A) ×  a + A
dt  dt dt 
dA da
= a2 A × +a A×A
dt dt
dA
= a2 A × [ ∵ A × A = 0] …(1)
dt
The condition is necessary. Suppose a has a constant direction. Then A is a
constant vector because it has constant direction as well as constant magnitude.
dA
Therefore = 0.
dt
da
∴ From (1), we get a × = a2 A × 0 = 0.
dt
Therefore the condition is necessary.
da
The condition is sufficient. Suppose that a × = 0.
dt
Then from (1), we get
dA dA
a2 A × =0 or A× = 0. …(2)
dt dt
 V-39

dA
Since A is of constant length, therefore A • = 0. …(3)
dt
dA
From (2) and (3), we get = 0.
dt
Hence A is a constant vector i. e., the direction of a is constant.

10 Curves in Space
A curve in a three dimensional Euclidean space may be regarded as the intersection
of two surfaces represented by two equations of the form
F1 ( x, y, z ) = 0, F2 ( x, y, z ) = 0.
It can be easily seen that the parametric equations of the form
x = f1 (t), y = f 2 (t), z = f 3 (t)
where x , y , z are scalar functions of the scalar t, also represent a curve in three
dimensional space. Here ( x, y, z ) are the coordinates of a current point on the
curve. The scalar variable t may range over a set of values a ≤ t ≤ b .
In vector notation an equation of the form r = f (t), represents a curve in three
dimensional space if r is the position vector of a current point on the curve. As t
changes, r will give position vectors of different points on the curve. The vector f (t)
can be expressed as
f1 (t)i + f 2 (t) j + f 3 (t)k .
Also if ( x, y, z ) are the coordinates of a current point on the curve whose position
vector is r, then r = xi + yj + zk .
Therefore the single vector equation r = f (t)
i. e., xi + yj + zk = f1 (t)i + f 2 (t) j + f 3 (t)k
is equivalent to the three parametric equations
x = f1 (t), y = f 2 (t), z = f 3 (t).
Thus a curve in a space may be defined as the locus of a point whose coordinates may be
expressed as a function of a single parameter.
For example, the two equations
x2 y2 z
2
− 2
= 1, x = a cosh
a b a
specify a curve in three dimensional space. The parametric equations of this curve
are x = a cosh u, y = b sinh u, z = au.
And its vectorial equation is
r = a cosh u i + b sinh u j + au k .
The vector equation r = a cos ti + b sin tj + 0 k represents an ellipse, as for different
values of t, the end point of r describes an ellipse.
Similarly r = at 2 i + 2atj + 0 k is the vector equation of a parabola.
The terms skew, twisted or tortuous are often used for curves in a space.
 V-40

11 Geometrical Significance of dr / dt and Unit Tangent

Vector to a Curve
Geometrical Significance of dr / dt :
Let r = f (t) be the vector equation of a curve
in space. Let r and r + δr be the position
vectors of two neighbouring points P and Q
on this curve. Thus we have
→
OP = r = f (t)
→
and OQ = r + δr = f (t + δt).
→ → →
∴ PQ = OQ − OP
= (r + δr) − r= δr.
δr
Thus is a vector parallel to the chord PQ .
dt
As Q → P i. e., as δt → 0, chord PQ → tangent at P to the curve.

∴ lim δr = dr is a vector parallel to the tangent at P to the curve r = f (t).

δt → 0 δt dt
Unit tangent vector to a curve:
Suppose in place of the scalar parameter t , we take the parameter as s where s
denotes the arc length measured along the curve from any convenient fixed point C
on the curve. Thus arc CP = s and arc CQ = s + δs .
dr
In this case will be a vector along the tangent at P to the curve and in the
ds
direction of s increasing. Also we have
d r 
 = lim  δr |δr | chord PQ
    = lim = lim = 1.
 ds  δt → 0  δs  δt → 0 arc PQ Q → P arc PQ
dr
Thus is a unit vector along the tangent at P in the direction of s increasing. We
ds
denote it by t. Note that t always points in the direction of motion along the curve.

12 Application to Velocity and Acceleration

Velocity: If the scalar variable t be the time and r be the position vector of a
moving particle P with respect to the origin O, then δr is the displacement of the
particle in time δt .
δr
The vector is the average velocity of the particle during the interval δt . If v
δt
δr dr
represents the velocity vector of the particle at P, then v = lim = ⋅
δt → 0 δ t dt
 V-41

dr
Since is a vector along the tangent at P to the curve in which the particle is
dt
moving, therefore the direction of velocity is along the tangent.
δv
Acceleration: If δv be the change in the velocity v during the time δt , then is
δt
the average acceleration during that interval. If a represents the acceleration of the
particle at time t , then
2
δv dv d  dr  = d r ⋅
a = lim = =
δt → 0 δt dt dt  dt  dt 2

Example 1: If r = sin t i + cos t j + tk , find

dr d2 r
(i) , (Kashi 2013) (ii) ,
dt dt 2 (Meerut 2010B)
2
dr d r
(iii)  , (Kashi 2013) (iv)  2  .
dt dt  (Meerut 2009)
di
Solution: Since i , j , k are constant vectors, therefore = 0 etc. Therefore
dt
dr d d d
(i) = (sin t) i + (cos t) j + (t) k = cos t i − sin t j + k .
dt dt dt dt
d2 r d  dr  d d dk
(ii) =   = (cos t) i − (sin t) j +
dt 2 dt  dt  dt dt dt
= − sin t i − cos t j + 0 = − sin t i − cos t j.

(iii) dr = √ [(cos t)2 + (− sin t)2 + (1)2 ] = √ 2 .

dt
d2 r
(iv)   = √ [(− sin t)2 + (− cos t)2 ] = 1.
2
dt 
Example 2: If a, b are constant vectors, ω is a constant, and r is a vector function of the
scalar variable t given by r = cos ωt a + sin ωt b , show that
d2 r
(i) + ω2 r = 0
dt 2 (Rohilkhand 2006)
dr
(ii) r× = ωa × b .
dt (Bundelkhand 2004; Kanpur 05)
Solution: Since a, b are constant vectors, therefore
da db
= 0, = 0.
dt dt
 V-42

dr d d
(i) = (cos ωt) a + (sin ωt) b
dt dt dt
= − ω sin ωt a + ω cos ωt b .
2
d r
∴ = − ω 2 cos ωt a − ω 2 sin ωt b
dt 2
= − ω 2 (cos ωta + sin ωtb) = − ω 2 r.
d2 r
∴ 2
+ ω 2 r = 0.
dt
dr
(ii) r× = (cos ωta + sin ωt b) × (− ω sin ωta + ω cos ωtb)
dt
= ω cos 2 ωt a × b − ω sin2 ωt b × a [ ∵ a × a = 0, b × b = 0]
= ω cos 2 ωt a × b + ω sin2 ωt a × b
= ω (cos 2 ωt + sin2 ωt) a × b = ωa × b .
Example 3: If r = a cos t i + a sin t j + at tan α k , find
dr d2 r  dr d2 r d3 r 
 ×  and  , , 3⋅
dt dt 2   dt dt
2
dt  (Purvanchal 07, 10; Agra 14)
dr
Solution: We have = − a sin t i + a cos t j + a tan α k
dt
d2 r  dk 
dt 2
= − a cos t i − a sin t j ,  ∵ dt = 0

d3 r
= a sin t i − a cos t j .
dt 3
 i j k 
dr d2 r 
∴ × 2 = − a sin t a cos t a tan α 
dt dt  
 − a cos t − a sin t 0 

= a2 sin t tan α i − a2 cos t tan α j + a2 k .

dr d2 r
∴  ×  = √ (a4 sin2 t tan2 α + a4 cos 2 t tan2 α + a4 )
dt 2
 dt 
= a2 sec α.
 dr d2 r d3 r   dr d2 r  d3 r
Also  , 2
, = × 2 • 3
 dt dt dt 3   dt dt  dt
= (a2 sin t tan α i − a2 cos t tan α j + a2 k ) • (a sin t i − a cos t j)
= a3 sin2 t tan α i • i + a3 cos 2 t tan α j • j [∵ i • j = 0 etc.]
= a3 tan α (sin2 t + cos 2 t) [ ∵ i • i = 1 = j • j]
= a3 tan α.
 V-43

du dv d
Example 4: If = w × u, = w × v, show that (u × v) = w × (u × v).
dt dt dt
(Garhwal 2003; Bundelkhand 09)

Solution: We have
d du dv
(u × v) = × v+ u × = ( w × u) × v + u × ( w × v)
dt dt dt
= ( v • w) u − ( v • u) w + (u • v) w − (u • w) v
= ( v • w) u − (u • w) v [ ∵ u • v = v • u]
= (w • v) u – (w • u) v = w × (u × v).
Example 5: If R be a unit vector in the direction of r, prove that
dR 1 dr
R× = 2 r× , where r = | r |.
dt r dt (Bundelkhand 2008, 11)
1
Solution: We have r = rR ; so that R = r.
r
dR 1 dr 1 dr
∴ = − r.
dt r dt r 2 dt
dR 1 1 d r 1 dr 
Hence R× = r× − 2 r
dt r  r dt r dt 
1 dr 1 dr
= 2
r× − r×r
r dt r 3 dt
1 dr
= r× ⋅ [ ∵ r × r = 0]
r2 dt
Example 6: If r is a vector function of a scalar t and a is a constant vector, m a constant,
differentiate the following with respect to t :
(i) r • a , (ii) r × a ,
dr dr
(iii) r × , (iv) r • ,
dt dt
1 dr 2
(v) r 2 + 2 , (vi) m   ,
r  dt 
r+a r×a
(vii) 2 , (viii) ⋅
r + a2 r •a

Solution: (i) Let R = r • a. [Note that r • a is a scalar]

dR dr da
Then = •a+r •
dt dt dt
dr ∵ da
= •a+r •0 = 0, as a is constant 
dt  dt 
dr
= •a+0
dt
dr
= • a.
dt
 V-44

(ii) Let R = r × a .
dR dr da
Then = ×a+r×
dt dt dt
dr ∵ da
= ×a+r×0 = 0
dt  dt 
dr dr
= ×a+0= × a.
dt dt
dr
(iii) Let R = r × ⋅
dt

dR dr dr d2 r
Then = × +r× 2
dt dt dt dt
d2 r ∵ dr dr
=0+r× × = 0
dt 2  dt dt 
2
d r
=r× ⋅
dt 2
dr
(iv) Let R = r • ⋅
dt
dR dr dr d2 r
Then = • +r• 2
dt dt dt dt
2
dr d2 r
=   +r• ⋅
 dt  dt 2
1
(v) Let R = r2 + ⋅
r2
dR d 2 d  1
Then = (r ) +  
dt dt dt  r 2 
d 2 d  1
= (r ) +   , where r = | r |
dt dt  r 2 
dr 2 dr
= 2r − 3 ⋅
dt r dt
2
dr
(vi) Let R = m   ⋅
 dt 

dR d  dr  2
Then =m  
dt dt  dt 
dr d2 r  dr 2 dr 
=2m • Note : =2r • 
dt dt 2  dt dt 

dr d2 r
=2m • ⋅
dt dt 2
 V-45

r+a
(vii) Let R = ⋅
r 2 + a2

dR 1 d  d  1  
Then = 2 2
(r + a) +  
2
 (r + a)
2 
dt (r + a ) dt  dt  r + a  

[Note that r 2 + a2 is a scalar]

=
1  dr + da  −  1 d 2 
(r + a2 ) (r + a)
 dt 
r 2
+a 2 dt   (r + a ) dt
2 2 2

dr
2r•
1 dr dt (r + a)
= 2
− 2
r + a2 dt (r + a2 )2

 ∵ da = 0, d r 2 = 2r • dr , d a2 = 0
 dt dt dt dt 
r×a
(viii) Let R = ⋅
r •a

dR 1 d  d  1 
Then = (r × a) +     (r × a)
dt r • a dt  dt  r • a  
[Note that r • a is a scalar quantity]
1 d r d a   1 d 
=  ×a+r×  − 2
(r • a) (r × a)
r •a  dt dt   (r • a) dt 
dr
×a 
= dt

−
1  dr • a + r • da   (r × a)

r •a  (r • a)2  dt dt  
dr dr
×a •a
da
= dt − dt 2 (r × a). ∵ = 0
r •a (r • a)  dt 

Example 7: Find
d  dr d2 r  d2  dr d2 r 
(i) r, , 2; (ii) r, , ;
dt  dt dt  dt 2  dt dt 2 

d   dr d2 r  
(iii) r ×  × 2  ⋅
dt   dt dt   (Kumaun 2010)
 dr d r  2
Solution: (i) Let R = r, , 2  ⋅ Then R is the scalar triple product of three
 dt dt 
dr d2 r
vectors r, and 2 ⋅ Therefore using the rule for finding the derivative of a scalar
dt dt
triple product, we have
 V-46

dR  dr dr d2 r   d2 r d2 r   dr d3 r 
= , ,  + r, ,  + r, , 
dt  dt dt dt 2   dt 2 dt 2   dt dt 3 

 dr d3 r 
= r, , 3 ,
 dt dt 
since scalar triple products having two equal vectors vanish.
 dr d2 r 
(ii) Let R = r, , 2  ⋅ Then as in part (i)
 dt dt 
dR  dr d3 r 
= r, , ⋅
dt  dt dt 3 
Differentiating again, we get
d2 R  dr dr d3 r   d2 r d3 r   dr d4 r 
= , , 3  + r, 2 , 3  + r, , 
dt 2  dt dt dt   dt dt   dt dt 4 
 d2 r d3 r   dr d4 r 
= r, 2 , 3  + r, , ⋅
 dt dt   dt dt 4 
 dr d2 r 
(iii) Let R = r ×  × 2⋅
 dt dt 
Then R is the vector triple product of three vectors. Therefore using the rule for
finding the derivative of a vector triple product, we have

dR dr  dr d2 r   d2 r d2 r   dr d3 r 
= × × 2 +r × 2 × 2 +r × × 3
dt dt  dt dt   dt dt   dt dt 
dr  dr d2 r   dr d3 r 
= × × 2 +r × × 3 ,
dt  dt dt   dt dt 
d2 r d2 r
since × = 0 , being vector product of two equal vectors.
dt 2 dt 2

Example 8: If a = sin θ i + cos θ j + θk , b = cos θ i − sin θ j − 3k , and

d π
c = 2i + 3 j − 3k , find {a × ( b × c)} at θ = ⋅
dθ 2 (Kumaun 2010)
 i j k 
Solution: We have b × c = cos θ − sin θ − 3
 
 2 3 − 3

= (3 sin θ + 9) i + (3 cos θ − 6) j + (3 cos θ + 2 sin θ) k .

 i j k 
∴ a × (b × c) =  sin θ cos θ θ 
 
3 sin θ + 9 3 cos θ − 6 3 cos θ + 2 sin θ 
 V-47

= (3 cos 2 θ + 2 sin θ cos θ − 3θ cos θ + 6θ) i

+ (3θ sin θ + 9θ − 3 sin θ cos θ − 2 sin2 θ) j
+ (− 6 sin θ − 9 cos θ) k .
d
∴ {a × (b × c)} = (−6 cos θ sin θ + 2 cos 2 θ − 2 sin2 θ
dθ
− 3 cos θ + 3θ sin θ + 6) i + (3 sin θ + 3θ cos θ + 9
− 3 cos 2 θ + 3 sin2 θ − 4 sin θ cos θ) j
+ (−6 cos θ + 9 sin θ) k .
Putting θ = π / 2 , we get the required derivative
3
= 4 + π i + 15 j + 9k .
 2 
Example 9: A particle moves along the curve x = 4 cos t , y = 4 sin t , z = 6t . Find the
1
velocity and acceleration at time t = 0 and t = π . Find also the magnitudes of the velocity
2
and acceleration at any time t. (Bundelkhand 2007, 14)
Solution: Let r be the position vector of the particle at time t .
Then r = xi + yj + zk = 4 cos t i + 4 sin t j + 6t k . If v is the velocity of the
particle at time t and a its acceleration at that time, then
dr
v= = − 4 sin t i + 4 cos t j + 6k
dt
d2 r
and a = 2 = − 4 cos t i − 4 sin t j.
dt
Magnitude of the velocity at time t = | v|
= √ (16 sin2 t + 16 cos 2 t + 36) = √ (52) = 2 √ (13).
Magnitude of the acceleration = |a | = √ (16 cos 2 t + 16 sin2 t) = 4.
At t = 0, v = 4 j + 6 k , a = − 4 i.
1
At t = π , v = − 4 i + 6 k , a = − 4 j.
2

Ex am ple 10: A par ti cle moves along the curve x = t 3 + 1, y = t 2 , z = 2t + 5, where t

is the time. Find the com po nents of its ve loc ity and ac cel er a tion at t = 1in the di rec tion
i + j + 3k . (Purvanchal 2012)
Solution: If r is the position vector of any point ( x , y , z ) on the given curve, then
r = xi + yj + zk = (t 3 + 1) i + t 2 j + (2t + 5) k .
dr
Velocity = v = = 3t 2 i + 2tj + 2k = 3i + 2 j + 2k at t = 1.
dt
d2 r d  dr 
Acceleration = a = =   = 6ti + 2 j = 6i + 2 j at t = 1.
dt 2 dt  dt 
Now the unit vector in the given direction i + j + 3k
 V-48

i + j + 3k i + j + 3k
= = = b , say.
|i + j + 3k| √ (11)
∴ the component of velocity in the given direction
(3i + 2 j + 2k ) • (i + j + 3k ) 11
= v• b= = = √ (11);
√ (11) √ (11)
and the component of acceleration in the given direction
(6i + 2 j) • (i + j + 3k ) 8
= a • b= = ⋅
√ (11) √ (11)

Comprehensive Exercise 1

1. (i) If r is the position vector of a moving point and r is the modulus of r ,

dr dr dr dr
show that r • =r ⋅ Interpret the relations r • = 0 and r × = 0.
dt dt dt dt
(ii) If r × dr = 0, show that r$ = constant. (Garhwal 2001; Meerut 05B;
Purvanchal 12; Bundelkhand 12; Avadh 13)
dr d2 r
2. (i) If r = (t + 1) i + (t 2 + t + 1) j + (t 3 + t 2 + t + 1) k , find
and 2 ⋅
dt dt
2
(ii) If r = t i − t j + (2t + 1) k , find at t = 0, the values of
dr d2 r dr d2 r
, , ,  ⋅
dt dt 2 dt 2
dt  (Kanpur 2002; Bundelkhand 2010, 13)

3. Show that ^
r × d^
r = (r × d r) / r 2 , where r = r ^
r.
4. (i) The position vector of a moving particle at time t is given by
r = (3t − 4) i + (t 2 − 2) j + 4t 3 k. Find its velocity and acceleration at
time t = 2. (Kanpur 2005; Bundelkhand 13)
 1  dr
(ii) If r = t 3 i + 2t 3 − 2
j , show that r × = k.
 5t  dt (Agra 2007)

(iii) If r = (cos nt) i + (sin nt) j , where n is a constant and t varies, show that
dr
r× = nk . (Garhwal 2002)
dt
5. (i) If r = (sinh t) a + (cosh t) b, where a and b are constant vectors, then
d2 r
show that = r.
dt 2
(ii) If u = t 2 i − tj + (2t + 1) k and v = (2t − 3) i + j − tk , find
d
(u • v), when t = 1.
dt (Bundelkhand 2007)
 V-49

6. (i) If r = e n t a + e − n t b , where a , b are constant vectors, show that

d2 r
− n2 r = 0 . (Kumaun 2000; Rohilkhand 07; Agra 07; Kashi 14)
dt 2
(ii) Show that r = a e mt + b e nt , where a and b are the constant vectors, is the
d2 r dr
solution of the differential equation − (m + n) + mn r = 0.
dt 2 dt
Hence solve the equation
d2 r dr dr
− − 2r = 0, where r = i and = j for t = 0.
dt 2 dt dt
ct
(iii) If r = a sin ωt + b co s ωt + 2 sin ωt, prove that
ω
d2 r 2c
2
+ ω2 r = cos ωt,
dt ω
where a , b, c are constant vectors and ω is a constant scalar.
7. (i) A particle moves along the curve x = e − t , y = 2 cos 3t, z = 2 sin 3t.
Determine the velocity and acceleration at any time t and their
magnitudes at t = 0. (Bundelkhand 2005; Rohilkhand 08)
(ii) Show that if a , b, c are constant vectors, then r = at 2 + bt + c is the
path of a particle moving with constant acceleration.
8. A particle moves so that its position vector is given by r = cos ωt i + sin ωt j
where ω is a constant; show that
(i) the velocity of the particle is perpendicular to r,
(ii) the acceleration is directed towards the origin and has magnitude
proportional to the distance from the origin,
dr
(iii) r × is a constant vector.
dt
9. If A = 5t 2 i + t j − t 3 k and B = sin t i − cos t j , find
d d d
(i) (A • B) ; (ii) (A × B) ; (iii) (A • A). (Agra 2005)
dt dt dt
10. Prove the following :
2 2
d a • db − da • b = a • d b − d a • b
(i)
dt  dt dt  dt 2 dt 2
2 2
d a × db − da × b = a × d b − d a × b
(ii)
dt  dt dt  dt 2 dt 2
11. If r is a unit vector, then prove that
r × dr  = dr ⋅
 dt  dt (Purvanchal 2006)
 V-50

12. If r is a vector function of a scalar t, r its module, and a , b are constant vectors,
differentiate the following with respect to t :
dr
(i) r 3 r + a × , (ii) r 2 r + (a  r) b ,
dt
(iii) r n r , (iv) (ar + r b)2 .
13. Find the unit tangent vector to any point on the curve
x = a cos t , y = a sin t , z = bt .
14. If the direction of a differentiable vector function r (t) is constant, show that
 d r
r×  = 0. Or
 dt 
If r (t) is a vector of constant direction, show that its derivative is collinear
with it.
15. If e is the unit vector making an angle θ with x-axis, show that de / dθ is a unit
vector obtained by rotating e through a right angle in the direction of θ
increasing.

A nswers 1
2. (i) i + (2t + 1) j + (3t 2 + 2t + 1) k ; 2 j + (6t + 2) k
(ii) − j + 2k ; 2i; √ 5 ; 2
4. (i) V = 3 i + 4 j + 48 k , a = 2 j + 48 k
5. (i) r (ii) 6t 2 − 10 t − 2 ; − 6
7. (i) √ 37; √ (325)
9. (i) (5t 2 − 1) cos t + 11t sin t
(ii) t 2 (t sin t − 3 cos t) i − t 2 (t cos t + 3 sin t) j
− (11t cos t − 5t 2 sin t + sin t) k
(iii) 100 t 3 + 2 t + 6t 5
dr dr d2 r
12. (i) 3r 2 r+r3 +a ×
dt dt dt 2
dr dr  d r
(ii) 2 r r +r2 + a •  b
dt dt  dt 
dr  dr
(iii)  nr n−1
 r+r n
 dt  dt
 d r dr 
(iv) 2 (a r + r b) •  a + b
 dt dt 
1
13. (− a sin t i + a cos t j + b k)
√ (a + b 2 )
2
 V-51

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
d2 r
1. If r = a e ωt + b e − ωt , where a, b are constant vectors then 2 − ω 2 r is
dt
equal to
(a) 1 (b) 0
(c) 2 (d) none of these
(Bundelkhand 2001; Agra 06)
−t −t −t
2. A particle moves along the curve r = e cos t i + e sin t j + e k . The
magnitude of its velocity at t = 0 is
(a) 2 3 (b) 3 /2
(c) 3 (d) none of these
2
3. d r
If r = x i + y j + z k , then = …… .
dt 2
dx dy dz
(a) i x + j y + k z (b) i + j +k
dt dt dt
d2 x d2 y d2 z
(c) i + j +k (d) none of these
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2 (Kumaun 2011)

Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks “……”, so that the following statements are complete and correct.
dr d2 r
1. If r = 3i − 6t 2 j + 4t k , then = …… ; = …… .
dt dt 2 (Bundelkhand 2008)
d
2. If u = t 2 i − t j + (2t + 1) k , v = (2t − 3) i + j − t k , then (u • v) = …… .
dt
d2 r
3. If r = (cos ωt) i + (sin ωt) j , then r × 2 = …… .
dt
4. The necessary and sufficient condition for the vector a (t) to have constant
direction is ……
dr d2 r
5. If r = 5i + 3t 2 j + 2t k , then = …… ; = …… . (Bundelkhand 2010)
dt dt 2
d
6. (a • b) = …… .
dt (Kumaun 2009)
 V-52

True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.
1. A vector is said to be constant only if its magnitude is fixed and direction
changes.
2. The necessary and sufficient condition for the vector a (t) to have constant
da
magnitude is a • = 0.
dt

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c)

Fill in the Blank(s)

1. − 12 t j + 4 k ; − 12 j 2. 6t 2 − 10 t − 2 3. 0
da
4. a × =0 5. 6 t j + 2 k ;6 j
dt
db da
6. a • + •b
dt dt

True or False
1. F 2. T

¨
 V-53

3
G radient, D ivergence
and C url

1 Partial Derivatives of Vectors

uppose r is a vector depending on more than one scalar variable. Let
S r = f ( x, y, z ) i. e., let r be a function of three scalar variables x , y and z . The
partial derivative of r with respect to x is defined as
∂r f ( x + δx, y, z ) − f ( x, y, z )
= lim
∂x δx → 0 δx
if this limit exists. Thus ∂r / ∂x is nothing but the ordinary derivative of r with
respect to x provided the other variables y and z are regarded as constants.
∂r ∂r
Similarly we may define the partial derivatives and ⋅
∂y ∂z
Higher partial derivatives can also be defined as in Scalar Calculus. Thus, for
example,
∂2 r ∂  ∂r  ∂2 r ∂  ∂r  ∂2 r ∂  ∂r 
2
=   , 2
=   , 2
=  ,
∂x 
∂x ∂x  ∂y ∂y  ∂y  ∂z ∂z  ∂z 
∂2 r ∂  ∂r  ∂2 r ∂  ∂r 
=  , =  ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂x  ∂y  ∂y ∂x ∂y  ∂x 
 V-54

If r has continuous partial derivatives of the second order at least, then,

∂2 r ∂2 r
= i. e., the order of differentiation is immaterial. If r = f ( x, y, z ), the
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
∂r ∂r ∂r
total differential dr of r is given by dr = dx + dy + dz .
∂x ∂y ∂z

2 The Vector Differential Operator Del (∇ )

The vector differential operator ∇ (read as del or nabla) is defined as
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇≡ i+ j+ k ≡i + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
and operates distributively.
The vector operator ∇ can generally be treated to behave as an ordinary vector. It
∂ ∂ ∂
possesses properties like ordinary vectors. The symbols , , can be treated
∂x ∂y ∂z
as its components along i , j , k .

3 Gradient of a Scalar Field

(Agra 2005)
Definition: Let f ( x, y, z ) be defined and differentiable at each point ( x, y, z ) in a
certain region of space (i.e., defines a differentiable scalar field). Then the gradient of f, written
as ∇f or grad f, is defined as
∂ ∂ ∂  ∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f =  i + j+ k f = i+ j+ k.
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f ∂f
It should be noted that ∇f is a vector whose three successive components are ,
∂x ∂y
∂f
and ⋅ Thus the gradient of a scalar field defines a vector field. If f is a scalar point
∂z
function, then ∇f is a vector point function.

4 Formulas Involving Gradient

Theorem 1: Gradient of the sum of two scalar point functions. If f and g are
two scalar point functions, then
grad ( f + g) = grad f + grad g or ∇ ( f + g) = ∇f + ∇g .
Proof: We have
 ∂ ∂ ∂
grad ( f + g) = ∇ ( f + g) =  i + j +k  ( f + g)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 V-55

∂ ∂ ∂
=i ( f + g) + j ( f + g) + k ( f + g)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g
=i +i + j + j +k +k
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
 ∂f ∂f ∂f   ∂g ∂g ∂g 
= i + j +k  + i + j +k 
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z   ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z 
 ∂ ∂ ∂  ∂ ∂ ∂
= i + j +k  f + i + j +k  g
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
= ∇f + ∇g = grad f + grad g .
Similarly, we can prove that ∇ ( f − g) = ∇f − ∇g.
Theorem 2: Gradient of a constant. The necessary and sufficient condition for a
scalar point function to be constant is that ∇f = 0.
∂f ∂f ∂f
Proof: If f ( x, y, z ) is constant, then = 0, = 0, = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f
Therefore, grad f = i + j +k = 0 i + 0 j + 0 k = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Hence the condition is necessary.
∂f ∂f ∂f
Conversely, let grad f = 0. Then i + j +k = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f
Therefore, = 0, = 0, = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∴ f must be independent of x, y and z .
∴ f must be a constant. Hence the condition is sufficient.

Theorem 3: Gradient of the product of two scalar point functions.

If f and g are scalar point functions, then grad ( fg) = f grad g + g grad f
or ∇ ( fg) = f ∇g + g ∇f . (Kumaun 2014)
 ∂ ∂ ∂
Proof: We have ∇ ( fg) =  i + j +k  ( fg)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂ ∂ ∂
=i ( fg) + j ( fg) + k ( fg)
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂g ∂f   ∂g ∂f   ∂g ∂f 
=i f + g  + jf + g  +k f + g 
 ∂x ∂x   ∂y ∂y   ∂z ∂z 
 ∂g ∂g ∂g   ∂f ∂f ∂f 
= f i + j +k  + g i + j +k 
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z   ∂ x ∂ y ∂z 

= f ∇g + g ∇f = f grad g + g grad f .
In particular, if c is a constant, then
∇ (c f ) = c ∇f + f ∇c = c ∇f + 0 = c ∇f .
 V-56

Theorem 4: Gradient of the quotient of two scalar functions. If f and g are two
f  g ∇f − f ∇g
scalar point functions, then ∇   = ⋅
 g g2 (Kumaun 2013)
Proof: We have
f   ∂ ∂ ∂ f 
∇   = i + j +k   
 g   ∂x ∂y ∂z   g 

∂ f  ∂ f  ∂ f 
=i   + j   +k  ⋅
∂x  g  ∂y  g  ∂z  g 

∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g
g − f g − f
∂ f  ∂x ∂x , ∂ f  ∂y ∂y
But   =   = ,
∂x  g  g2 ∂y  g  g 2

∂f ∂g
f g − f
∂   ∂z ∂z ⋅
and   =
∂z  g  g2
f  1   ∂f ∂g   ∂f ∂g   ∂f ∂g  
∴ ∇   = 2  i g − f  + jg − f  + k g − f 
 g g   ∂x ∂x   ∂y ∂y   ∂z ∂z  

1   ∂f ∂f ∂f   ∂g ∂g ∂g 
= 2 
g i + j +k  − f i + j +k 
g   ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
1
= 2 { g ∇f − f ∇g }.
g

Example 1: If A = x 2 yz i − 2 xz 3 j + xz 2 k , B = 2zi + yj − x 2 k , find the value of

∂2
(A × B) at (1 , 0, − 2).
∂x ∂y
 i j k 
Solution: We have A × B =  x 2 yz −2 xz 3
xz 2 

 

2z y − x2 

= (2 x 3 z 3 − xyz 2 ) i + (2 xz 3 + x 4 yz ) j
+ ( x 2 y 2 z + 4 xz 4 ) k .
∂
∴ (A × B) = − xz 2 i + x 4 z j + 2 x 2 yzk .
∂y
∂2 ∂ ∂ 
Again (A × B) =  (A × B) = − z 2 i + 4 x 3 zj + 4 xyz k . …(1)
∂x ∂y ∂x  ∂y 
 V-57

Putting x = 1, y = 0 and z = − 2 in (1), we get the required derivative at the point

(1, 0, − 2) = − 4i − 8 j .

Example 2: If f ( x , y , z ) = 3 x 2 y − y 3 z 2 , find grad f at the point (1, − 2 , − 1).

(Rohilkhand 2009)
Solution: We have
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 2 3 2
grad f = ∇f =  i + j +k  (3 x y − y z )
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z 
∂ ∂
=i (3 x 2 y − y 3 z 2 ) + j (3 x 2 y − y 3 z 2 )
∂x ∂y
∂
+k (3 x 2 y − y 3 z 2 )
∂z
= i (6 xy) + j (3 x 2 − 3 y 2 z 2 ) + k (−2 y 3 z )
= 6 x y i + (3 x 2 − 3 y 2 z 2 ) j − 2 y 3 z k .
Putting x = 1, y = − 2 , z = − 1, we get
∇f = 6 (1) (−2) i + {3 (1)2 − 3 (−2)2 (−1)2 } j − 2 (−2)3 (−1) k
= − 12 i − 9 j − 16k .

Example 3: If r = | r | where r = xi + yj + zk , prove that

(i) ∇ f (r) = f ′ (r) ∇r , (Rohilkhand 2008; Meerut 11)
1
(ii) ∇r = r ,
r
(iii) ∇ f (r) × r = 0,
1 r
(iv) ∇   = − 3 , (Rohilkhand 2008, 09B)
 r r
r
(v) ∇ log | r | = 2 ,
r (Garhwal 2000; Kumaun 07; Rohilkhand 08;
Bundelkhand 08; Meerut 11)
n n−2
(vi) ∇r = nr r. (Rohilkhand 2008, 11; Bundelkhand 11)
Solution: If r = x i + y j + z k , then r = | r | = √ ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ).
∴ r 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2.
 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
(i) ∇f (r) =  i + j +k  f (r) = i f (r) + j f (r) + k f (r)
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z  ∂ x ∂ y ∂z
∂r ∂r ∂r  ∂r ∂r ∂r 
= i f ′ (r) + j f ′ (r) + k f ′ (r) = f ′ (r)  i + j +k 
∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂x ∂y ∂z 

= f ′ (r) ∇r .
∂r ∂r ∂r
(ii) We have ∇r = i + j +k ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂z
 V-58

Now r 2 = x2 + y2 + z 2 .
∂r ∂r x
∴ 2r = 2 x i. e., = ⋅
∂x ∂x r
∂r y ∂r z
Similarly, = and = ⋅
∂y r ∂z r
x y z 1 1 ∧
∴ ∇r = i+ j + k = ( xi + yj + zk ) = r = r .
r r r r r

(iii) We have as in part (i), ∇f (r) = f ′ (r) ∇r.

1
But as in part (ii), ∇r = r .
r
1
∴ ∇f (r) = f ′ (r) r .
r
1 1
∴ ∇f (r) × r =  f ′ (r) r × r =  f ′ (r) (r × r) = 0 .
 r  r 
[ ∵ r × r = 0]
1 ∂  1 ∂  1 ∂  1
(iv) We have ∇   = i   + j   +k  
 r ∂x  r  ∂y  r  ∂z  r 

 1 ∂r   1 ∂r   1 ∂r 
= i − 2  + j − 2  + k − 2 
 r ∂x   r ∂y   r ∂z 

1  ∂r ∂r ∂r 
=− 2
 i+ j+ k
r  ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z 

1 x y z  1 1
=− 2
 i+ j + k  = − 3 ( xi + yj + zk ) = − 3 r .
r r r r  r r
[see part (ii)]
(v) We have ∇ log |r | = ∇ log r
∂ ∂ ∂
=i log r + j log r + k log r
∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 x y z 
= i+ j+ k =  i+ j + k
r ∂x r ∂y r ∂z r r r r 
1 1
= ( xi + yj + zk ) = r.
r2 r2
∂ n ∂ n ∂ n
(vi) We have ∇r n = i r + j r +k r
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂r ∂r ∂r
= i nr n − 1 + j nr n − 1 + k nr n − 1
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂r ∂r ∂r 
= nr n − 1  i + j +k  = nr
n −1
∇r
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 V-59

1 ∵ ∇r = r as in part (ii)
= nr n − 1 r
r  r 
= nr n − 2 r .
Example 4: (i) Interpret the symbol a • ∇ (ii) Show that (a • ∇) φ = a • ∇ φ
(iii) Show that (a • ∇) r = a . (Kumaun 2008; Purvanchal 14)
Solution: (i) Let a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k . Then
 ∂ ∂ ∂
a • ∇ = (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k ) •  i + j +k 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂ ∂ ∂
= a1 + a2 + a3 ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂ ∂ ∂
(ii) (a • ∇) φ =  a1 + a2 + a3  φ.
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z
 ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ 
Also a • ∇φ = (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k ) •  i+ j+ k
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
= a1 + a2 + a3 ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂z
Hence (a • ∇) φ = a • ∇φ.
 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂r ∂r ∂r
(iii) (a • ∇) r =  a1 + a2 + a3  r = a1 + a2 + a3 ⋅
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z  ∂ x ∂ y ∂z
But r = xi + yj + zk .
∂r ∂r ∂r
∴ = i, = j, = k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∴ (a • ∇) r = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k = a .

Comprehensive Exercise 1

x y
1. If F = e i + ( x − 2 y) j + x sin y k , calculate
∂F ∂F ∂2 F
(i) , (ii) , (iii) ,
∂x ∂y ∂x 2
∂2 F ∂2 F
(iv) , (v) ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂y 2
2. If f = (2 x 2 y − x 4 ) i + (e xy − y sin x) j + x 2 cos y k , verify that
∂2 f ∂2 f
= ⋅
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
 V-60

2
3. If u = x y z i + x z j − y 3 k and v = x 3 i − x y z j + x 2 z k , calculate
∂2 u ∂2 v
× at the point (1, 1, 0).
∂y 2 ∂x 2
4. If φ ( x , y , z ) = x 2 y + y 2 x + z 2 , find ∇φ at the point (1, 1, 1).
5. Find grad f , where f is given by f = x 3 − y 3 + xz 2 , at the point (1, − 1, 2).
6. If φ ( x, y, z ) = xy 2 z and f = xzi − xyj + yz 2 k , show that
∂3
(φf ) at (2 , − 1, 1) is 4i + 2 j .
∂x 2 ∂z
7. If u = x + y + z , v = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , w = yz + zx + xy, prove that
(grad u) • [(grad v) × (grad w)] = 0. (Meerut 2007B)
 ∂f ∂f   ∂f ∂f   ∂f ∂f 
8. If F =  y −z  i + z − x  j + x − y  k , prove that
 ∂z ∂y   ∂x ∂z   ∂y ∂x 
(i) F = r × ∇f , (ii) F • r = 0, (iii) F • ∇f = 0 .
2 1 /2 −1 /3 −3 /2 −7 /3
9. If φ = (3r − 4r + 6r ), show that ∇φ = 2 (3 − r −r )r.
10. Prove that ∇φ • d r = dφ . (Meerut 2005, 06, 09B; Kumaun 08)
11. Prove that f (u) ∇u = ∇ ∫ f (u) du .
(Kumaun 2012, 13)
12. ρ and p are two scalar point functions such that ρ is a function of p; show
dρ
that ∇ρ = ∇p .
dp
dφ dr
13. Show that = ∇φ • , where r = x i + y j + z k and φ is a function of
ds ds
x , y and z .
1 A•r
14. Prove that A • ∇  =− 3 ⋅
 r  r (Meerut 2010)
−3 −5
15. Prove that ∇r = − 3r r. (Meerut 2009, 12)
16. Show that
(i) grad (r • a) = a , (Avadh 2010)
(ii) grad [r , a , b] = a × b ,
where a and b are constant vectors.

A nswers 1
x y x y
1. (i) ye i + j + sin y k (ii) xe i − 2 j + x cos y k
2 x y x y
(iii) y e i (iv) e ( x y + 1) i + cos y k
 V-61

x y
(v) x2 e i − x sin y k
3. − 36 j 4. 3i + 3 j + 2 k
5. 7i − 3 j + 4k

5 Equipotential Surfaces or Level Surfaces

Let f ( x , y , z ) be a scalar field over a region R .The points satisfying an equation of
the type
f ( x , y , z ) = c , (arbitrary constant )
constitute a family of surfaces in three dimensional space. The surfaces of this
family are called level surfaces. Any surface of this family is such that the value of
the function f at any point of it is the same. Therefore these surfaces are also called
iso-f-surfaces.

Theorem 1: Let f ( x , y , z ) be a scalar field over a region R . Then through any point of
R there passes one and only one level surface.
Proof: Let ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) be any point of the region R .
Then the level surface f ( x, y, z ) = f ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) passes through this point.
Now suppose the level surfaces f ( x , y , z ) = c1 and f ( x , y , z ) = c 2 pass through
the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ). Then
f ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) = c1 and f ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) = c 2 .
Since f ( x, y, z ) has a unique value at ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), therefore we have c1 = c 2 .
Hence only one level surface passes through the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ).
Theorem 2: ∇f is a vector normal to the surface f ( x , y , z ) = c where c is a constant.

Proof: Let r = xi + yj + zk be the position vector of any point P ( x , y , z ) on the

level surface f ( x, y, z ) = c . Let Q ( x + δx , y + δy , z + δz ) be a neighbouring point
on this surface.
Then the position vector of Q = r + δr = ( x + δx) i + ( y + δy) j + (z + δz ) k .
→
∴ PQ = (r + δr) − r = δr = δx i + δy j + δz k .
As Q → P , the line PQ tends to tangent at P to the level surface.
Therefore d r = dx i + dy j + dz k lies in the tangent plane to the surface at P .
From the differential calculus, we have
∂f ∂f ∂f
df = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂f ∂f ∂f 
= i + j +k  • (dx i + dy j + dz k ) = ∇f • d r.
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 V-62

Since f ( x , y , z ) = constant, therefore df = 0.

∴ ∇f • dr = 0 so that ∇f is a vector perpendicular to d r and therefore to the
tangent plane at P to the surface f ( x, y, z ) = c .
Hence ∇ f is a vector normal to the surface f ( x, y, z ) = c .
Thus if f ( x, y, z ) is a scalar field defined over a region R , then ∇f at any point
( x , y , z ) is a vector in the direction of normal at that point to the level surface
f ( x, y, z ) = c passing through that point.

6 Directional Derivative of a Scalar Point Function

Definition: Let f ( x, y, z ) define a scalar field in a region R and let P be any point in
this region. Suppose Q is a point in this region in the neighbourhood of P in the direction of a
∧
given unit vector a .
lim f (Q) − f ( P )
Then Q → P , if it exists, is called the directional derivative of f at P in the
PQ
∧
direction of a .

Interpretation of Directional Derivative: Let P be the point ( x , y , z ) and

let Q be the point ( x + δx, y + δy, z + δz ). Suppose PQ = δs . Then δs is a small
∧
element at P in the direction of a. If
δf = f ( x + δx , y + δy , z + δz ) − f ( x , y , z ) = f (Q) − f ( P ),
δf
then represents the average rate of change of f per unit distance in the direction
δs
∧ ∧
of a . Now the directional derivative of f at P in the direction of a is
lim f (Q) − f ( P ) = lim δf = df ⋅ It represents the rate of change of f with
Q→ P
PQ δ s → 0 δs ds
∧
respect to distance s at the point P in the direction of unit vector a .
Theorem 1: The directional derivative of a scalar field f at a point P ( x, y, z ) in the
∧ df ∧
direction of a unit vector a is given by = ∇ f • a.
ds
Proof: Let f ( x, y, z ) define a scalar field in the region R . Let r = xi + yj + zk
denote the position vector of any point P ( x, y, z ) in this region. If s denotes the
∧
distance of P from some fixed point A in the direction of a, then δs denotes small
∧ dr
element at P in the direction of a . Therefore is a unit vector at P in this
ds
dr ∧
direction i. e., = a.
ds
But r = x i + y j+ z k.
 V-63

dr dx dy dz ∧
∴ = i+ j+ k = a.
ds ds ds ds
∧  ∂f ∂f ∂f   dx dy dz 
Now ∇f • a =  i + j +k  • i + j+ k 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ds ds ds 
∂f dx ∂f dy ∂f dz d f
= + + =
dx ds dy ds dz ds ds
∧
= directional derivative of f at P in the direction of a .

Alternative Proof: Let Q be a point in the neighbourhood of P in the direction of

∧
the given unit vector a . If l, m, n are the direction cosines of the line PQ , then
∧
l i + m j + n k = the unit vector in the direction of PQ = a . Further if PQ = δs, then
the co-ordinates of Q are ( x + lδs, y + mδs, z + nδs). Now the directional derivative
∧
of f at P in the direction of a is
f (Q) − f ( P )
= lim
Q→ P PQ
f ( x + lδs , y + mδs , z + nδs) − f ( x , y , z )
= lim
δs → 0 δs

 ∂f ∂f ∂f 
f ( x , y , z ) +  lδs + mδ s + nδs  +… − f ( x , y , z )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
= lim ,
δs → 0 δs

on expanding by Taylor’s theorem

∂f ∂f ∂f
=l +m +n
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂f ∂f ∂f  ∧
= i+ j+ k  • (l i + m j + n k ) = ∇f • a .
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∧
Theorem 2: If n be a unit vector normal to the level surface f ( x , y , z ) = c at a point
∧
P ( x , y , z ) and n be the distance of P from some fixed point A in the direction of n so that δn
∧ df ∧
represents element of normal at P in the direction of n , then grad f = n.
dn
∂f ∂f ∂f
Proof: We have grad f = ∇f = i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∧
Also grad f is a vector normal to the surface f ( x , y , z ) = c . Since n is a unit vector
∧
normal to the surface f ( x , y , z ) = c , therefore let grad f = A n, where A is some
scalar to be determined.
 V-64

df ∧
Now = directional derivative of f in the direction of n
dn
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
= ∇f • n = A n • n = A. [∵ ∇ f = grad f = A n ]
df ∧
∴ grad f = ∇ f = n.
dn
∧ df
Note: If the vector n is in the direction of f increasing, then is positive.
dn
Therefore ∇f is a vector normal to the surface f ( x , y , z ) = c in the direction of f
increasing.
Theorem 3: Grad f is a vector in the direction of which the maximum value of the
df
directional derivative of f i.e., occurs.
ds
∧
Proof: The directional derivative of f in the direction of a is given by
df ∧  df ∧  ∧  df ∧ 
=∇ f •a=  n  •a ∵ ∇f = n
ds  dn   dn 
df ∧ ∧ df ∧ ∧
= (n • a ) = cos θ, where θ is the angle between a and n .
dn dn
df df
Now is fixed. Therefore cos θ is maximum when cos θ is maximum i. e., when
dn dn
∧ ∧ ∧
cos θ = 1 . But cos θ will be 1 when the angle between a and n is 0 i. e., when a is along
∧
the unit normal vector n .
Therefore the directional derivative is maximum along the normal to the surface.
df
Its maximum value is = = |grad f |.
dn

7 Tangent Plane and Normal to a Level Surface

Tangent plane to a surface: The tangent to any curve drawn on a surface is
called a tangent line to the surface. All the tangent lines to a surface at the point P lie
in a plane. This plane is called the tangent plane to the surface at the point P on it.
Normal to a surface: The normal to a surface at the point P is a straight line
passing through P and perpendicular to the tangent plane at P.
Angle between two surfaces: The angle between the two surfaces at a point P is
the angle between the normals to the two surfaces at that point.
Equations of the Tangent Plane and Normal to a Surface:
To find the equations of the tangent plane and normal to the surface
f ( x , y , z) = c .
Let f ( x , y , z ) = c be the equation of a level surface. Let r = x i + y j + z k be the
position vector of any point P ( x , y , z ) on this surface.
 V-65

∂f ∂f ∂f
Then ∇f = i+ k is a vector along the normal to the surface at P i. e.,∇f
j+
∂x ∂y ∂z
is perpendicular to the tangent plane at P .
Tangent plane at P: Let R = X i + Y j + Z k be the position vector of any
current point Q ( X , Y , Z ) on the tangent plane at P to the surface. The vector
→
PQ = R − r = ( X − x) i + (Y − y) j + (Z − z ) k
lies in the tangent plane at P . Therefore it is perpendicular to the vector ∇f .
∴ (R − r) • ∇f = 0
 ∂f ∂f ∂f 
or [( X − x) i + (Y − y) j + (Z − z ) k ] •  i+ j+ k = 0
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂z 
∂f ∂f ∂f
or ( X − x) + (Y − y) + (Z − z ) = 0, …(1)
∂x ∂y ∂z
is the equation of the tangent plane at P.
Normal at P: Let R = X i + Y j + Z k
be the position vector of any current point Q ( X , Y , Z ) on the normal at P to the
→
surface. The vector PQ = R − r = ( X − x) i + (Y − y) j + (Z − z ) k lies along the
normal at P to the surface. Therefore it is parallel to the vector ∇f .
∴ (R − r) × ∇f = 0 …(2)
is the vector equation of the normal at P to the given surface.
Cartesian form: The vectors
∂f ∂f ∂f
( X − x) i + (Y − y) j + (Z − z ) k and ∇ f = i+ j+ k,
∂x ∂y ∂z
will be parallel if
 ∂f ∂f ∂f 
( X − x) i + (Y − y) j + (Z − z ) k = p  i+ j+ k ,
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
where p is some scalar.
Equating the coefficients of i , j, k , we get
∂f ∂f ∂f
X − x= p ,Y − y = p ,Z − z = p
∂x ∂y ∂z
X − x Y − y Z −z
or = = …(3)
∂f ∂f ∂f
∂x ∂y ∂z
which are the equations of the normal at P.
 ∂F ∂F ∂F 
Note: The vector  , ,  is along the normal to the surface
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
F ( x, y, z ) = 0 at the point ( x, y, z ).
 V-66

Example 5: Find a unit normal vector to the level surface x 2 y + 2 xz = 4 at the point
(2 , − 2 , 3). (Kashi 2014)
2
Solution: The equation of the level surface is f ( x, y, z ) ≡ x y + 2 xz = 4.
The vector grad f is along the normal to the surface at the point ( x , y , z ).
We have grad f = ∇ ( x 2 y + 2 xz ) = (2 x y + 2z ) i + x 2 j + 2 x k .
∴ at the point (2 , − 2 , 3), grad f = − 2 i + 4 j + 4k .
∴ −2 i + 4 j + 4 k is a vector along the normal to the given surface at the point
(2 , − 2 , 3).
Hence a unit normal vector to the surface at this point
−2 i + 4 j + 4 k −2 i + 4 j + 4 k 1 2 2
= = = − i + j+ k.
|−2 i + 4 j + 4 k| √ (4 + 16 + 16) 3 3 3
 1 2 2  1 2 2
The vector −  − i + j + k  i. e., i − j − k is also a unit normal vector to
 3 3 3  3 3 3
the given surface at the point (2 , − 2 , 3).
Alternate Solution: The given surface is
φ ( x, y, z ) ≡ x 2 y + 2 xz − 4 = 0.
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
We have = 2 x y + 2z , = x2 , = 2z .
∂x ∂y ∂z
∴ At the point (2, − 2, 3), we have
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
= − 2, = 4, = 4.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∴ A vector along the normal to the given surface at the point (2, − 2, 3)
 ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
= , ,  = (− 2, 4, 4) or (− 1, 2, 2).
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

We have |(− 1, 2, 2)| = (− 1)2 + 22 + 22 = 3.

Hence, a unit normal vector to the given surface at the point (2, − 2, 3)
1 1 2 2
= (− 1, 2, 2) =  − , ,  ⋅
3  3 3 3

Example 6: Find the directional derivative of f ( x, y, z ) = x 2 yz + 4 xz 2 at the point

(1, − 2 , − 1) in the direction of the vector 2 i − j − 2 k .
(Bundelkhand 2007; Rohilkhand 11; Kashi 13; Agra 14)
Solution: We have f ( x, y, z ) = x 2 yz + 4 xz 2 .
∴ grad f = (2 xyz + 4z 2 ) i + x 2 zj + ( x 2 y + 8 xz ) k
= 8i − j − 10 k at the point (1, − 2 , − 1).
 V-67

∧
If a be the unit vector in the direction of the vector 2i − j − 2k , then
∧ 2i − j−2k 2 1 2
a= = i − j − k.
√ (4 + 1 + 4) 3 3 3
Therefore the required directional derivative is
df ∧  2 1 2 
= grad f • a = (8i − j − 10 k ) •  i − j − k 
ds  3 3 3 
16 1 20 37
= + + = ⋅
3 3 3 3
Since this is positive, f is increasing in this direction.
Example 7: Find the directional derivative of the function f = x 2 − y 2 + 2z 2 at the
point P (1, 2 , 3) in the direction of the line PQ where Q is the point (5, 0, 4).
(Purvanchal 2007; Kashi 14)
Solution: Here
∂f ∂f ∂f
grad f = i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 2 xi − 2 yj + 4zk = 2i − 4 j + 12k at the point (1, 2 , 3).
→
Also PQ = position vector of Q − position vector of P
= (5i + 0 j + 4k ) − (i + 2 j + 3k ) = 4i − 2 j + k .
∧ →
If a be the unit vector in the direction of the vector PQ , then
∧ 4i −2 j+ k 4i −2 j+ k
a= = ⋅
√ (16 + 4 + 1) √ (21)
∴ the required directional derivative
∧  4i − 2 j + k 
= (grad f ) • a = (2i − 4 j + 12 k ) •  
 √ (21) 
28 28 4
= = √ (21) = √ (21).
√ (21) 21 3

Example 8: In what direction from the point (1, 1, − 1) is the directional derivative of
2 2
f = x −2y + 4z 2 a maximum ? Also find the value of this maximum directional
derivative. (Kanpur 2008)
Solution: We have
grad f = 2 x i − 4 y j + 8z k
= 2 i − 4 j − 8 k at the point (1, 1, − 1).
The directional derivative of f is maximum in the direction of grad f
=2i −4 j−8k.
The maximum value of this directional derivative
= |grad f | = |2 i − 4 j − 8 k | = √ (4 + 16 + 64) = √ (84) = 2 √ (21).
 V-68

Example 9: What is the greatest rate of increase of u = xyz 2 at the point (1, 0 , 3) ?

Solution: We have ∇u = yz 2 i + xz 2 j + 2 xyz k .

∴ at the point (1, 0, 3), we have ∇u = 0 i + 9 j + 0 k = 9 j.
The greatest rate of increase of u at the point (1, 0, 3)
du
= the maximum value of at the point (1, 0, 3)
ds
= |∇u |, at the point (1, 0, 3) = | 9 j | = 9.

Example 10: Find the equations of the tangent plane and normal to the surface
2 xz 2 − 3 xy − 4 x = 7 at the point (1, − 1, 2).

Solution: The equation of the surface is

f ( x, y, z ) ≡ 2 xz 2 − 3 xy − 4 x = 7.
We have
grad f = (2z 2 − 3 y − 4) i − 3 x j + 4 x z k
= 7i − 3 j + 8k , at the point (1, − 1, 2).
∴ 7 i − 3 j + 8 k is a vector along the normal to the surface at the point (1, − 1, 2).
The position vector of the point (1, − 1, 2) is = r = i – j + 2k .
If R = X i + Y j + Z k is the position vector of any current point ( X , Y , Z ) on the
tangent plane at (1, − 1, 2), then the vector R − r is perpendicular to the vector
grad f .
∴ the equation of the tangent plane is (R − r) • grad f = 0
i. e., {( X i + Y j + Z k ) − (i − j + 2k )} • (7i − 3 j + 8k ) = 0
i. e., {( X − 1) i + (Y + 1) j + (Z − 2) k } • (7i − 3 j + 8k ) = 0
i. e., 7 ( X − 1) − 3 (Y + 1) + 8 (Z − 2) = 0.
The equations of the normal to the surface at the point (1, − 1, 2) are
X −1 Y +1 Z − 2 X −1 Y +1 Z − 2
= = i. e., = = ⋅
∂f ∂f ∂f 7 −3 8
∂x ∂y ∂z
Example 11: Find the equations of the tangent plane and normal to the surface xyz = 4 at
the point (1, 2 , 2). (Meerut 2000)

Solution: The equation of the surface is f ( x , y , z ) ≡ x y z − 4 = 0.

We have grad f = yz i + x z j + x y k = 4i + 2 j + 2k , at the point (1, 2 , 2).
∴ 4i + 2 j + 2k is a vector along the normal to the surface at the point (1, 2 , 2).
The position vector of the point (1, 2 , 2) is = r = i + 2 j + 2k .
If R = X i + Y j + Z k is the position vector of any current point ( X , Y , Z ) on the
tangent plane at (1, 2 , 2), the equation of the tangent plane is
(R − r) • grad f = 0,
 V-69

i. e., { ( X i + Y j + Z k ) − (i + 2 j + 2k )} • (4i + 2 j + 2k ) = 0
i. e., { ( X − 1) i + (Y − 2) j + (Z − 2) k} • (4i + 2 j + 2k ) = 0
i. e., 4 ( X − 1) + 2 (Y − 2) + 2 (Z − 2) = 0
i. e., 4 X + 2Y + 2 Z = 12 , i. e., 2 X + Y + Z = 6 .
The equations of the normal to the surface at the point (1, 2 , 2) are
X −1 Y − 2 Z − 2
= =
∂f ∂f ∂f
∂x ∂y ∂z
X −1 Y −2 Z −2 X −1 Y −2 Z −2
i. e., = = , i. e., = = ⋅
4 2 2 2 1 1
Example 12: Find the angle between the surfaces x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9, and
2 2
z = x + y − 3 at the point (2 , − 1, 2). (Meerut 2001)
Solution: Angle between two surfaces at a point is the angle between the normals
to the surfaces at that point. Let f1 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 and f 2 = x 2 + y 2 − z .
Then grad f1 = 2 x i + 2 y j + 2 z k and grad f 2 = 2 x i + 2 y j − k .
Let n1 = grad f1 at the point (2 , − 1, 2) and n 2 = grad f 2 at the point (2 , − 1, 2).
Then n1 = 4i − 2 j + 4k and n 2 = 4i − 2 j − k .
The vectors n1 and n 2 are along normals to the two surfaces at the point (2 , − 1, 2).
If θ is the angle between these vectors, then
n1 • n 2 = |n1||n 2| cos θ
or 16 + 4 − 4 = √ (16 + 4 + 16) √ (16 + 4 + 1) cos θ.
16 8
∴ cos θ = or θ = cos −1 ⋅
6 √ (21) 3 √ (21)

Comprehensive Exercise 2

1. (i) Find the gradient and the unit normal to the level surface
x 2 + y − z = 4 at the point (2 , 0, 0).
(ii) Find the unit normal to the surface z = x 2 + y 2 at the point
(−1, − 2 , 5).
2. (i) Find the unit vector normal to the surface x 2 − y 2 + z = 2 at the point
(1, − 1, 2).
(ii) Find the unit normal to the surface x 4 − 3 xyz + z 2 + 1 = 0 at the point
(1, 1, 1).
(iii) Find a unit normal vector to the surface x 2 y + 2 xz = 4 at the point
(2 , − 2 , 3).
 V-70

3. (i) Find the directional derivatives of a scalar point function f in the

direction of coordinate axes.
(ii) Find the directional derivative of φ = xy + yz + zx in the direction of
the vector i + 2 j + 2k at (1, 2 , 0). (Kumaun 2015)
(iii) Find the directional derivative of φ ( x , y , z ) = x 2 yz + 4 xz 2 at the
point (1, − 2 , 1) in the direction of 2 i − j − 2k .
(iv) Find the directional derivative of f ( x , y , z ) = x 2 − 2 y 2 + 4z 2 at the
point (1, 1, − 1) in the direction of 2 i + j − k .
(v) Find the directional derivative of the function f = xy + yz + zx in the
direction of the vector 2i + 3 j + 6k at the point (3 , 1, 2).
(vi) Find the directional derivative of the function xy 2 + yz 2 + zx 2 along
the tangent to the curve x = t , y = t 2 , z = t 3 at the point (1, 1, 1.
)
4. Find the directional derivatives of φ = x y z at the point (2 , 2 , 2), in the
directions (i) i , (ii) j , (iii) i + j + k .
5. For the function f = y / ( x 2 + y 2 ), find the value of the directional
derivative making an angle 30° with the positive x-axis at the point (0, 1).
6. (i) Find the greatest value of the directional derivative of the function
2 x 2 − y − z 4 at the point (2 , − 1, 1).
(ii) In what direction the directional derivative of φ = x 2 y 2 z from (1, 1, 2)
will be maximum and what is its magnitude ? Also find a unit normal
vector to the surface x 2 y 2 z = 2 at the point (1, 1, 2).
(iii) Find the maximum value of the directional derivative of φ = x 2 yz at
the point (1, 4 , 1).
(iv) Calculate the maximum rate of change and the corresponding
direction for the function φ = x 2 y 3 z 4 at the point 2i + 3 j − k .
(v) Find the values of the constants a, b, c so that the directional derivative
of φ = ax 2 + by 2 + c z 2 at (1, 1, 2) has a maximum magnitude 4 in
the direction parallel to y-axis.
7. Find the equation of the tangent plane to the surface yz − zx + x y + 5 = 0,
at the point (1, − 1, 2).
8. (i) Find the equations of the tangent plane and normal to the surface
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 25 at the point (4, 0, 3).
(ii) Given the curve x 2 + y 2 + z 2
= 1, x + y + z = 1 (intersection of two
surfaces), find the equations of the tangent line at the point (1, 0, 0).
(iii) Find the equations of the tangent plane and normal to the surface
z = x 2 + y 2 at the point (2 , − 1, 5).
 V-71

9. (i) Find the equations of the tangent plane and the normal to the surface
x 2 + 2 y 2 + 3z 2 = 12 at the point (1, 2 , − 1).
(ii) Find the equations of the tangent plane and the normal to the surface
xy + yz + z x = 1, at the point (2, 3, − 1).
(iii) Find the equations of the tangent plane and the normal to the surface
z = x 2 − 2 xy − y 2 at the point (1, 2 , − 7).
(iv) Find the equation of the tangent plane to the surface x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9
at (2 , − 1, 2).
(v) Find the equation of the tangent plane to the surface z = x 2 + y 2 at
the point (1, − 1, 2).
10. Show that the directional derivative of a scalar point function at any point
along any tangent line to the level surface at the point is zero.
11. If F and f are point functions, show that the components of the former,
tangential and normal to the level surface f = 0 are
∇f × (F × ∇f ) (F • ∇f ) ∇f
2
and ⋅
(∇f ) (∇f )2

12. Find the angle of intersection at (4, − 3, 2) of spheres x 2 + y 2 + z 2

= 29 and
2 2 2
x + y +z + 4 x − 6 y − 8z − 47 = 0.
13. Find the constants a and b so that the surface ax 2 − byz = (a + 2) x will be
orthogonal to the surface 4 x 2 y + z 3 = 4 at the point (1, − 1, 2).
14. Show that the sum of the squares of the intercepts on the coordinate axes
made by the tangent plane to the surface x 2 /3 + y 2 /3 + z 2 /3 = a2 /3 is
constant.

A nswers 2
1 − (2i + 4 j + k)
1. (i) 4i + j − k ; (4 i + j − k ) (ii)
3 √2 √ (21)
1 i − 3j − k 1 2 2
2. (i) (2 i + 2 j + k ) (ii) (iii)  − , , 
3 √ (11)  3 3 3
∂f ∂f ∂f
3. (i) , and in the directions of i , j and k
∂x ∂y ∂z
10 13 8
(ii) (iii) − (iv)
3 3 6
45 18
(v) (vi)
7 √ (14)
 V-72

4. (i) 4 (ii) 4 (iii) 4 3

5. −1 / 2
6. (i) 9
4i +4 j+ k
(ii) √ (33) in the direction of the vector 4 i + 4 j + k ;
√ (33)
(iii) 9
(iv) 324 √ 2 in the direction of the vector 108 (i + j − 4 k)
(v) a = 0, b = 2, c = 0
7. 3 X − 3Y + 2 Z = 10
x−4 y z −3
8. (i) 4 x + 3z = 25 ; = =
4 0 3
Y Z x−2 y +1 z −5
(ii) X = 1, = (iii) 4 x − 2 y − z = 5 ; = =
−1 1 4 −2 −1
x −1 y − 2 z +1
9. (i) x + 4 y − 3z = 12 ; = =
1 4 −3
x−2 y − 3 z +1
(ii) 2 x + y + 5z = 2 ; = =
2 1 5
x −1 y − 2 z + 7
(iii) 2 x + 6 y + z = 7; = =
2 6 1
(iv) 2 x − y + 2 z = 9 (v) 2 x − 2 y − z = 2
12. cos −1 √ (19 / 29) 13. a = 5 / 2, b = 1

8 Divergence of a Vector Point Function

(Agra 2005)
Definition: Let V be any given differentiable vector point function. Then the divergence of
V, written as, ∇ • V or div V,
 ∂ ∂ ∂
is defined as div V = ∇ • V =  i + j +k  •V
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂V ∂V ∂V ∂V
=i• + j• +k • = ∑i • ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
It should be noted that div V is a scalar quantity. Thus the divergence of a vector point
function is a scalar point function.

Theorem: If V = V1 i + V2 j + V3 k is a differentiable vector point function, then

∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V3
div V = + + ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂z

Proof: We have by definition

 V-73

∂V ∂V ∂V
div V = ∇ • V = i • + j• +k • ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂z
Now V = V1 i + V2 j + V3 k .
∂V ∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V3
∴ = i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
∂V  ∂V ∂V2 ∂V3  ∂V1
∴ i• =i • 1 i + j+ k = ⋅
∂x  ∂x ∂x ∂x  ∂x
∂V ∂V2 ∂V ∂V3
Similarly, j• = and k • = ⋅
∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V3
Hence, div V = + + ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂z
Solenoidal Vector: A vector V is said to be solenoidal if div V = 0.

9 Curl of a Vector Point Function

(Agra 2005)
Definition: Let f be any given differentiable vector point function. Then the curl or
rotation of f , written as ∇ × f , curl f or rot f is defined as
 ∂ ∂ ∂
curl f = ∇ × f =  i + j +k  ×f
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
=i× + j× +k × = ∑i × ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
It should be noted that curl f is a vector quantity. Thus the curl of a vector point function
is a vector point function.
Theorem: If f = f1 i + f 2 j + f 3 k is a differentiable vector point function, then
 ∂f ∂f   ∂f ∂f   ∂f ∂f 
curl f =  3 − 2  i +  1 − 3  j +  2 − 1  k .
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 
Proof: We have by definition
∂f ∂f ∂f
curl f = ∇ × f = i × + j× +k ×
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂
=i× ( f1 i + f 2 j + f 3 k ) + j × ( f1 i + f 2 j + f 3 k )
∂x ∂y
∂
+k× ( f1 i + f 2 j + f 3 k )
∂z
 ∂f ∂f ∂f   ∂f ∂f ∂f 
= i ×  1 i + 2 j + 3 k + j ×  1 i + 2 j + 3 k
 ∂x ∂x ∂x   ∂y ∂y ∂y 
 ∂f ∂f ∂f 
+ k ×  1 i + 2 j + 3 k
 ∂z ∂z ∂z 
 V-74

 ∂f ∂f   ∂f ∂f   ∂f ∂f 
=  2 k − 3 j +  − 1 k + 3 i +  1 j − 2 i
 ∂x ∂x   ∂y ∂y   ∂z ∂z 

 ∂f ∂f   ∂f ∂f   ∂f ∂f 
=  3 − 2  i +  1 − 3  j +  2 − 1 k.
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 

Note: It should be noted that the expression for curl f can be written immediately
if we treat the operator ∇ as a vector quantity. Thus
 ∂ ∂ ∂
Curl f = ∇ × f =  i + j +k  × ( f1 i + f 2 j + f 3 k )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂ 
= 
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
f f2 f3
 1 
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= ∂y ∂z i −
∂x ∂z 
 j + ∂x ∂y k
  
 f2 f 3  f1 f 3  f1 f 2

 ∂f ∂f   ∂f ∂f   ∂f ∂f 
=  3 − 2  i +  1 − 3  j +  2 − 1 k .
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 
But we must take care that in the expansion of the determinant the operators
∂ ∂ ∂
, , must precede the functions f1 , f 2 , f 3 .
∂x ∂y ∂z

Irrotational vector: A vector f is said to be irrotational if ∇ × f = 0.

10 The Laplacian Operator ∇ 2

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
The Laplacian operator ∇ 2 is defined as ∇ 2 ≡ + + ⋅
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
If f is a scalar point function, then ∇ 2 f = + + ⋅
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
It should be noted that ∇ 2 f is also a scalar quantity.

∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
If f is a vector point function, then ∇ 2 f = + + ⋅
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
It should be noted that ∇ 2 f is also a vector quantity.

Laplace’s equation: The equation ∇ 2 f = 0 is called Laplace’s equation. A function

which satisfies Laplace’s equation is called a harmonic function.
 V- 75

Example 13: Prove that div r = 3. (Kumaun 2000; Garhwal 01;

Bundelkhand 01, 04; Meerut 03, 04, 07B, 08;
Agra 08; Lucknow 05; Kanpur 13; Avadh 09; Purvanchal 11)
Solution: We have r = x i + y j + z k .
 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂r ∂r ∂r
By definition, div r = ∇ • r =  i + j +k  •r = i • + j• +k•
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z  ∂ x ∂ y ∂z
 ∂r ∂r ∂r 
= i •i + j• j + k •k ∵ =i, = j, = k
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
= 1 + 1 + 1 = 3.

Example 14: Prove that curl r = 0.

(Kumaun 2000; Garhwal 02; Meerut 11; Bundelkhand 06; Agra 08;
Avadh 09; Kashi 13; Purvanchal 11; Rohilkhand 14)
Solution: We have by definition
 ∂ ∂ ∂
curl r = ∇ × r =  i + j +k  ×r
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z
∂r ∂r ∂r
=i× + j× +k × ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂z
Now r = x i + y j + z k.
∂r ∂r ∂r
∴ =i, = j, = k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∴ curl r = i × i + j × j + k × k
= 0 + 0 + 0 = 0.

Example 15: If f = x 2 y i − 2 xz j + 2 yz k , find

(i) div f , (Kumaun 2008)
(ii) curl f , (Meerut 2012)
(iii) curl curl f . (Meerut 2001; Kanpur 14)
Solution: (i) We have
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 2
div f = ∇ • f =  i + j +k  • ( x y i − 2 xz j + 2 yz k )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂ 2 ∂ ∂
= ( x y) + (−2 xz ) + (2 yz )
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 2 xy + 0 + 2 y
= 2 y ( x + 1).
 V-76

 i j k
 ∂ ∂ ∂
(ii) We have curl f = ∇ × f =  
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
2 
2 yz
x y −2 xz 
∂ ∂   ∂ ∂ 2 
=  (2 yz ) − (−2 xz ) i −  (2 yz ) − ( x y) j
 ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂z 
∂ ∂ 2 
+  (− 2 xz ) − ( x y) k
 ∂x ∂y 
= (2z + 2 x) i − 0 j + (−2z − x 2 ) k
= (2 x + 2z ) i − ( x 2 + 2z ) k .
(iii) We have curl curl f = ∇ × ( ∇ × f ) = ∇ × [(2 x + 2z ) i − ( x 2 + 2z ) k ]
 i j k 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
= 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 
2 x + 2z 0 − x 2 − 2z

∂  ∂ ∂ 
=  (− x 2 − 2z ) i −  (− x 2 − 2z ) − (2 x + 2z ) j
 ∂ y   ∂ x ∂ z 
 ∂ 
+ 0 − (2 x + 2z ) k
 ∂y 
= 0 i − (−2 x − 2) j + (0 − 0) k = (2 x + 2) j.

Example 16: Determine the constant a so that the vector

V = ( x + 3 y) i + ( y − 2 z ) j + ( x + az ) k is solenoidal.
(Rohilkhand 2009B)
Solution: A vector V is said to be solenoidal if div V = 0.
∂ ∂ ∂
We have div V = ∇ • V = ( x + 3 y) + ( y − 2z ) + ( x + az )
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 1 + 1 + a = 2 + a.
Now div V = 0 if 2 + a = 0 i. e., if a = − 2.
Example 17: Show that the vector V = (sin y + z ) i + ( x cos y − z ) j + ( x − y) k is
irrotational.
Solution: A vector V is said to be irrotational if curl V = 0. We have
curl V = ∇ × V
 i j k 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
= 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 
sin y + z x cos y − z x− y
 
 V-77

∂ ∂  ∂ ∂ 
=  ( x − y) − ( x cos y − z ) i −  ( x − y) − (sin y + z ) j
 ∂ y ∂ z   ∂ x ∂ z 
∂ ∂ 
+  ( x cos y − z ) − (sin y + z ) k
 ∂x ∂y 
= (−1 + 1) i − (1 − 1) j + (cos y − cos y) k = 0.
∴ V is irrotational.

Example 18: Prove that ∇ • (r 3 r) = 6r 3 . (Purvanchal 2006, 10)

Solution: We have r = x i + y j + z k .
∴ r 3 r = r 3 ( x i + y j + z k ) = r 3 x i + r 3 y j + r 3 z k.
∴ ∇ • (r 3 r) = div (r 3 r)
∂ 3 ∂ 3 ∂ 3
= (r x) + (r y) + (r z )
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂r ∂r ∂r
= r 3 + 3r 2 x + r 3 + 3r 2 y + r 3 + 3r 2 z
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂r ∂r ∂r 
= 3r 3 + 3r 2  x + y +z  …(1)
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z
Now r 2 = x2 + y2 + z 2 .
∂r ∂r x
∴ 2r = 2 x or = ⋅
∂x ∂x r
∂r y ∂r z
Similarly = and = ⋅
∂y r ∂z r
 x y z
∴ from (1), ∇ • (r 3 r) = 3r 3 + 3r 2  x ⋅ + y ⋅ + z ⋅ 
 r r r
 x2 + y2 + z 2 
= 3r 3 + 3r 2  

 r 
r2
= 3r 3 + 3r 2 ⋅ = 3r 3 + 3r 3 = 6r 3 .
r
Example 19: If V is a constant vector, show that
(i) div V = 0, (Rohilkhand 2005; Purvanchal 14)
(ii) curl V = 0. (Purvanchal 2014; Kumaun 15)
Solution: (i) We have
∂V ∂V ∂V
div V = i • + j• +k •
∂x ∂y ∂z
= i • 0 + j • 0 + k • 0 = 0.

(ii) We have
 V-78

∂V ∂V ∂V
curl V = i × + j× +k ×
∂x ∂y ∂z
= i × 0 + j × 0 + k × 0 = 0.

Example 20: If a is a constant vector, find

(i) div (r × a) , (Bundelkhand 2006; Kumaun 07, 11)
(ii) curl (r × a). (Bundelkhand 2006; Kanpur 06; Kumaun 07;
Agra 08; Rohilkhand 14)
Solution: We have r = x i + y j + z k .

Let a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k . Then the scalars a1 , a2 , a3 are all constants.

We have
i j k
r × a = x y z
 
a1 a2 a3

= (a3 y − a2 z ) i + (a1 z − a3 x) j + (a2 x − a1 y) k .

∂ ∂ ∂
(i) div (r × a) = (a3 y − a2 z ) + (a1 z − a3 x) + (a3 x − a1 y)
∂x ∂y ∂z

= 0 + 0 + 0 = 0.
(ii) curl (r × a) = ∇ × (r × a)

 i j k 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
= 
 ∂ x ∂y ∂z 
 
a3 y − a2 z a1 z − a3 x a2 x − a1 y
 
∂ ∂ 
=  (a2 x − a1 y) − (a1 z − a3 x) i
 ∂y ∂z 
∂ ∂ 
−  (a2 x − a1 y) − (a3 y − a2 z ) j
 ∂ x ∂ z 

∂ ∂ 
+  (a1 z − a3 x) − (a3 y − a2 z ) k
 ∂x ∂y 
= − 2a1 i − 2a2 j − 2a3 k = − 2 (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k ) = − 2a .

Example 21: If V = e xyz (i + j + k), find curl V.

 i j k 
 
∂ ∂ ∂
Solution: We have curl V = 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 xyz 
e e xyz e xyz
 
 V-79

∂ ∂ xyz  ∂ ∂ xyz 
=  (e xyz ) − (e ) i −  (e xyz ) − (e ) j
 ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂z 
∂ ∂ xyz 
+  (e xyz ) − (e ) k
 ∂x ∂y 
= e xyz ( xz − x y) i + e xyz ( x y − yz ) j + e xyz ( yz − xz ) k .

Example 22: Evaluate div f where f = 2 x 2 z i − xy 2 z j + 3 y 2 x k .

Solution: We have
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 2 2 2
div f = ∇ • f =  i + j +k  • (2 x z i − xy z j + 3 y x k )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂ ∂ ∂
= (2 x 2 z ) + (− xy 2 z ) + (3 y 2 x)
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 4 xz − 2 xyz + 0 = 2 xz (2 − y).
Example 23: Show that ∇ 2 ( x / r 3 ) = 0. (Kumaun 2008)
2
 x ∂ ∂2 ∂2   x
Solution: ∇ 2  3  =  2 + 2 + 2   3⋅
 r   ∂x ∂y ∂z  r 

∂2  x  ∂  ∂  x  ∂ 1 3 x ∂r 
Now   =    =  − 4 
∂x 2  r 3  ∂x  ∂x  r 3   ∂x  r 3 r ∂x 
∂ 1 3 x x  2 2 2 2 ∂r x
= 
∂x  r 3
− 4 
r r ∵ r = x + y + z gives ∂x = r 

∂ 1 3 x2  3 ∂r 6 x 15 x 2 ∂r
=  3 − 5  =− 4 − + 6
∂x  r r  r ∂x r 5 r ∂x

3 x 6 x 15 x 2 x 9 x 15 x 3
=− − + = − + 7 ⋅
r4 r r5 r6 r r5 r
∂2  x  ∂  ∂  x  ∂  3 x ∂r 
Again 2   =   3  = − 
∂y  r  ∂y  ∂y  r   ∂y  r 4 ∂y 
3

∂  3x y   ∂r y 
= −  ∵ = 
∂y  r 4 r   ∂y r 
2
∂  3 xy  3 x 15 xy ∂r 3 x 15 x y
= − 5  = − 5 + = − + ⋅
∂y  r  r r 6 ∂y r5 r7
∂2  x  3 x 15 xz 2
Similarly   = − + ⋅
∂z 2  r 3  r5 r7
Therefore, adding we get
2
 x ∂ ∂2 ∂2   x
∇ 2  3  =  2 + 2 + 2   3
 r   ∂x ∂y ∂z  r 
 V-80

9x 15 x 3 3x 15 xy 2 3x 15 xz 2
=− + − + − +
r5 r7 r5 r7 r5 r7
15 x 15 x 15 x 15 x
=− 5
+ 7
(x2 + y2 + z 2 ) = − 5 + 7 r 2 = 0.
r r r r

Comprehensive Exercise 3

1. (i) If F = x 2 z i − 2 y 3 z 2 j + xy 2 z k , find div F, curl F at (1, − 1, 1).

(ii) If f = ( y 2 + z 2 − x 2 ) i + (z 2 + x 2 − y 2 ) j + ( x 2 + y 2 − z 2 ) k ,
find div f and curl f .
(iii) If f = xy 2 i + 2 x 2 yz j − 3 yz 2 k , find div f and curl f . What are
their values at the point (1, − 1, 1) ? (Rohilkhand 2005)
3 3 3
2. Find div F and curl F where F = grad ( x + y +z − 3 xyz ).
(Rohilkhand 2007)
3. Find the divergence and curl of the vector
f = ( x 2 − y 2 ) i + 2 xyj + ( y 2 − xy) k . (Bundelkhand 2004)
3 2 4
4. Given φ = 2 x y z , find div (grad φ).

5. If u = x 2 − y 2 + 4z , show that ∇ 2 u = 0.

6. If u = 3 x 2 y and v = xz 2 − 2 y, then find grad [(grad u) • (grad v)].

7. If f = ( x + y + 1) i + j + (− x − y) k , prove that f • curl f = 0.

8. (i) If f = f1 i + f 2 j + f 3 k , show that
∇ • f = ∇f1 • i + ∇f 2 • j + ∇f 3 • k . (Bundelkhand 2001)
3 3
(ii) Prove that ∇ • (r r) = 6 r .
9. Find the constants a, b, c so that the vector
F = ( x + 2 y + az ) i + (bx − 3 y − z ) j + (4 x + c y + 2 z ) k is irrotational.
(Bundelkhand 2005; Rohilkhand 08B)
10. Show that the vector F = 3 y 4 z 2 i + 4 x 3 z 2 j − 3 x 2 y 2 k is solenoid but not
irrotational . (Kashi 2014)

A nswers 3
1. (i) − 3 ; − 6i
(ii) − 2 ( x + y + z ) ; 2 ( y − z ) i + 2 (z − x) j + 2 ( x − y) k
 V-81

(iii) y 2 + 2 x 2 z − 6 yz ; 9 ; − (3z 2 + 2 x 2 y) i + (4 xyz − 2 xy) k; − i − 2k

2. 6 ( x + y + z ); 0 3. 4 x ; (2 y − x) i + y j + 4 y k
4. 12 xy 2 z 4 + 4 x 3 z 4 + 24 x 3 y 2 z 2
6. (6 yz 2 − 12 x) i + (6 xz 2 ) j + (12 xyz ) k
9. a = 4 , b = 2 , c = −1

11 Vector Identities
1. Prove that div (A + B) = div A + div B or ∇ • (A + B) = ∇ • A + ∇ • B .
Proof: We have
 ∂ ∂ ∂
div (A + B) = ∇ • (A + B) =  i + j +k  • (A + B)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂ ∂ ∂
=i• (A + B) + j • (A + B) + k • (A + B)
∂x ∂y ∂z

 ∂A ∂B   ∂A ∂B   ∂A ∂B 
=i • +  + j• +  +k • + 
 ∂x ∂x   ∂ y ∂ y   ∂z ∂z 
 ∂A ∂A ∂A   ∂B ∂B ∂B 
= i • + j• +k •  + i • + j• +k • 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 

= ∇ • A + ∇ • B = div A + div B .
2. Prove that curl (A + B) = curl A + curl B or ∇ × (A + B) = ∇ × A + ∇ × B .
(Rohilkhand 2008)

Proof: We have curl (A + B) = ∇ × (A + B)

 ∂ ∂ ∂
= i + j +k  × (A + B)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂  ∂A ∂B 
=Σi× (A + B) = Σ i ×  + 
∂x  ∂x ∂x 
∂A ∂B
=Σi× +Σi× = curl A + curl B .
∂x ∂x
3. If A is a differentiable vector function and φ is a differentiable scalar function, then
div (φA) = ( grad φ) • A + φ div A or ∇ • (φA) = (∇φ) • A + φ (∇ • A).
(Garhwal 2001; Agra 05; Kashi 14)
Proof: We have
 ∂ ∂ ∂
div (φA) = ∇ • (φA) =  i + j +k  • (φA)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 V-82

∂ ∂ ∂
=i• (φA) + j • (φA) + k • (φA)
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂    ∂φ ∂A  
= Σ  i •  (φA)  = Σ  i •  A+φ 
  ∂x    ∂x ∂x  
  ∂φ     ∂A  
= Σ i •  A  + Σ  i •  φ 
  ∂ x     ∂x  
  ∂φ
    ∂A  
= Σ  i • A + Σ  φ  i • 
  ∂x
    ∂x  
[ ∵ a • (mb) = (ma) • b = m (a • b)]
 ∂φ   ∂A 
= Σ i • A + φ Σ  i •  = (∇φ) • A + φ (∇ • A).
 ∂x   ∂x 
4. Prove that curl (φA) = ( grad φ) × A + φ curl A
or ∇ × (φA) = (∇φ) × A + φ (∇ × A).
(Garhwal 2002, 03; Bundelkhand 06)
 ∂ ∂ ∂
Proof: We have curl (φA) = ∇ × (φA) =  i + j +k  × (φA)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

 ∂    ∂φ ∂A  
= Σ i × (φA) = Σ  i ×  A+φ 
 ∂x    ∂x ∂x  
  ∂φ     ∂A  
= Σ i ×  A  + Σ  i ×  φ 
  ∂x     ∂x  
  ∂φ     ∂A  
= Σ  i × A + Σ  φ  i × 
  ∂x     ∂x  
[∵ a × (mb) = (ma) × b = m (a × b)]
  ∂φ    ∂A 
= Σ  i  × A + φ Σ  i ×  = (∇φ) × A + φ (∇ × A).
  ∂x    ∂x 
5. Prove that div (A × B) = B • curl A − A • curl B
or ∇ • (A × B) = B • (∇ × A) − A • (∇ × B).
(Garhwal 2003; Agra 05; Meerut 04, 05B, 08, 09;
Bundelkhand 05, 07; Kashi 13; Avadh 09)
Proof: We have
 ∂    ∂A ∂B 
div (A × B) = Σ  i • (A × B) = Σ  i •  ×B+A× 
 ∂x    ∂x ∂x 
  ∂A    ∂B  
= Σ i •  × B  + Σ  i •  A × 
  ∂x    ∂x  
 ∂A     ∂B 
= Σ  i ×  • B − Σ i •  × A 
 ∂x     ∂x 
[∵ a • (b × c) = (a × b) • c and a • (b × c) = – a • (c × b)]
 V-83

  ∂A    ∂B  
= Σ  i ×   • B − Σ  i ×  • A
  
∂x    ∂x  
  ∂B  
= (curl A) • B −  Σ  i ×  • A
  ∂x  
= (curl A) • B − (curl B) • A = B • curl A − A • curl B.
6. Prove that curl (A × B) = (B • ∇) A − B div A − (A • ∇) B + A div B.
(Garhwal 2001; Meerut 06B; Kumaun 09, 11, 12)
Proof: We have curl (A × B) = ∇ × (A × B)
 ∂    ∂B ∂A 
= Σ i × (A × B) = Σ  i ×  A × + × B 
 ∂x    ∂ x ∂ x 
  ∂B     ∂A 
= Σ i ×  A ×   + Σ i ×  × B 
  ∂ x     ∂ x 
 ∂B  ∂B   ∂A  ∂A  
= Σ  i •  A − (i • A)  + Σ (i • B) − i •  B
  ∂x  ∂x   ∂x  ∂x  
 ∂B    ∂B 
= Σ  i •  A  − Σ (A • i) 
  ∂x    ∂x 
 ∂A   ∂A  
+ Σ (B • i)  − Σ  i •  B
 ∂ x    ∂x  
  ∂B    ∂  ∂
= Σ  i •   A − A • Σ i  B + B • Σ i  A
  
∂x   ∂x   ∂x 
  ∂A  
− Σ  i •  B
  ∂x  
= (div B) A − (A • ∇) B + (B • ∇) A − (div A) B .

7. Prove that grad (A • B) = (B • ∇ ) A + (A • ∇) B + B × curl A + A × curl B .

(Agra 2001; Kumaun 15)

Proof: We have
∂  ∂B ∂A 
grad (A • B) = ∇ (A • B) = Σ i (A • B) = Σ i  A • + • B
∂x  ∂x ∂x 
 ∂B    ∂A  
= Σ  A •  i + Σ   B •  i ⋅ …(1)
  
∂x    ∂x  
Now we know that a × (b × c) = (a • c) b - (a • b) c .
∴ (a • b) c = (a • c) b - a × (b × c).
 ∂B  ∂B  ∂B 
∴ A •  i = (A • i) −A× × i
 ∂x  ∂x  ∂x 
∂B  ∂B 
= (A • i) + A × i × ⋅
∂x  ∂x 
 V-84

 ∂B    ∂B    ∂B  
Thus Σ  A •  i = Σ (A • i)  + Σ A ×  i × 
  
∂x   ∂x    ∂x  
 ∂  ∂B 
= A • Σ i  B + A × Σ  i × 
 ∂ x   ∂x 
= (A • ∇) B + A × (∇ × B). …(2)
 ∂A  
Similarly Σ  B •  i = (B • ∇) A + B × (∇ × A). …(3)
  ∂x  
Putting the values from (2) and (3) in (1), we get
grad (A • B) = (A • ∇ ) B + A × (∇ × B) + (B • ∇ ) A + B × (∇ × A).
Note: If we put A in place of B , then
grad (A • A) = 2 (A • ∇) A + 2A × (∇ × A)
1
or grad A2 = (A • ∇) A + A × curl A.
2

8. Prove that div grad φ = ∇ 2 φ i. e., ∇ • (∇φ) = ∇ 2 φ .

Proof: We have
 ∂ ∂ ∂   ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ 
∇ • (∇φ) =  i + j +k  • i+ j+ k
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 

∂  ∂φ ∂  ∂φ ∂  ∂φ

=   +   +  

∂x ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂z  ∂z 

∂2 φ ∂2 φ ∂2 φ  ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 
= + + =  2 + 2 + 2  φ = ∇ 2 φ.
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2  ∂x ∂y ∂z 

9. Prove that curl of the gradient of φ is zero i. e., ∇ × (∇φ) = 0 , i. e., curl grad φ = 0 .
(Bundelkhand 2014)
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
Proof: We have grad φ = i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∴ curl grad φ = ∇ × grad φ
 ∂ ∂ ∂   ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ 
= i + j +k  × i+ j+ k
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 

 
i j k
 
∂ ∂ ∂
= ∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
 ∂2 φ ∂2 φ   ∂2 φ ∂2 φ   ∂2 φ ∂2 φ 
= −  i+ −  j+  −  k
 ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂y   ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x 
 V-85

= 0 i + 0 j + 0 k = 0,
provided we suppose that φ has continuous second partial derivatives so that the
order of differentiation is immaterial.

10. Prove that div curl A = 0 , i. e., ∇ • (∇ × A) = 0.

(Garhwal 2000; Meerut 02, 06B, 09; Agra 2000;
Rohilkhand 05; Bundelkhand 08; Kumaun 14)
Proof: Let A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k . Then

 i j k 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
curl A = ∇ × A =  
 ∂x ∂y ∂y 
 A1 A2 A3 
 ∂A3 ∂A2   ∂A1 ∂A3   ∂A2 ∂A1 
=  −  i +  −  j+  −  k.
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 

Now div curl A = ∇ • (∇ × A)

∂  ∂A3 ∂A2  ∂  ∂A1 ∂A3  ∂  ∂A2 ∂A1 
=  −  +  −  +  − 
∂x  ∂y ∂z  ∂y  ∂z ∂x  ∂z  ∂x ∂y 

∂ 2 A3 ∂ 2 A2 ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A3 ∂ 2 A2 ∂ 2 A1
= − + − + −
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= 0 , assuming that A has continuous second partial derivatives.

11. Prove that ∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇ (∇ • A) − ∇ 2 A . (Meerut 2000, 07B, 10B;

Rohilkhand 14; Kumaun 10)
Proof: Let A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k .

 i j k 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
Then ∇ × A = 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 A1 A2 A3 
 ∂A3 ∂A2   ∂A1 ∂A3   ∂A2 ∂A1 
=  −  i +  −  j+  −  k.
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 

 
 i j k 
 
∂ ∂ ∂
∴ ∇ × (∇ × A) =  
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂A3 ∂A2 ∂A1 ∂A3 ∂A2 ∂A1 
 − − − 
 ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y 
 V-86

 ∂  ∂A2 ∂A1  ∂  ∂A1 ∂A3   

= Σ   −  −  −  i 
 ∂y  ∂x ∂y  ∂z  ∂z ∂x   

  ∂ 2 A ∂ 2 A3   ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A1   
 2
= Σ   +  − +  i 
  ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂x   ∂y 2 ∂z 2   
  

∂  ∂A2 ∂A3   ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A1   
= Σ   +  −  +  i 
 ∂x  ∂y ∂z   ∂y 2 ∂z 2   
  

∂  ∂A1 ∂A2 ∂A3   ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A1   
= Σ   + +  −  + +  i
 ∂x  ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2   
  
 ∂  
= Σ  (∇ • A) − (∇ 2 A1 ) i 
 ∂x  
 ∂  
= Σ  (∇ • A) i  − ∇ 2 Σ A1 i = ∇ (∇ • A) − ∇ 2 A.
 ∂x  

Example 24: Taking F = x 2 yi + xzj + 2 yzk , verify that div curl F = 0.

(Garhwal 2002; Bundelkhand 04; Kanpur 10)
 i j k 
∂ ∂ ∂ 
Solution: We have curl F =  
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
2 
2 yz
 y
x xz 
∂ ∂  ∂ ∂ 2 
=  (2 yz ) − ( xz ) i −  (2 yz ) − ( x y) j
 ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂z 
∂ ∂ 2 
+  ( xz ) − ( x y) k
 ∂x ∂y 
= (2z − x) i − 0 j + (z − x 2 ) k = (2z − x) i + (z − x 2 ) k .
Now div curl F = div [(2z − x) i + (z − x 2 ) k ]
∂ ∂
= (2z − x) + (z − x 2 ) = − 1 + 1 = 0.
∂x ∂z
Example 25: Prove that div (r n r) = (n + 3) r n . (Bundelkhand 2006)

Solution: We have
div (φA) = φ (div A) + A • grad φ .
Putting A = r and φ = r n in this identity, we get
 V- 87

div (r n r) = r n div r + r • grad r n

= 3r n + r • (n r n − 1 grad r)
[∵ div r = 3 and grad f (u) = f ′ (u) grad u]
1  ∧ 1 
= 3r n + r • n r n − 1 r  ∵ grad r = r = r
 
r   r 
= 3r n + n r n − 2 (r • r)
= 3 r n + n r n − 2 r2
= (n + 3) r n .
 r
Example 26: Prove that div  3  = 0.
r  (Bundelkhand 2010)
Solution: We have
 1 
div  3 r = div (r −3 r) = r −3 div r + r • grad r −3
r 
1
= 3r −3 + r • (−3r −4 grad r) = 3r −3 + r •  −3r −4 r
 r 
= 3r −3 − 3r −5 (r • r) = 3r −3 − 3r −5 r 2
= 3r −3 − 3r −3 = 0.
∴ the vector r −3 r is solenoidal.
∧
Example 27: Prove that div r = 2 / r. (Bundelkhand 2007; Kanpur 05)
∧ 1
Solution: div ( r ) = div  r ⋅ Now proceed as in Example 25.
r 
Alternative Method:
∧ 1 1
div r = div  r = div  ( x i + y j + z k )
r   r 
x y z  ∂  x ∂ y  ∂ z
= div  i + j + k =   +   +  
r r r  ∂x r  ∂y  r  ∂z  r 

1 x ∂r   1 y ∂r   1 z ∂r 
= − 2  + − 2  + − ⋅
 r r ∂x   r r ∂y   r r 2 ∂z 

Now r 2 = x2 + y2 + z 2 .
∂r ∂r x
∴ 2r = 2 x i. e., = ⋅
∂x ∂x r
∂r y ∂r z
Similarly = and = ⋅
∂y r ∂z r
∧ 3  x x y y z z
∴ div r= − 2 + 2 + 2 
r r r r r r r
 V-88

2 2 2
3 x + y +z 3 r2 3 1 2
= − = − = − = ⋅
r r3 r r3 r r r
2
Example 28: Prove that ∇ 2 f (r) = f ′ ′ (r) + f ′ (r).
r (Meerut 2003, 05, 06B)
Solution: We know that if φ is a scalar function, then ∇ 2 φ = ∇ • (∇φ).
∴ ∇ 2 f (r) = ∇ • {∇f (r)} = div { grad f (r) }
1
= div { f ′ (r) grad r} = div  f ′ (r) r
r 
1 1
= f ′ (r) div r + r • grad  f ′ (r)
r r 
3 d 1 
= f ′ (r) + r •   f ′ (r) grad r
r  dr  r  
3  1 1  1 
= f ′ (r) + r •  − 2 f ′ (r) + f ′ ′ (r) r
r  r r  r 
3 1  1 1 
= f ′ (r) +   − 2 f ′ (r) + f ′ ′ (r)  (r • r)
r r  r r 
3 1  1 1  2
= f ′ (r) +
 r  − 2 f ′ (r) + r f ′ ′ (r)  r
r   r 
3 1 2
= f ′ (r) − f ′ (r) + f ′ ′ (r) = f ′ ′ (r) + f ′ (r).
r r r
1 1
Example 29: Prove that ∇ 2   = 0 or div  grad  =0.
 r  r
( Agra 2002; Meerut 07, 13)

Solution: We have
1 1 1
∇ 2   = ∇ • ∇  = div  grad 
 r  r   r
 1   1 1   1 
= div  − 2 grad r = div − 2 r = div  − 3 r
 r   r r   r 
 1  1 3 d  1 
=  − 3  div r + r • grad − 3  = − 3 + r •   − 3  grad r
 r   r  r  dr  r  
3 3 1  3 3 3 3
=− 3
+r • 4 r = − 3 + 5 (r • r) = − 3 + 5 r 2 = 0 .
r  r r  r r r r
∴ 1 / r is a solution of Laplace’s equation.
Example 30: Prove that div grad r n = n (n + 1) r n − 2 , i. e., ∇ 2 r n = n (n + 1) r n − 2 .
(Bundelkhand 2005, 10; Meerut 2000, 08; Avadh 10; Agra 14)
Solution: We have ∇ 2 r n = ∇ • (∇r n ) = div (grad r n )
 V-89

1
= div (nr n − 1 grad r) = div  nr n − 1 r = div (nr n − 2 r)
 r 
= (nr n − 2 ) div r + r • (grad nr n − 2 )
= 3nr n − 2 + r • [n (n − 2) r n − 3 grad r]
1
= 3nr n − 2 + r • n (n − 2) r n − 3 r
 r 
= 3nr n − 2 + r • [n (n − 2) r n − 4 r] = 3nr n − 2 + n (n − 2) r n − 4 (r • r)
= 3nr n − 2 + n (n − 2) r n − 4 r 2 = nr n − 2 (3 + n − 2) = n (n + 1) r n − 2 .
Note: If n = − 1, then ∇ 2 (r −1
) = (−1)(−1 + 1) r −3 = 0.
  1  3
Example 31: Prove that ∇ •  r ∇  3  = 4 or, div [r grad r −3 ] = 3r −4 .
  r  r (Meerut 2009B)
 1
Solution: We have ∇  3  = grad r −3
r 
∂ −3 ∂ −3 ∂ −3
= (r ) i + (r ) j + (r ) k .
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ −3 ∂r
Now (r ) = − 3r − 4 ⋅
∂x ∂x
But r 2 = x2 + y2 + z 2 .
∂r ∂r x
Therefore 2r = 2x or = ⋅
∂x ∂x r
∂ −3 x
So (r ) = − 3r − 4 = − 3r −5 x .
∂x r
∂ −3 ∂ −3
Similarly (r ) = − 3r −5 y and (r ) = − 3r −5 z .
∂y ∂z
 1
Therefore ∇  3  = − 3r −5 ( x i + yj + zk ).
r 
 1
∴ r ∇  3  = − 3r − 4 ( xi + yj + zk ).
r 
 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∴ ∇ • r ∇ 3  = (−3r − 4 x) + (− 3r − 4 y) + (−3r − 4 z ).
 r  ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z
∂ ∂r
Now (−3r − 4 x) = 12r −5 x − 3r − 4
∂x ∂x
x
= 12r −5 x − 3r − 4 = 12r −6 x 2 − 3r − 4 .
r
∂
Similarly (−3r − 4 y) = 12r − 6 y 2 − 3r − 4
∂y
∂
and (−3r − 4 z ) = 12r − 6 z 2 − 3r − 4 .
∂z
 V-90

 1
Hence ∇ •  r ∇ 3  = 12 r − 6 ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) − 9r − 4
 r 
= 12 r −6 r 2 − 9r − 4 = 12 r − 4 − 9r − 4 = 3r − 4 .
Example 32: If a is a constant vector, prove that div { r n (a × r)} = 0.(Kanpur 2008)

Solution: We have div (φA) = φ div A + A • grad φ .

∴ div { r n (a × r) } = r n
div (a × r) + (a × r) • grad r n
= r n div (a × r) + (a × r) • (nr n − 1 grad r)
1
= r n (r • curl a − a • curl r) + (a × r) •  nr n −1 r
 r 
= r n (r • 0 – a • 0) + nr n − 2 (a × r) • r
[∵ curl of a constant vector is zero and curl r = 0 ]
n−2
= nr [a , r , r]
= 0 , since a sca lar triple product having two equal vec tors is zero.
Example 33: If a and b are constant vectors, prove that
(i) div [(r × a) × b] = − 2 b • a . (Bundelkhand 2010)
(ii) curl [(r × a) × b] = b × a . (Bundelkhand 2010)
Solution: (i) We have (r × a) × b = ( b • r) a − ( b • a) r .
∴ div [(r × a) × b] = div [( b • r) a − ( b • a) r]
= div [( b • r) a] − div [( b • a) r] …(1)
But div (φA) = φ div A + A • grad φ .
Taking φ = b • r and A = a , we get
div [( b • r) a] = ( b • r) div a + a • grad ( b • r).
Since a is a constant vector, therefore div a = 0 .
Also let b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k .
Then b • r = (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k ) • ( xi + yj + zk )
= b1 x + b2 y + b3 z , where b1 , b2 , b3 are constants.
∴ grad ( b • r) = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k = b .
∴ div [( b • r) a] = a • b . …(2)
Again div [( b • a)] r = ( b • a) div r + r • grad ( b • a).
But div r = 3.
Also grad ( b • a) = 0 because b • a is constant.
∴ div [( b • a) r] = 3 ( b • a). …(3)
Substituting the values from (2) and (3) in (1), we get
div [(r × a) × b] = (a • b) − 3 ( b • a) = − 2 b • a .
(ii) curl [(r × a) × b] = curl [( b • r) a − ( b • a) r]
= curl [( b • r) a] − curl [( b • a) r].
 V-91

But curl (φA) = grad φ × A + φ curl A .

∴ curl [( b • r ) a] = [ grad ( b • r )] × a + ( b • r ) curl a = b × a
[∵ curl a = 0 and grad ( b • r ) = b]
Also curl [( b • a ) r ] = [ grad ( b • a )] × r + ( b • a ) curl r = 0
[∵ grad ( b • a ) = 0 and curl r = 0]
∴ curl [( r × a ) × b] = b × a – 0 = b × a .
Example 34: Prove that curl [r × (a × r)] = 3r × a , where a is a constant vector.
(Purvanchal 2009)
Solution: curl [r × (a × r)]
= ∇ × [(r • r) a − (r • a) r] [∵ a × ( b × c) = (a • c) b − (a • b) c]
2
= ∇ × [r a − (r • a) r] [∵ r • r = r 2 = r 2 ]
= ∇ × (r 2 a) − ∇ × [(r • a) r] [∵ ∇ × (A + B) = ∇ × A + ∇ × B]
= (∇r 2 ) × a + r 2 (∇ × a) − [∇ (r • a)] × r − (r • a) (∇ × r)
[∵ ∇ × (φA) = (∇φ) × A + φ (∇ × A)]
2
= (2r ∇r) × a + r 0 − [∇ (r • a)] × r − (r • a) 0
[∵ ∇f (r) = f ′ (r) ∇r ; ∇ × a = 0, a
being a constant vector ; and ∇ × r = 0]
1
= 2r r × a − [∇ (r • a)] × r
 r 
= 2r × a − a × r [∵ ∇ (r • a) = a, if a is a constant vector]
= 2r × a + r × a = 3r × a.

Example 35: If a is a constant vector, prove that

a×r a 3r
curl 3 = − 3 + 5 (a • r).
r r r (Meerut 2009B; Bundelkhand 09, 11)
a×r  a × r  ∂  a × r
Solution: We have curl 3
= ∇ ×  3  = Σ i ×  3  ⋅
r  r   ∂x  r 

∂  a × r 3 ∂r 1  ∂r  1  ∂a 
Now   =− 4 (a × r) + 3  a ×  + 3  × r …(1)
∂x  r 3  r ∂ x r  ∂ x  r  ∂ x 
∂a
Now = 0 because a is a constant vector.
∂x
∂r
Also r = x i + y j+ z k. ∴ =i.
∂x
∂r x
Further = ⋅
∂x r
∂  a × r 3 x 1
∴ (1) becomes   =− 4 (a × r) + 3 (a × i)
∂x  r 3  r r r
 V-92

3x 1
=− (a × r) + (a × i).
r5 r3
∂  a × r 3x 1
∴ i×   = − 5 i × (a × r) + 3 i × (a × i)
∂x  r 3  r r
3x 1
= − 5 [(i • r) a – (i • a) r] + 3 [(i • i) a − (i • a) i]
r r
3x 3x 1 1
= − 5 xa + 5 a1 r + 3 a − 3 a1 i
r r r r
[∵ i • r = x and i • a = a1 if a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k ]

3 x2 3 1 1
=− 5
a+ 5
a1 xr + 3
a− a1 i .
r r r r3
 ∂  a × r
∴ Σ i ×  
 ∂ x  r3 
 3  3  3 1
=  − 5 Σ x 2  a +  5 Σ a1 x r + 3 a − 3 Σ a1 i
 r  r  r r
3 2 3 3 1
= − 5 r a + 5 (r • a) r + 3 a − 3 a
r r r r
[∵ Σ x 2 = r 2 , Σ a1 x = r • a , Σ a1 i = a]
a 3
=− 3
+ (a • r) r .
r r5

Comprehensive Exercise 4

1. (i) Verify that curl grad f = 0 , where f = x 2 y + 2 xy + z 2 .

(ii) Prove that grad f (u) = f ′(u) grad u.
2
+ y 2 + z 2 )1 /2
(iii) Find ∇φ and |∇φ| when φ = ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) e − ( x .
(Kumaun 2012)
2. (i) Prove that curl (ψ∇φ) = ∇ψ × ∇φ = − curl (φ∇ψ).
(ii) Prove that ∇ 2 (φψ) = φ∇ 2 ψ + 2∇φ • ∇ψ + ψ∇ 2 φ. (Kumaun 2014)
(iii) Prove that div (∇φ × ∇ψ) = 0.
(iv) If A and B are irrotational, prove that A × B is solenoidal.
(v) Prove that curl (φ grad φ) = 0.
3. (i) Prove that a • {∇( v • a) − ∇ × ( v × a)} = div v, where a is a constant
unit vector.
(ii) Prove that vector f (r) r is irrotational.
(iii) If f and g are two scalar point functions, prove that
div ( f ∇ g) = f ∇ 2 g + ∇f • ∇g.
 V-93

(iv) Show that curl (a • r) a = 0 , where a is a constant vector.

(Kumaun 2007, 09)
[ Hint: Use identity 4. Note that ∇ (a • r) = a , if a is a constant vector.]
4. If a is a constant vector, then prove that
(i) ∇ (a • u) = (a • ∇) u + a × curl u,
(ii) ∇ • (a × u) = − a • curl u,
(iii) ∇ × (a × u) = a div u − (a • ∇) u ,

5. (i) Given that ρ F = ∇p, where ρ, p, F are point functions, prove that
F • curl F = 0.
(ii) A vector function f is the product of a scalar function and the gradient
of a scalar function. Show that f • curl f = 0.
1
(iii) Show that curl a φ (r) = φ′ (r) r × a , where a is a constant vector.
r
n n n−2
6. (i) Prove that curl [r (a × r)] = (n + 2) r a − nr (r • a) r,
where a is a constant vector. (Kumaun 2008)
2 n n−2
(ii) Prove that ∇ (r r) = n (n + 3) r r.
n
7. (i) Prove that curl grad r = 0. (Avadh 2010; Kanpur 11)
c1
(ii) If ∇ 2 f (r) = 0 , show that f (r) = + c2 ,
r
where r 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
and c1 , c 2 are arbitrary constants.

8. If r is the position vector of the point ( x , y , z ) show that curl (r n r) = 0, where

r is the module of r.
9. Prove that r n r is an irrotational vector for any value of n but is solenoidal
only if n + 3 = 0.
10. (i) If u = (1 / r) r, show that ∇ × u = 0. (Avadh 2010)
(ii) Prove that div (A × r) = r • curl A .
11. (i) If ∇ 2 f (r) = 0 show that f (r) = c1 log r + c 2 where r 2 = x 2 + y 2 and
c1 , c 2 are arbitrary constants.
(ii) If a and b are constant vectors, then show that ∇ • (a • br) = 3a • b .
12. If u = (1 / r) r find grad (div u).
  r 
13. (i) Prove that ∇ 2 ∇ •  2   = 2r − 4 .
  r  (Kumaun 2011, 13)
1 a•r
(ii) Prove that a • ∇  = − 3 ⋅
 r r

(iii) Prove that ∇ • (U ∇V − V ∇U ) = U ∇ 2 V − V ∇ 2 U.

 V-94

1 3 (a • r) (b • r) a • b
(iv) Prove that b • ∇ a • ∇  = − ,
 r r5 r3
where a and b are constant vectors. (Kumaun 2015)
14. Evaluate div {a × (r × a)}, where a is a constant vector. (Kanpur 2007)
 f (r) r  1 d 2
15. (i) Prove that div   = (r f ).
 r  r 2 dr (Kumaun 2007, 14)
1 2
(ii) Prove that ∇ a = (a • ∇) a + a × curl a .
2
16. Prove that curl [r × (a × r)] = 3r × a , where a is a constant vector.
17. Prove that ∇ × (F × r) = 2F − (∇ • F) r + (r • ∇) F. (Kumaun 2015)
18. If a and b are constant vectors, prove that
grad [(r × a) • (r × b)] = (b × r) × a + (a × r) × b. (Kumaun 2015)

A nswers 4
2
1. (iii) (2 − r) e − r r ; (2 − r) e − r r 12. − r
r3
14. 2 a2

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. If the vector V = ( x + 3 y) i + ( y − 2z ) j + ( x + az ) k is solenoidal, then the
constant a is
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) –2 (d) 2
2. The directional derivative of φ ( x, y, z ) = x 2 yz + 4 xz 2 at (1, − 2 , − 1) in the
direction of the vector 2 i − j − 2 k is
(a) 37/3 (b) 3/37
(c) 3 (d) none of these
3. If r = |r | where r = x i + y j + z k , then ∇ 2 r n
=
n n −1
(a) n (n + 1) r (b) n (n + 1) r
n−2
(c) n (n + 1) r (d) none of these (Agra 2007)
 V-95

1
4. ∇ 2   =
 r
(a) −2 / r 3 (b) 0
3
(c) 2 / r (d) none of these
(Kumaun 2014)
5. If r = xi + yj + zk and a is a constant vector, then curl (r × a) is
(a) − a (b) − 3a
(c) − 2 a (d) none of these
^
6. The value of div r is
(a) 2 / r (b) 0
(c) 1 / r (d) none of these (Agra 2014)
7. The V is a constant vector, then div V is :
(a) 3 (b) 3V
(c) 0 (d) none of these
(Kumaun 2007, 11)
2
8. If f = x yi − 2 xzj + 2 yzk , then div f is equal to
(a) 2 x ( x + 1) (b) 2 y ( x + 1)
(c) y ( y + 1) (d) none of these
(Kumaun 2008)
9. ∇ × (∇ f ) is equal to
(a) ∇ 2 f (b) 0
(c) 0 (d) none of these
(Kumaun 2010)

Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks “……”, so that the following statements are complete and correct.
1. If F = ( x 2 + y 2 ) i − 2 xy j , then F • dr = …… .
∂P
2. If P = e xy i + ( x − 2 y) j + ( x sin y) k , then = …… .
∂x
3. If a is a constant vector then grad (a • r) = …… .
(Rohilkhand 2007; Kumaun 12)
4. If a is a constant vector, then ∇ • (a × r) = …… .
5. If r = xi + yj + zk , then the value of div r = …… .
(Agra 2008; Kumaun 15)
2 3 2 2
6. If A = x zi − 2 y z j + xy zk , then div A at (1, − 1, 1) = …… .
7. If r = xi + yj + zk , then the value of curl r = …… .
(Agra 2008; Rohilkhand 14)
 V-96

8. For any vector A, div curl A = …… .

9. A vector V is said to be solenoidal if …… . (Rohilkhand 2005; Agra 06)
10. A vector F is said to be irrotational if …… .
11. If φ = x 2 y + 2 xy + z 2 , then curl grad φ = …… . (Bundelkhand 2007)
12. If f = x 2 yi + 2 xzj + 2 yzk , then div (curl f ) = …… . (Kumaun 2010, 12)
13. Value of div grad φ is …… . (Kumaun 2011)
14. If a is a constant vector, then curl (r × a) = ...... . (Kumaun 2013)

True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.
1. If r = xi + yj + zk , then r is solenoidal.
2. If V is a constant vector, then div V = 0. (Rohilkhand 2005)
2 2
3. If F = 2 xyz i + y zj − 2 yz k , then F is irrotational.
4. If φ is a differentiable scalar function, then curl grad φ = 0.
5. If φ is a differentiable scalar function then div grad φ = ∇ 2 φ .
6. ∇ • (A × B) = A • (∇ × B) − B • (∇ × A).
7. A function which satisfies Laplace’s equation is called a harmonic function.

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (c)
4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (a)
7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (b)

Fill in the Blank(s)

1. ( x 2 + y 2 ) dx − 2 xydy 2. y e xy i + j + sin y k 3. a
4. 0 5. 3 6. –3
7. 0 8. 0 9. div V = 0
10. curl F = 0 11. 0 12. 0
13. ∇ 2 φ 14. −2a

True or False
1. F 2. T 3. F
4. T 5. T 6. F
7. T

¨
 V-97

I ntegration of V ectors

1 Integration of Vector Functions

e shall define integration as the reverse process of differentiation. Let f (t) and F (t)
W be two vector functions of the scalar t such that
d
F (t) = f (t).
dt
Then F (t) is called the indefinite integral of f (t) with respect to t and symbolically
we write
∫ f (t) dt = F (t). …(1)
The function f (t) to be integrated is called the integrand.
If c is any arbitrary constant vector independent of t, then
d
{F (t) + c } = f (t).
dt
This is equivalent to
∫ f (t) dt = F (t) + c . …(2)
From (2) it is obvious that the integral F (t) of f (t) is indefinite to the extent of an
additive arbitrary constant c .Therefore F (t) is called the indefinite integral of f (t).
 V-98

The constant vector c is called the constant of integration. It can be determined if we

are given some initial conditions.
d
If F (t) = f (t) for all t in the interval [a , b], then the definite integral between the
dt
limits t = a and t = b can, in such case, be written as
b b d  b
∫ a f (t) dt = ∫ a  dt F (t) dt = [F (t) + c] a = F (b) − F (a).
Theorem: If f (t) = f1 (t) i + f 2 (t) j + f 3 (t) k , then

∫ f (t) dt = i ∫ f1 (t) dt + j ∫ f 2 (t) dt + k ∫ f 3 (t) dt.

d
Proof: Let F (t) = f (t). …(1)
dt
Then ∫ f (t) dt = F (t). …(2)
Let F (t) = F1 (t) i + F2 (t) j + F3 (t) k .
Then from (1), we have
d
{ F1 (t) i + F2 (t) j + F3 (t) k } = f (t)
dt

or  d F (t) i +  d F (t) j +  d F (t) k

 1   2   3 
 dt   dt   dt 
= f1 (t) i + f 2 (t) j + f 3 (t) k .
Equating the coefficients of i , j, k , we get
d d d
F1 (t) = f1 (t), F2 (t) = f 2 (t), F3 (t) = f 3 (t).
dt dt dt
∴ F1 (t) = ∫ f1 (t) dt, F2 (t) = ∫ f 2 (t) dt, F3 (t) = ∫ f 3 (t) dt.
∴ F (t) = {∫ f1 (t) dt} i + {∫ f 2 (t) dt} j + {∫ f 3 (t) dt} k .

So from (2), we get

∫ f (t) dt = i ∫ f1 (t) dt + j ∫ f 2 (t) dt + k ∫ f 3 (t) dt .

Note: From this theorem we conclude that the definition of the integral of a
vector function implies the definition of integrals of three scalar functions which
are the components of that vector function. Thus in order to integrate a vector
function we should integrate its components.

2 Some Standard Results

We have already obtained some standard results for differentiation. With the help
of these results we can obtain some standard results for integration.
d dr ds
1. We have (r • s) = •s+r • ⋅
dt dt dt
 V-99

Therefore  dr • s + r • ds  dt = r • s + c ,
∫  dt dt 
where c is the constant of integration. It should be noted that c is here a scalar
quantity since the integrand is also scalar.
d 2 dr 2 r • dr  dt = r 2 + c .
2. We have (r ) = 2r • ⋅ Therefore ∫
dt dt  dt 
Here the constant of integration c is a scalar quantity.
2
d  dr  dr d2 r
3. We have =2 • ⋅
dt  dt  dt dt 2
 dr d2 r  dr 2
Therefore we have ∫ 2 • 2  dt =   + c .
 dt dt   dt 

Here the constant of integration c is a scalar quantity.

2
Also  dr dr dr
• = ⋅
 dt  dt dt
d  dr dr dr d2 r d2 r
4. We have  r ×  = × +r× 2 =r× 2 ⋅
dt  dt  dt dt dt dt
 2
d r dr
∴ ∫  r × dt 2  dt = r × dt + c .
Here the constant of integration c is a vector quantity since the integrand
d2 r
r × 2 is also a vector quantity.
dt
5. If a is a constant vector, we have
d da dr dr
(a × r) = ×r+a× =a× ⋅
dt dt dt dt
dr
Therefore ∫  a ×  dt = a × r + c .
 dt 
Here the constant of integration c is a vector quantity.

6. If r = |r | and ^
r is a unit vector in the direction of r, then
d ^ d 1  1 d r 1 dr
(r)=  r = − 2 r.
dt 
dt r  r dt r dt
 1 dr 1 dr 
Therefore ∫  − r dt = ^
r + c.
 r dt r 2 dt 
7. If c is a constant scalar and r a vector function of a scalar t ,then obviously
∫ cr dt = c ∫ r dt .
8. If r and s are two vector functions of the scalar t , then obviously

∫ (r + s) dt = ∫ r dt + ∫ s dt.
 V-100

2 d2 r
Example 1: Evaluate ∫ r× dt, where r = 2t 2 i + t j − 3t 3 k .
1 dt 2
(Bundelkhand 2004; Kumaun 08; Kanpur 13)

Solution: Given r = 2t 2 i + t j − 3t 3 k .
dr d2 r
∴ = 4t i + j − 9t 2 k and = 4i + 0 j − 18tk .
dt dt 2
d2 r
∴ r× = (2t 2 i + tj − 3t 3 k ) × (4i + 0 j − 18tk )
dt 2
 i j k 
= 2t 2 t − 3t  3

 

4 0 −18t 

= − 18t 2 i − (− 36t 3 + 12t 3 ) j − 4t k

= − 18 t 2 i + 24t 3 j − 4tk.
2 d2 r 2
∴ ∫1 r× 2
dt = ∫1 (−18t 2 i + 24t 3 j − 4tk ) dt
dt
2 2 2
= − 18i ∫1 t 2 dt + 24 j ∫ t 3 dt − 4k ∫ t dt
1 1
2 2 2
 t3   t4   t2 
= − 18i   + 24 j   − 4k  
 3 1  4 1  2 1
= − 6 (8 − 1) i + 6 (16 − 1) j − 2 (4 − 1) k
= − 42i + 90 j − 6k .
d2 r
Example 2: Find the value of r satisfying the equation = ta + b, where a and b are
dt 2
constant vectors.
d2 r dr 1 2
Solution: Integrating the equation 2
= ta + b, we get = t a + tb + c, where
dt dt 2
c is constant.
Again integrating, we get
1 1
r = t 3 + t 2 b + tc + d , where d is constant.
6 2
Example 3: If r (t) = 5t 2 i + tj − t 3 k , prove that
2  d2 r 
∫1  r × 2  dt = − 14i + 75 j − 15k .
 dt  (Kumaun 2000; Meerut 01, 04, 05, 07, 10, 10B;
Kanpur 10; Rohilkhand 13)
 V-101

 d2 r  dr
Solution: We have ∫  r × 2  dt = r × + c.
 dt  dt
2  d2 r  dr 2
∴ ∫1  r × 2  dt = r ×  ⋅
 dt   dt 1
dr dr
Let us now find r × ⋅ We have = 10 t i + j − 3t 2 k .
dt dt
dr
∴ r× = (5t 2 i + t j − t 3 k ) × (10 t i + j − 3t 2 k )
dt
 i j k 
 2 
= 5t t − t 3 = − 2t 3 i + 5t 4 j − 5t 2 k .

 

10 t 1 − 3 t 2
 
2  d2 r  2
∴ ∫1  dt 
[
 r × 2  dt = −2t 3 i + 5t 4 j − 5t 2 k ]1

2 2 2
[
= − 2t 3 ] 1 [ ]
i + 5t 4
1 [ ]
j − 5t 2
1
k

= − 14i + 75 j − 15k.
 2i − j + 2k , when t = 2
Example 4: Given that r (t) = 
 4i − 2 j + 3k , when t = 3,

show that ∫
3  r • dr  dt = 10.
2  dt  (Meerut 2003, 13B; Bundelkhand 08;
Kanpur 09, 11; Agra 06; Avadh 10; Purvanchal 13)
3
Solution: We have  r • dr  dt =  1 r 2  ⋅
∫  dt  2  2

When t = 3, r = 4i − 2 j + 3k .
∴ when t = 3, r 2 = (4i − 2 j + 3k ) • (4i − 2 j + 3k ) = 16 + 4 + 9 = 29.
When t = 2 , r = 2i − j + 2k .
∴ when t = 2 , r 2 = 4 + 1 + 4 = 9.

∴
3  r • dr  dt = 1 [29 − 9] = 10.
∫2  dt  2
Example 5: The acceleration of a particle at any time t ≥ 0 is given by
dv
a= = 12 cos 2t i − 8 sin 2t j + 16 t k .
dt
If the velocity v and displacement r are zero at t = 0, find v and r at any time.
(Agra 2007)
dv
Solution: We have = 12 cos 2t i − 8 sin 2t j + 16t k .
dt
Integrating, we get
 V-102

v = i ∫ 12 cos 2t dt + j ∫ −8 sin 2t dt + k ∫ 16t dt

or v = 6 sin 2t i + 4 cos 2t j + 8t 2 k + c.
When t = 0, v = 0.
∴ 0 = 0 i + 4 j + 0 k + c or c = − 4 j.
dr
∴ v= = 6 sin 2t i + (4 cos 2t − 4) j + 8t 2 k .
dt
Integrating, we get
2
r = i ∫ 6 sin 2t dt + j ∫ (4 cos 2t − 4) dt + k ∫ 8t dt
8 3
= − 3 cos 2t i + (2 sin 2t − 4t) j + t k + d,
3
where d is constant.
When t = 0, r = 0.
∴ 0 = − 3i + 0 j + 0 k + d . ∴ d = 3i .
8 3
∴ r = − 3 cos 2t i + (2 sin 2t − 4t) j + t k + 3i
3
8
= (3 − 3 cos 2t) i + (2 sin 2t − 4t) j + t 3 k .
3

Comprehensive Exercise 1

2
1. If f (t) = (t − t 2 ) i + 2 t 3 j − 3k , find (i) ∫ f (t) dt (ii) ∫1 f (t) dt.
1
2. Evaluate ∫ e t i + e −2 t j + t k) dt . (Garhwal 2001, 02)
0
1
3. If f (t) = t i + (t 2 − 2 t) j + (3t 2 + 3t 3 ) k , find ∫ f (t) dt.
0

(Garhwal 2003; Bundelkhand 07)

2 2
4. If r = t i − t j + (t − 1) k and s = 2t i + 6t k , evaluate
2 2
(i) ∫0 r • s dt, (ii) ∫0 r × s dt
(Rohilkhand 2008)
d2 r
5. (i) Find the value of r satisfying the equation = a , where a is a
dt 2
dr
constant vector. Also it is given that when t = 0, r = 0 and = u.
dt
d2 r
(ii) Solve the equation = a where a is a constant vector ; given that
dt 2
dr
r = 0 and = 0 when t = 0.
dt (Bundelkhand 2008)
 V-103

d2 r
6. Find the value of r satisfying the equation = 6ti − 24t 2 j + 4 sin t k ,
dt 2
given that r = 2i + j and dr / dt = − i − 3 k at t = 0.
(Agra 2001; Meerut 11)
7. The acceleration of a particle at any time t is e i + e2 t j + k .
t

Find v, given that v = i + j at t = 0.

2
8. Evaluate ∫ (a • b × c) dt , where
1
a = ti − 3 j + 2tk , b = i − 2 j + 2k , c = 3i + t j − k . (Meerut 2013)

d2 r
9. Integrate = − nr 2 .
dt 2 (Kumaun 2009)

A nswers 1
t 2 t 3  t4 5 15
1. (i)  +  i+ j − 3t k + c (ii) − i+ j−3k
2 3 2 6 2
1 1 1 2 7
2. (e − 1) i − (e −2 − 1) j + k 3. i − j+ k
2 2 2 3 4
40 64
4. (i) 12 (ii) − 24 i − j+ k
3 5
1 2 1 2
5. (i) t a + tu (ii) t a
2 2
6. r = (t 3 − t + 2) i + (1 − 2t 4 ) j + (t − 4 sin t) k
1 2t
7. et i + (e + 1) j + t k 8. 0
2
9. − n2 r 2 + c

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1
1. If F (t) = t i + (t 2 − 2 t) j + (3t 2 + 3t 3 ) k , then the value of ∫ F (t) dt is
0

1 2 7 1 2 7
(a) i + j+ k (b) i − j+ k
2 3 4 2 3 4
1 2 7
(c) − i − j + k (d) None of these
2 3 4
(Bundelkhand 2001)
 V-104

1
2. If r = t i − t 2 j + (t − 1) k , and s = 2t 2 i + 6t k , then the value of ∫ r • s dt is
0

(a) 10 (b) 12
(c) 15 (d) None of these
(Kumaun 2007, 10)

Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks “……”, so that the following statements are complete and correct.
1
1. ∫0 [t i + (t 2 − 2t) j ] dt = …… .

2. If F (t) = 3t 2 i + t j + 2 k and G (t) = 6t 2 i + (t − 1) j + 3t k , then

1  dF • G + F • dG dt = …… .
∫0  dt dt  (Meerut 2011)
2
2 d r
3. If r (t) = 5t 2 i + t j − t 3 k , then ∫ r× dt = …… .
1 dt 2 (Kumaun 2013)
2 1 dr
4. If r = t i + j − t k , then ∫ r• dt = …… .
0 dt (Kumaun 2014)

True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.
 dr d2 r  dr 2
1. ∫ 2 • 2  dt =   + c .
 dt dt   dt 
1
2. The value of ∫ (e t i + e − 2 t j + t k ) dt is (e − 1) i − (e − 2 − 1) j + k .
0

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (b) 2. (d)

Fill in the Blank(s)

1 2
1. i− j 2. 24
2 3
3. −14 i + 75 j − 15 k 4. 1

True or False
1. T 2. F

¨
Line Integrals
V-105

Line Integrals

1 Some Preliminary Concepts

riented curve. Suppose C is a
O curve in space. Let us orient C by
taking one of the two directions
along C as the positive direction; the
opposite direction along C is then called
the negative direction . Suppose A is the
initial point and B the terminal point of
C under the chosen orientation. In case these two points coincide, the curve C is
called a closed curve.
Smooth curve. Let r (t) = x (t) i + y (t) j + z (t) k , where r (t) is the position
vector of ( x, y, z ), be the parametric representation of a curve C joining the points A
and B, where t = t1 and t = t2 respectively. We know that dr / dt is a tangent vector
 V-106

to this curve at the point r. Suppose the function r (t) is continuous and has a
continuous first derivative not equal to zero vector for all values of t under
consideration. Then the curve C possesses a unique tangent at each of its points. A
curve satisfying these assumptions is called a smooth curve.
A curve C is said to be
piecewise smooth if it is
composed of a finite number
of smooth curves. The curve
C in the adjoining figure is
piecewise smooth as it is
composed of three smooth curves C1 , C2 and C3 . The circle is a smooth closed
curve while the curve consisting of the four sides of a rectangle is a piecewise
smooth closed curve.
Smooth surface. Suppose S is a surface which has a unique normal at each of its
points and the direction of this normal depends continuously on the points of S.
Then S is called a smooth surface.
If a surface S is not smooth but can be subdivided into a finite number of smooth
surfaces, then it is called a piecewise smooth surface. The surface of a sphere is
smooth while the surface of a cube is piecewise
smooth.
Classification of regions. A region R in which
every closed curve can be contracted to a point
without passing out of the region is called a
simply connected region. Otherwise the region
R is multiply-connected. The region interior to a
circle is a simply-connected plane region. The
region interior to a sphere is a simply-connected
region in space. The region between two
concentric circles lying in the same plane is a
multiply-connected plane region.
If we take a closed curve in this region surrounding the inner circle, then it cannot
be contracted to a point without passing out of the region. Therefore the region is
not simply-connected. However the region between two concentric spheres is a
simply-connected region in space. The region between two infinitely long coaxial
cylinders is a multiply-connected region in space.

2 Line Integrals
(Avadh 2014)
Any integral which is to be evaluated along a curve is called a line integral.
 V-107

Suppose r (t) = x (t) i + y (t) j + z (t) k ,where r (t) is the position vector of ( x, y, z )
i. e., r (t) = x i + y j + z k , defines a piecewise smooth curve joining two points A
and B. Let t = t1 at A and t = t2 at B. Suppose F( x, y, z ) = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k is a vector
point function defined and continuous along C. If s denotes the arc length of the
dr
curve C, then = t is a unit vector along the tangent to the curve C at the point r.
ds
dr dr
The component of the vector F along this tangent is F • . The integral of F •
ds ds
along C from A to B written as
B  dr  B
∫ A F • ds  ds = ∫ A F • dr = ∫ C F • dr
is an example of a line integral. It is called the tangent line integral of F along C.
Since r = x i + y j + z k , therefore, dr = dx i + dy j + dz k .
∴ F • dr = ( F1 i + F2 j + F3 k ) • (dx i + dy j + dz k )
= F1 dx + F2 dy + F3 dz .
Therefore in components form the above line integral is written as
∫C F • dr = ∫C ( F1 dx + F2 dy + F3 dz ).

The parametric equations of the curve C are x = x(t), y = y(t) and z = z (t).
Therefore we may write
t2  dx dy dz 
∫C F • dr = ∫t 1  F1 dt + F2 dt + F3 dt  dt.

Circulation: If C is a simple closed curve ( i.e. a curve which does not intersect itself
anywhere), then the tangent line integral of F around C is called the circulation of F about C.
It is often denoted by
∫ F • dr = ∫ ( F1 dx + F2 dy + F3 dz ).

Work done by a Force. Suppose a force F acts upon a particle. Let the particle be
displaced along a given path C in space. If r denotes the position vector of a point
dr
on C,then is a unit vector along the tangent to C at the point r in the direction of s
ds
dr
increasing. The component of force F along tangent to C is F • . Therefore the
ds
dr
work done by F during a small displacement ds of the particle along C is F •  ds
 ds 
i. e., F • dr. The total work W done by F in this displacement along C, is given by the
line integral
W= ∫C F • dr,

the integration being taken in the sense of the displacement.

 V-108

Example 1: Evaluate ∫C F • dr, where F = x 2 i + y 3 j and curve C is the arc of the

parabola y = x 2 in the x-y plane from (0, 0) to (1, 1).

Solution: We shall illustrate two methods for the solution of such a problem.
Method 1. The curve C is the parabola y = x 2 from (0, 0) to (1, 1).
Let x = t ; then y = t 2 . If r is the position vector of any point ( x, y) on C, then
dr
r (t) = xi + yj = ti + t 2 j . ∴ = i + 2tj.
dt
Also in terms of t, F = t 2 i + t 6 j.
At the point (0, 0), t = x = 0. At the point (1, 1), t = 1.
 dr  1 2 6
∴ ∫ C F • dr = ∫ C  F • dt  dt = ∫0 (t i + t j) • (i + 2t j) dt
1
1 2 7  t3 2t 8  1 1 7
= ∫ t + 2t ) dt =  +  = + = .
0
3 8  0 3 4 12
Method 2: In the xy-plane we have r = xi + yj .
∴ dr = dxi + dyj.

Therefore, F • dr = ( x 2 i + y 3 j) • (dx i + dy j) = x 2 dx + y 3 dy.

∴ ∫C F • dr = ∫C ( x 2 dx + y 3 dy).

Now along the curve C, y = x 2 . Therefore dy = 2 x dx.

1
∴ ∫C F • dr = ∫ x =0 [ x 2 dx + x 6 (2 x) dx]
1
1  x3 2 x8  7
= ∫0 ( x 2 + 2 x 7 ) dx =  +  = .
 3 8 0 12

Example 2: If F = 3 xy i − y 2 j , evaluate ∫ F • dr, where C is the curve in the x y-plane,

C

y = 2 x 2 , from (0, 0) to (1, 2). (Garhwal 2001, 02; Kumaun 07; Rohilkhand 12)
Solution: The parametric equations of the parabola y = 2 x 2 can be taken as
x = t, y = 2t 2 .
At the point (0, 0), x = 0 and so t = 0. Again at the point (1, 2), x = 1and so t = 1.
Now ∫C F • dr = ∫C (3 xyi − y 2 j) • (dx i + dy j)

[∵ r = xi + yj, so that dr = dxi + d y j]

 V-109

1  dx dy 
= ∫C (3 xy dx − y 2 dy) = ∫t =0 3 xy − y2  dt
 dt dt 
1
= ∫0 (3 . t . 2 t 2 . 1 − 4 t 4 . 4t) dt

[∵ x = t, y = 2t 2 so that dx / dt = 1 and dy / dt = 4t]

1
1 3  t4 5 t6 
= ∫ (6t − 16t ) dt = 6 . − 16 . 
0 4 6 0

6 16 3 8 7
= − = − =− .
4 6 2 3 6
Example 3: Evaluate ∫ F • dr along the curve x 2 + y 2 = 1, z = 1in the positive direction
from (0, 1, 1) to (1, 0, 1) where F = (2 x + yz ) i + xzj + ( xy + 2z ) k .
Solution: Let the given curve be denoted by C and let A and B be points (0, 1, 1) and
(1, 0, 1) respectively.
Along the given curve C, we have r = xi + yj + zk .
∴ dr = dx i + dy j + dz k .
B
∴ ∫C F • dr = ∫A [(2 x + yz ) i + xz j + ( xy + 2z ) k ] • (dx i + dy j + dz k )
B
= ∫A [(2 x + yz ) dx + xz dy + ( xy + 2z ) dz ]. ...(1)

In moving from A to B, x varies from 0 to 1 , y varies from 1 to 0 and z remains

constant. We have z = 1 and so dz = 0.
Hence from (1)
1 0
∫C F • dr = ∫0 (2 x + y) dx + ∫ x dy + 0
1
1 1 1
= ∫0 [2 x + √ (1 − x 2 )] dx − ∫ √ (1 − y 2 ) dy = [ x 2 ] 0 = 1,
0

the last two integrals cancel by a property of definite integrals.

Example 4: Evaluate ∫ ( x dy − y dx) around the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1.
(Meerut 2002)
2 2
Solution: Let C denote the circle x + y = 1. The parametric equations of this
circle are x = cos t, y = sin t.
To integrate around the circle C we should vary t from 0 to 2π.
2π  dy dx 
∴ ∫C ( x dy − y dx) = ∫0 x − y  dt
 dt dt 
2π 2π
= ∫0 (cos 2 t + sin2 t) dt = ∫0 dt = 2π.
Example 5: If F = (2 x + y) i + (3 y − x) j , evaluate ∫ F • dr where C is the curve in
C
the xy-plane consisting of the straight lines from (0, 0) to (2, 0) and then to (3, 2).
(Agra 2007; Meerut 11; Purvanchal 14)
 V-110

Solution: The path of integration C has been shown in the figure.

It consists of the straight lines OA and AB.
We have ∫C F • dr

= ∫C [(2 x + y) i + (3 y − x) j] • (dx i + dy j)

= ∫C [(2 x + y) dx + (3 y − x) dy].

Now along the straight line OA, y = 0, dy = 0 and x

varies from 0 to 2. The equation of the straight line AB is
2−0
y−0 = ( x − 2) i. e., y = 2 x − 4.
3−2
∴ along AB, y = 2 x − 4, dy = 2 dx and x varies from 2 to 3.
2 3
∴ ∫C F • dr = ∫0 [(2 x + 0) dx + 0] + ∫ [(2 x + 2 x − 4) dx
2

+ (6 x − 12 − x) 2 dx]
2 3
= [x ] 2
0
+∫
2
(14 x − 28) dx

3
3 ( x − 2)2 
= 4 + 14∫ ( x − 2) dx = 4 + 14   = 4 + 7 = 11.
2 2
  2
Example 6: Evaluate ∫ F • dr where F = ( x 2 + y 2 ) i − 2 xyj , curve C is the rectangle in
C

the x y-plane bounded by y = 0, x = a, y = b, x = 0.

(Meerut 2000, 06B, 07B, 09B, 12, 13; Kanpur 10; Bundelkhand 09;
Purvanchal 09)
Solution: In the xy-plane z = 0.
Therefore
r = x i + y j and dr = dx i + dy j .
The path of integration C has been shown in
the figure. It consists of the straight lines
OA, AB, BD and DO.
We have
∫C F • dr = ∫C [( x 2 + y 2 ) i − 2 xy j] • (dx i + dy j)

= ∫C [( x 2 + y 2 ) dx − 2 xy dy].

Now on OA, y = 0, dy = 0 and x varies from 0 to a ; on AB, x = a, dx = 0 and y

varies from 0 to b ; on BD, y = b, dy = 0 and x varies from a to 0; on
DO, x = 0, dx = 0 and y varies from b to 0.
a b 0 0
∴ ∫C F • dr = ∫0 x 2 dx − ∫ 2a y dy + ∫ ( x 2 + b 2 ) dx + ∫ 0 dy
0 a b
 V-111

a b 0
 x3   y2   x3 
=   − 2a   + + b 2 x + 0 = − 2ab 2 .
 3 0  2  0  3 a
Example 7: Find the total work done in moving a particle in a force field given by
F = 3 xyi − 5zj + 10 xk
along the curve x = t + 1, y = 2t 2 , z = t 3 from t = 1 to t = 2.
2

Solution: Let C denote the arc of the given curve from t = 1to t = 2. Then the total
work done
=∫C F • dr = ∫C (3 x yi − 5z j + 10 x k ) • (dx i + dy j + dz k )

=∫ (3 xy dx − 5z dy + 10 x dz )
C
2  dx dy dz 
= ∫1 3 x y − 5z + 10 x  dt
 dt dt dt 
2
= ∫1 [3 (t 2 + 1) (2t)2 (2t) − (5t 3 )(4t) + 10 (t 2 + 1)(3t 2 )] dt
2
= ∫1 (12t 5 + 12t 3 − 20 t 4 + 30 t 4 + 30 t 2 ) dt
2
= ∫1 (12t 5 + 10 t 4 + 12t 3 + 30 t 2 ) dt = 303.

Example 8: Evaluate ∫ F • dr, where F = yz i + zx j + x y k and C is the portion of the

C

curve r = a cos t i + b sin t j + ct k , from t = 0 to t = π / 2. (Avadh 2010)

Solution: Along the curve C,
r = x i + y j + z k = a cos t i + b sin t j + ct k .
∴ x = a cos t, y = b sin t, z = ct.
Now ∫C F • dr = ∫C ( yz i + z x j + x y k ) • (dx i + dy j + dz k )

= ∫C ( yz dx + z x dy + x y dz ) = ∫C d ( x yz )
t = π /2 π /2
= [ x yz ] t =0 = [(a cos t) . (b sin t) . (ct)] 0

= abc [t cos t sin t ] 0π /2 = abc (0 − 0) = 0.

Comprehensive Exercise 1

1. Find ∫ t • dr where t is the unit tangent vector and C is the unit circle,
C

in xy-plane, with centre at the origin. (Bundelkhand 2008)

2. (i) Integrate the function F = x 2 i − xyj from the point (0, 0) to (1, 1) along
parabola y 2 = x.
 V-112

(ii) Evaluate ∫ x y 3 ds, where C is the segment of the line y = 2 x in the

C

xy-plane from (−1, − 2) to (1, 2).

3. Evaluate ∫ F • dr, where F = i cos y − j x sin y and C is the curve
C
2
y = √ (1 − x ) in the xy-plane from (1, 0) to (0, 1). (Agra 2001)
2 2 2
4. (i) Evaluate ∫C F • dr where F is x y i + yj and C is y = 4 x in the

xy-plane from (0, 0) to (4, 4).

(Garhwal 2003; Meerut 04, 06;
Kanpur 09, 11, 12; Rohilkhand 11)
(ii) Evaluate ∫C F • dr, where F = x y i + yz j + z x k and C is the curve

r = ti + t 2 j + t 3 k , t varying from −1 to + 1.
(iii) Evaluate ∫C F • dr, where F = (2 x + y) i + (3 y − x) j + yzx k and C is

the curve x = 2t 2 , y = t, z = t 3 from t = 0 to t = 1. (Kumaun 2011)

5. Evaluate ∫ F • dr where
C

F = c [−3a sin2 t cos t i + a (2 sin t − 3 sin3 t) j + b sin 2t k ]

and C is given by r = a cos t i + a sin t j + bt k from t = π / 4 to π / 2.
6. Evaluate ∫ F • dr where F = z i + x j + y k and C is the arc of the curve
C

r = cos t i + sin t j + t k from t = 0 to t = 2π .

7. Evaluate ∫ F • dr where F = x y i + ( x 2 + y 2 ) j and C is the x-axis from
C

x = 2 to x = 4 and the straight line x = 4 from y = 0 to y = 12.

8. Find the work done in moving a particle in a force field
F = 3 x 2 i + (2 xz − y) j + z k along the line joining (0, 0, 0) to (2, 1, 3).
9. Calculate ∫ [( x 2 + y 2 ) i + ( x 2 − y 2 ) j] • dr where C is the curve :
C

(i) y 2 = x joining (0, 0) to (1, 1). (Meerut 2005B)

7
(ii) x = y joining (0, 0) to (1, 1).
(iii) consisting of two straight lines joining (0, 0) to (1, 0) and (1, 0) to (1, 1).
(iv) consisting of three straight lines joining (0, 0) to (2, − 2), (2, − 2) to
(0, − 1) and (0, − 1) to (1, 1).
10. Find the circulation of F round the curve C, where
x
F=e sin y i + e x cos y j and C is the rectangle whose vertices are
1 1
(0, 0), (1, 0), (1, π), (0, π).
2 2
11. Find the circulation of F round the curve C, where F = ( x − y) i + ( x + y) j
and C is the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4, z = 0.
 V-113

12. (i) If F = (2 x 2 + y 2 ) i + (3 y − 4 x) j , evaluate ∫ F • dr around the triangle

ABC whose vertices are A (0, 0), B (2, 0) and C (2, 1).
(Kumaun 2008)
2 2
(ii) If F = (3 x + 6 y) i − 14 yz j + 20 xz k , then evaluate ∫ F • dr from

(0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1) along the curve x = t, y = t 2 , z = t 3 .

(Kumaun 2012)

A nswers 1
1 16
1. 2π 2. (i) (ii) 3. − 1
12 √5
10 1
4. (i) 264 (ii) 5. c (a2 + b 2 ) 6. 2 π + π = 3π
7 2
7. 768 8. 16
7 38 7
9. (i) (ii) (iii) 1 (iv) − 10. 0
10 45 3
11. 8π 12. (i) −14 / 3 (ii) 5

3 Surface Integrals
(Avadh 2014)
Any integral which is to be evaluated over a surface is called a surface integral.

Suppose S is a surface of finite area. Suppose

f ( x, y, z ) is a single valued function of position
defined over S. Subdivide the area S into n elements
of areas δS1 , δS2 , … , δS n . In each part δS k we
choose an arbitrary point Pk whose coordinates are
( x k , y k , z k ).
We define f ( Pk ) = f ( x k , y k , z k ).
n
Form the sum ∑ f ( Pk ) δS k .
k =1

Now take the limit of this sum as n → ∞ in such a way that the largest of the areas
δS k approaches zero. This limit if it exists, is called the surface integral of f ( x, y, z )
over S and is denoted by ∫ ∫ f ( x, y, z ) dS.
S

It can be shown that if the surface S is piecewise smooth and the function f ( x, y, z )
is continuous over S, then the above limit exists i. e., is independent of the choice of
sub-divisions and points Pk .
 V-114

Flux: Suppose S is a piecewise smooth surface

and F( x, y, z ) is a vector function of position
defined and continuous over S. Let P be any point
on the surface S and let n be the unit vector at P in
the direction of outward drawn normal to the
surface S at P. Then F • n is the normal
component of F at P. The integral of F • n over S is
∫ ∫ F • n dS.
S

It is called the flux of F over S.

Let us associate with the differential of surface area dS a vector dS (called vector area)
whose magnitude is dS and whose direction is that of n. Then dS = n dS. Therefore
we can write ∫ ∫ F • n dS = ∫ ∫ F • dS.
S S

Suppose the outward drawn normal to the surface S at P makes angles α, β, γ with
the positive directions of x, y and z axes respectively. If l, m, n are the direction
cosines of the outward drawn normal, then
l = cos α, m = cos β, n = cos γ .
Also n = cos α i + cos β j + cos γ k = l i + m j + n k .
Let F( x, y, z ) = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k . Then
F • n = F1 cos α + F2 cos β + F3 cos γ = F1 l + F2 m + F3 n.
Therefore, we can write
∫ ∫S F • n dS = ∫ ∫S ( F1 cos α + F2 cos β + F3 cos γ ) dS

= ∫ ∫S ( F1 dy dz + F2 dz dx + F3 dx dy),

if we define ∫ ∫S F1 cos α dS = ∫ ∫S F1 dy dz ,

∫ ∫S F2 cos β dS = ∫ ∫S F2 dz dx, ∫ ∫S F3 cos γ dS = ∫ ∫ F3 dx dy.

S

Note 1: Other examples of surface integrals are ∫ ∫ f n dS, ∫ ∫ F × dS

S S
where f ( x, y, z ) is a scalar function of position.
Note 2: Important. In order to evaluate surface
integrals it is convenient to express them as
double integrals taken over the orthogonal
projection of the surface S on one of the
coordinate planes. But this is possible only if any
line perpendicular to the co-ordinate plane
chosen meets the surface S in no more than one
point. If the surface S does not satisfy this
condition, then it can be sub-divided into surfaces which do satisfy this
condition.
 V-115

Suppose the surface S is such that any line perpendicular to the xy-plane meets S in
no more than one point. Then the equation of the surface S can be written in the
form z = h ( x, y).
Let R be the orthogonal projection of S on the x y-plane. If γ is the acute angle
which the undirected normal n at P( x, y, z ) to the surface S makes with
z-axis, then it can be shown that cos γ dS = dx dy,
where dS is the small element of area of surface S at the point P.
dx dy dx dy
Therefore dS = = , where k is the unit vector along z-axis.
cos γ |n • k |
dx dy
Hence ∫ ∫S F • n dS = ∫ ∫R F •n .
|n • k|
Thus the surface integral on S can be evaluated with the help of a double integral
integrated over R.

Example 9: Evaluate ∫ ∫ F • n dS, where F = yz i + zx j + xy k and S is that part of the

S
surface of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 which lies in the first octant.
(Garhwal 2003; kumaun 14))
Solution: A vector normal to the surface S is given by
∇ ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = 2 x i + 2 y j + 2z k .
Therefore n = a unit normal to any point ( x, y, z ) of S
2 x i + 2 y j + 2z k
= = xi + yj + zk ,
√ (4 x 2 + 4 y 2 + 4z 2 )
since x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 on the surface S.
dx dy
We have ∫ ∫S F • n dS = ∫ ∫R F•n ,
|n • k |
where R is the projection of S on the xy-plane.
The region R is bounded by x-axis, y-axis and the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1, z = 0.
We have F • n = ( yz i + zx j + x y k ) • ( x i + y j + z k ) = 3 x yz .
Also n • k = ( x i + y j + z k ) • k = z . ∴ |n • k | = z .
3 x yz
Hence ∫ ∫ S F • n dS = ∫ ∫ R z dx dy = 3∫ ∫ R x y dx dy
π/2 1
= 3∫ ∫r =0 (r cos θ) (r sin θ) r dθ dr, on changing to polars
θ =0
1
π/2 r4  3  1 = 3 .
= 3∫   cos θ sin θ dθ =
0  2 8
 4 0 4
 V-116

Example 10: Evaluate ∫ ∫ F • n dS,where F = z i + x j − 3 y 2 zk and S is the surface of

S

the cylinder x 2 + y 2 = 16 included in the first octant between z = 0 and z = 5.

Solution: A vector normal to the surface S is given by

∇ ( x 2 + y 2 ) = 2 x i + 2 y j.
Therefore n = a unit normal to any point of S
2x i + 2 y j xi+ y j
= 2 2
= ,
√ (4 x + 4 y ) 4
since x 2 + y 2 = 16, on the surface S.
dx dz
We have ∫ ∫ F • n dS = ∫ ∫R F•n ,where R is the projection of S on the x-z
S | n • j|
plane. It should be noted that in this case we cannot take the projection of S on the
x-y plane as the surface S is perpendicular to the x-y plane.
 x i + y j 1
Now F • n = ( z i + x j − 3 y2 z k) •   = ( xz + x y ),
 4  4
 x i + y j y
n•j=   •j= ⋅
 4  4
Therefore the required surface integral is
xz + x y dx dz
= ∫∫
R 4 y /4
5 4  xz 
=∫ ∫  + x  dx dz , since y = √ (16 − x 2 ) on S
z =0 x =0 2
 √ (16 − x ) 
5
= ∫0 (4z + 8) dz = 90.

4 Volume Integrals
(Avadh 2014)
Suppose V is a volume bounded by a
surface S. Suppose f ( x, y, z ) is a single
valued function of position defined over V.
Subdivide the volume V into n elements of
volumes δV1 , δV2 , … , δVn .In each part δVk
we choose an arbitrary point Pk whose
co-ordinates are ( x k , y k , z k ). We define
f ( Pk ) = f ( x k , y k , z k ).
Form the sum
n
∑ f ( Pk ) δVk .
k =1
 V-117

Now take the limit of this sum as n → ∞ in such a way that the largest of the
volumes δVk approaches zero. This limit, if it exists, is called the volume integral of
f ( x, y, z ) over V and is denoted by ∫ ∫ ∫ f ( x, y, z ) dV .
V

It can be shown that if the surface is piecewise smooth and the function f ( x, y, z )
is continuous over V, then the above limit exists i. e., is independent of the choice of
sub-divisions and points Pk .
If we subdivide the volume V into small cuboids by drawing lines parallel to the
three co-ordinates axes, then dV = dx dy dz and the above volume integral
becomes ∫ ∫ ∫ f ( x, y, z) dx dy dz.
V

If F ( x, y, z ) is a vector function, then ∫ ∫ ∫V F dV

is also an example of a volume integral.

Example 11: If F = (2 x 2 − 3z ) i − 2 x y j − 4 x k , then evaluate ∫ ∫ ∫V ∇ • F dV

where V is the closed region bounded by the planes x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 and

2 x + 2 y + z = 4. Also Evaluate ∫ ∫ ∫ ∇ × F dV .
V

Solution: We have F = (2 x 2 − 3z ) i − 2 x y j − 4 x k .
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 2
∴ ∇ • F = i + j +k  • [(2 x − 3z ) i − 2 x y j − 4 x k ]
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂ ∂ ∂
= (2 x 2 − 3z ) + (− 2 x y ) + (− 4 x ) = 4 x − 2 x = 2 x.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∴ ∫ ∫ ∫V ∇ • F dV = ∫ ∫ ∫V 2 x dx dy dz [∵ dV = dx dy dz ]
2 2−x 4 −2 x −2 y
= 2∫ ∫ y =0 ∫z =0 x dx dy dz.
x =0

[Note that we have taken a thin column parallel to z-axis as the elementary volume.
It cuts the boundary at z = 0 and z = 4 − 2 x − 2 y. Also the projection of the plane
2 x + 2 y + z = 4 on the xy-plane is bounded by the axes y = 0, x = 0 and the line
x + y = [Link] the limits for y are from 0 to 2 − x and those for x are from 0 to 2]
2 2− x 4 −2 x −2 y
∴ ∫ ∫ ∫V ∇ • F dV = 2∫
x =0 ∫ y =0 x [z ] z =0
dx dy
2 2− x
= 2∫ ∫ y= 0 x (4 − 2 x − 2 y ) dx dy
x =0
2 2− x
= 2∫
x =0 [4 x y − 2 x 2
y − x y2 ] y =0
dx
2
= 2∫ [4 x (2 − x ) − 2 x 2 (2 − x ) − x (2 − x )2 ] dx
0
2
= 2∫ [ x 3 − 4 x 2 + 4 x ] dx, on simplifying
0
2
1 4 4 − 32 + 8 = 8 ⋅
= 2  x4 − x3 + 2 x2  = 2
4 3  0  3  3
 V-118

Second part: We have

 i j k 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇×F= 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 2 
− 4x
2 x − 3z − 2x y 
∂ ∂  ∂ ∂ 
=  (− 4 x ) − (− 2 x y ) i − (− 4 x ) − (2 x 2 − 3z ) j
∂ y ∂ z  ∂x ∂ z 
 
∂ ∂ 
+  (− 2 x y ) − (2 x 2 − 3z ) k
 ∂x ∂y 
= 0 i − (− 4 + 3) j + (− 2 y ) k = j − 2 y k .
∴ ∫ ∫ ∫V ∇ × F dV = ∫ ∫ ∫V ( j − 2 y k ) dx dy dz
2 2− x 4 −2 x −2 y
= ∫ x =0 ∫ y =0 ∫z =0 ( j − 2 y k ) dx dy dz
2 2−x
= ∫ x =0 ∫ y =0 ( j − 2 y k ) (4 − 2 x − 2 y ) dx dy
2−x
=
2  j (4 y − 2 x y − y 2 ) − 2 k (2 y 2 − x y 2 − 2 y 3 ) dx
∫ x =0  3  y = 0
2
= ∫ x = 0 [j (2 − x ) (4 − 2 x − 2 + x )
2 
− 2 k (2 − x )2 2 − x − (2 − x )  dx
 3 

=
2 (2 − x )2 j − 2 (2 − x )3 k  dx
∫0  3 

=
2 ( x − 2)2 j + 2 ( x − 2)3 k  dx
∫0  3 
2 2
( x − 2)3  2 ( x − 2)4  8 8 8
=  j+   k = j − k = ( j − k ).
 3  0 3 4  0 3 3 3

Comprehensive Exercise 2

1. (i) Evaluate ∫ ∫ F • n dS, where F = 18z i − 12 j + 3 y k and S is the

S

surface of the plane 2 x + 3 y + 6z = 12 in the first octant.

(Bundelkhand 2005)
2
(ii) Evaluate ∫ ∫ ∫ φ dV , where φ = 45 x y and V is the closed region
V

bounded by the planes 4 x + 2 y + z = 8, x = 0, y = 0, z = 0.

 V-119

2. Evaluate ∫ ∫ F • n dS, where F = ( x + y 2 ) i − 2 x j + 2 yz k and S is the

S

surface of the plane 2 x + y + 2z = 6 in the first octant.

3. Evaluate ∫ ∫ A • n dS, where A = x y i − x 2 j + ( x + z ) k , S is the portion
S
of the plane 2 x + 2 y + z = 6 included in the first octant and n is a unit
normal to S.
4. If F = 2 yi − 3 j + x 2 k and S is the surface of the parabolic cylinder y 2 = 8 x
in the first octant bounded by the planes y = 4 and z = 6, then evaluate
∫ ∫ F • n dS.
S

5. Evaluate ∫ ∫ F • n dS, where F = yi + 2 xj − z k and S is the surface of the

S
plane 2 x + y = 6 in the first octant cut off by the plane z = 4.
6. Evaluate ∫ ∫ ∫ F dV where F = x i + y j + z k and V is the region bounded
V

by the surfaces x = 0, x = 2, y = 0, y = 6, z = 4 and z = x 2 .

A nswers 2
1. (i) 24 (ii) 128
27
2. 81 3._ 4._132
4
384
5. 108 6. 24 i + 96 j + k
5

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter
from (a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. If F = x 2 i + y 3 j and curve C is the arc of the parabola y = x 2 in the
x y-plane from (0, 0) to (1, 1,
) then ∫ F • d r is
C

(a) 7 / 12 (b) 5 / 12 (c) 11 / 12 (d) None of these

2. The work done in moving a particle in a force field
F = 3 x 2 i + (2 x z − y) j + 3k
along the line joining (0, 0, 0) to (2 , 1, 3) is
(a) 12 (b) 16 (c) 0 (d) 20
 V-120

3. For a closed surface S, the value of ∫ ∫S r • n dS is

(a) V (b) 2 V (c) 3V (d) 0

where V is the volume enclosed by S. (Kumaun 2013)

Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks “……”, so that the following statements are complete and correct.
1. Any integral which is to be evaluated along a curve is called a …… .
2. Any integral which is to be evaluated over a surface is called a …… .
dr
3. If r denotes the position vector of a point on a curve C , then is a unit
ds
vector along the …… to C at the point r in the direction of s increasing.
4. ∫ ∫S F • n dS is called the …… of F over S.

5. If t is the unit tangent vector and C is the unit circle in x y-plane, with centre
at the origin, then ∫C t • dr = …… .

6. The value of ∫ ( x dy − y dx) around the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1 is …… .

7. If F = (3 x 2 + 6 y) i − 14 y z j + 20 x z 2
k and C is a straight line joining
(0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1,
) then ∫ F • d r = …… .
C

True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.
1. If C is a simple closed curve, then ∫ F • d r is called the circulation of F
C
about C .
2. If F = ax i + by j + cz k , a, b, c are constants, then
2
∫ ∫ S F • n dS = 3 π (a + b + c), where S is the surface of a unit sphere.

A nswers
Multiple Choice Questions
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c)
Fill in the Blank(s)
1. line integral 2. surface integral
3. tangent 4. flux
5. 2π 6. 2π 7. 13 / 3

True or False
1. T 2. F

¨
 V-121

6
G reen's, G auss's and
S toke's T heorems

1 Green’s Theorem in the Plane

et R be a closed bounded region in the x-y plane whose boundary C consists of finitely
L many smooth curves. Let M and N be continuous functions of x and y having continuous
∂M ∂N
partial derivatives and in R. Then
∂y ∂x
 ∂N ∂M 
∫ ∫R  −  dx dy = ∫C ( M dx + N dy ),
 ∂x ∂y 
the line integral being taken along the entire boundary C of R such that R is on the left as one
advances in the direction of integration.
(Meerut 2004, 05, 07, 10; Avadh 10; Purvanchal 08;
Rohilkhand 09B, 12; Kashi 13)
Proof: We shall first prove the theorem for a special region R bounded by a closed
curve C and having the property that any straight line parallel to any one of the
coordinate axes and intersecting R has only one segment (or a single point) in
common with R. This means that R can be represented in both of the forms
a ≤ x ≤ b, f ( x) ≤ y ≤ g ( x)
and c ≤ y ≤ d, p( y) ≤ x ≤ q ( y).
 V-122

In the adjoining figure, the equations of the curves AEB and BFA are y = f ( x) and
y = g ( x) respectively. Similarly the
equations of the curves FAE and EBF are
x = p ( y) and x = q ( y) respectively.
We have
∂M
∫ ∫R dx dy
∂y
b  g ( x) ∂M 
= ∫ x = a ∫ y = f ( x) dy  dx
∂y 
y = g ( x)
b  
= ∫x=a  M ( x, y )  dx
  y = f ( x)
b
= ∫ x = a [M [ x, g ( x )] − M [ x, f ( x)]] dx
b a
=− ∫a M [ x, f ( x)] dx − ∫b M [ x, g ( x)] dx

=− ∫C M ( x, y) dx, since y = f ( x) represents the curve AEB

and y = g ( x) represents the curve BFA.

If portions of C are segments parallel to y-axis
such as GH and PQ in the adjoining figure,
then the above result is not affected. The line
integral ∫ M dx over GH is zero because on

GH, we have x = constant implies

dx = 0. Similarly the line integral over PQ is
zero. The equations of QG and HP are y = f ( x)
and y = g ( x) respectively. Hence we have

∂M
−∫ ∫ dx dy = ∫C M ( x, y ) dx. ... (1)
R ∂y
∂N d  q ( y) ∂N 
Similarly, ∫ ∫R dx dy = ∫ y =c ∫ x = p ( y) dx  dy
∂x ∂x 
x = q ( y)
d  
= ∫y=c  N ( x, y)  dy
  x = p ( y)
d
= ∫ y=c [N [ q ( y ), y ] − N [ p ( y ), y]] dy
d c
= ∫ c N [ q ( y ), y ] dy + ∫ d N [ p ( y ), y ] dy

= ∫ N ( x, y ) dy. ... (2)

C
 V-123

 ∂N ∂M 
From (1) and (2), we get on adding ∫ ∫R  −  dx dy = ∫C ( M dx + N dy) .
 ∂x ∂y 
The proof of the theorem can now be extended to a region R which can be
subdivided into finitely many special
regions of the above type by drawing
lines (TS in the adjoining figure). In this
case we apply the theorem to each
subregion (R1 and R2 in the figure) and
then add the results. The sum of the left
hand members will be equal to the
integral over R. The sum of the right
hand members will be equal to the
integral over C plus the line integrals over
the curves introduced for subdividing R.
Each of the latter integrals comes twice,
taken once in each direction (as ST and TS in the figure). Therefore these two
integrals cancel each other and thus the sum of the right hand members will be
equal to the line integral over C.
Note: Extension of Green’s theorem in plane to multiply
connected regions.
Green’s theorem in the plane is also
valid for a multiply-connected
region R such as shown in the
adjoining figure. Here the boundary
C of R consists of two parts; the
exterior boundary C1 is traversed in
the anticlockwise sense so that R is
on the left, while the interior
boundary C2 is traversed in the
clockwise sense so that R is on the
left.
In order to establish the theorem, we construct a line such as AD (called a cross cut)
connecting the exterior and interior boundaries. The region bounded by
ADEFGDAPQLHA is simply-connected and so Green’s theorem is valid for it.
Therefore
 ∂N ∂M 
∫C M dx + N dy = ∫ ∫  −  dx dy.
R  ∂x ∂y 
ADEFGDAPQLHA

The integral on the left hand side leaving out the integrand is equal to
∫AD + ∫ C2 + ∫ DA + ∫ C1 = ∫ C2 +∫ , since ∫ =−∫
C1 AD DA

= ∫C ( M dx + N dy ).

Hence the theorem.

 V-124

2 Green’s Theorem in the Plane in Vector Notation

We have r = x i + y j so that dr = dx i + dy j.
Let F = Mi + Nj .
Then M dx + N dy = ( M i + N j) • (dx i + dy j) = F • dr.
Also curlF = ∇ × F
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂N ∂M  ∂N ∂M 
= = − i+ j+  −  k.
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z ∂ z ∂z  ∂x ∂y 
 
M N 0
∂N ∂M
∴ (∇ × F) • k = − ⋅
∂x ∂y
Hence Green’s theorem in plane can be written as
∫ ∫R (∇ × F) • k dR = ∫C F • dr

where dR = dx dy and k is unit vector perpendicular to the x y-plane.

If s denotes the arc length of C and t is the unit tangent vector to C, then
dr
dr = ds = t ds. Therefore the above result can also be written as
ds
∫ ∫R (∇ × F) • k dR = ∫C F • t ds.

Example 1: Verify Green’s theorem in the plane for ∫C ( xy + y 2 ) dx + x 2 dy , where C

is the closed curve of the region bounded by y = x and y = x 2 . (Rohilkhand 2011)

Solution: By Green’s theorem in plane, we have
 ∂N ∂M 
∫ ∫ R  ∂x − ∂y  dx dy = ∫ C ( M dx + N dy ).
Here M = x y + y 2 , N = x 2 .
The curves y = x and y = x 2 intersect at (0, 0) and
(1, 1). The positive direction in traversing C is as
shown in the figure.
 ∂N ∂M 
We have ∫ ∫R  ∂x − ∂y  dx dy
∂ 2 ∂ 
= ∫ ∫R  (x )− ( xy + y 2 ) dx dy
 ∂x ∂y 
= ∫ ∫R (2 x − x − 2 y ) dx dy = ∫ ∫R ( x − 2 y ) dx dy
 V-125

x
1 x 1  2
= ∫ x = 0 ∫ y = x2 ( x − 2 y) dy dx = ∫x =0  xy − y  dx
  y = x2
1 1
= ∫0 [ x 2 − x 2 − x 3 + x 4 ] dx = ∫0 ( x 4 − x 3 ) dx
1
 x5 x4  1 1 1
= −  = − =− ⋅
5 4 0 5 4 20
Now let us evaluate the line integral along C. Along y = x 2 , dy = 2 x dx. Therefore
along y = x 2 , the line integral equals
1 1 19
∫0 [{( x )( x 2 ) + x 4 } dx + x 2 (2 x) dx ] = ∫0 (3 x 3 + x 4 ) dx = ⋅
20
Along y = x, dy = dx. Therefore along y = x, the line integral equals
0 0
∫1 [{( x) ( x) + x 2 } dx + x 2 dx ] = ∫1 3 x 4 dx = − 1.

19 1
Therefore the required line integral = −1= − ⋅ Hence the theorem is
20 20
verified.

Example 2: Evaluate by Green’s theorem ∫ ( x 2 − cosh y ) dx + ( y + sin x) dy, where

C

C is the rectangle with vertices (0, 0), (π, 0), (π, 1), (0, 1).
(Meerut 2002, 05B, 06, 13B; Rohilkhand 14)
Solution: By Green’s theorem in plane, we have
 ∂N ∂M 
∫ ∫R  ∂x − ∂y  dx dy = ∫ C ( M dx + N dy ).
Here M = x 2 − cosh y, N = y + sin x.
∂N ∂M
∴ = cos x, = − sinh y.
∂x ∂y
Hence the given line integral is equal to
∫ ∫R (cos x + sinh y ) dx dy
π 1
= ∫ x =0 ∫ y =0 (cos x + sinh y ) dy dx
π 1
=  y cos x + cosh y  dx
∫ x =0   y =0
π
π  
= ∫ x =0 [cos x + cosh 1 − 1] dx =  sin x + x cosh 1 − x  = (cosh 1 − 1).
 0
Example 3: Show that the area bounded by a simple closed curve C is given by
1
( x dy − y dx). Hence find the area of the ellipse x = a cos θ, y = b sin θ.
2 ∫C
 V-126

Solution: By Green’s theorem in plane, if R is a plane region bounded by a simple

closed curve C, then
 ∂N ∂M 
∫ ∫R  −  dx dy = ∫C M dx + N dy.
 ∂x ∂y 
Putting M = − y, N = x, we get
∂ ∂ 
∫C ( x dy − y dx) = ∫ ∫R  ( x) − (− y) dx dy
 ∂x ∂y 
=2 ∫ ∫R dx dy

= 2 A, where A is the area bounded by C.

1
Hence A= ∫C ( x dy − y dx).
2
The area of the ellipse
1 1 2π  dy dx 
= ∫ ( x dy − y dx) = ∫  a cos θ − b sin θ  dθ
2 C 2 θ =0  dθ dθ
1 2π 1 2π
= ∫ (ab cos 2 θ + ab sin2 θ) dθ = ab ∫ dθ = πab.
2 0 2 0

Comprehensive Exercise 1

1. Verify Green’s theorem in the plane for

∫C [(2 xy − x 2 ) dx + ( x 2 + y 2 ) dy ],
where C is the boundary of the region enclosed by y = x 2 and y 2 = x
described in the positive sense.
2. Verify Green’s theorem in the plane for
2 2
∫ [(3 x − 8 y ) dx + (4 y − 6 xy) dy],
C
where C is the boundary of the region defined by y = √ x, y = x 2 .
3. Apply Green’s theorem in the plane to evaluate
∫C {( y − sin x ) dx + cos x dy},
where C is the triangle enclosed by the lines y = 0, x = 2π, πy = 2 x.
(Avadh 2010)
4. Evaluate by Green’s theorem in plane ∫C (e − x sin y dx + e − x cos y dy ),
1 1
where C is the rectangle with vertices (0, 0), (π , 0),  π , π , 0, π .
 2   2 
5. Evaluate by Green’s theorem ∫C (cos x sin y − xy) dx + sin x cos y dy,
where C is the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1. (Kumaun 2012)
6. If F = ( x 2 − y 2 ) i + 2 x y j and r = xi + yj , find the value of ∫ F • dr
around the rectangular boundary x = 0, x = a, y = 0, y = b.
 V-127

7. Verify Green’s theorem in the plane for

∫C ( x 2 − xy 3 ) dx + ( y 2 − 2 xy) dy,
where C is the square with vertices (0, 0), (2, 0), (2, 2), (0, 2).
(Meerut 2001)
8. Apply Green’s theorem in the plane to evaluate
∫C [(2 x 2 − y 2 ) dx + ( x 2 + y 2 ) dy], where C is the boundary of the
surface enclosed by the x-axis and the semi-circle y = (1 − x 2 )1 /2 .
9. If C is the simple closed curve in the xy-plane not enclosing the origin,
−i y+ jx
show that ∫ F • dr = 0, where F = .
C x2 + y2

A nswers 1
π 2
3. − − 4. 2 (e −π
− 1) 5. 0 6. 2ab 2
4 π

3 The Divergence Theorem of Gauss

Suppose V is the volume bounded by a closed piecewise smooth surface S. Suppose F ( x, y, z ) is
a vector function of position which is continuous and has continuous first partial derivatives in
V. Then ∫ ∫ ∫ ∇ • F dV = ∫ ∫ F • n dS,
V S

where n is the outward drawn unit normal vector to S.

(Meerut 2000, 01, 06, 10B, 12, 12B;
Bundelkhand 09, 11; Avadh 14; Kashi 14)
Since F • n is the normal component of vector F, therefore divergence theorem may
also be stated as follows :
The surface integral of the normal component of a vector F taken over a closed surface is equal to
the integral of the divergence of F taken over the volume enclosed by the surface.
Cartesian equivalent of Divergence Theorem:
Let F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k .
∂F ∂F ∂F
Then ∇ • F = div F = 1 + 2 + 3 .
∂x ∂y ∂z
If α, β, γ are the angles which outward drawn unit normal n makes with positive
directions of x, y, z -axes, then cos α, cos β, cos γ are direction cosines of n and we
have n = cos α i + cos β j + cos γ k .
∴ F • n = ( F1 i + F2 j + F3 k ) • (cos α i + cos β j + cos γ k )
= F1 cos α + F2 cos β + F3 cos γ .
 V-128

Therefore the divergence theorem can be written as

 ∂F1 ∂F ∂F 
∫ ∫ ∫V  + 2 + 3  dx dy dz
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
= ∫ ∫S ( F1 cos α + F2 cos β + F3 cos γ ) dS

= ∫∫ F1 dy dz + F2 dz dx + F3 dx dy).

The significance of divergence theorem lies in the fact that a surface integral
may be expressed as a volume integral and vice versa.
Proof of the divergence theorem:
We shall first prove the theorem for a special
region V which is bounded by a piecewise
smooth closed surface S and has the property
that any straight line parallel to any one of the
coordinate axes and intersecting V has only
one segment (or a single point) in common
with V. If R is the orthogonal projection of S
on the xy-plane, then V can be represented in
the form f ( x, y) ≤ z ≤ g ( x, y) where ( x, y)
varies in R.
Obviously z = g ( x, y) represents the upper portion S1 of S, z = f ( x, y) represents
the lower portion S2 of S and there may be a remaining vertical portion S3 of S.
We have
∂F3 ∂F3
∫ ∫ ∫V dV = ∫ ∫ ∫V dx dy dz
∂z ∂z
 g ( x, y) ∂F3 
= ∫ ∫ R ∫ z = f ( x, y) dz  dx dy
∂z 
g ( x, y)
= ∫ ∫ R [F3 ( x, y, z)] z = f ( x, y) dx dy
= ∫ ∫ [ F3 [ x, y, g ( x, y)] − F3 [ x, y, f ( x, y)]] dx dy
R

= ∫ ∫R F3 [ x, y, g ( x, y)] dx dy

− ∫ ∫R F3 [ x, y, f ( x, y)] dx dy ...(1)

Now for the vertical portion S3 of S, the normal n 3 to S3 makes a right angle γ with
k. Therefore ∫ ∫ S3 F3 k • n 3 dS3 = 0, since k • n 3 = 0.

For the upper portion S1 of S, the normal n1 to S1 makes an acute angle γ 1 with k.
Therefore k • n1 dS1 = cos γ 1 dS1 = dx dy.
Hence ∫ ∫ S1 F3 k • n1 dS1 = ∫ ∫R F3 [ x, y, g ( x, y)] dx dy.
 V-129

For the lower portion S2 of S,the normal n 2 to S2 makes an obtuse angle γ 2 with k.
Therefore k • n 2 dS2 = cos γ 2 dS2 = − dx dy.
Hence ∫ ∫ S1 F3 k • n 2 dS2 = − ∫ ∫R F3 [ x y, f ( x, y)] dx dy.

∴ ∫ ∫S F3 k • n 3 dS3 + ∫ ∫ S1 F3 k • n1 dS1 + ∫ ∫ S2 F3 k • n 2 dS2

=0 + ∫ ∫R F3 [ x, y, g ( x, y)] dx dy

− ∫ ∫R F3 [ x, y, f ( x, y)] dx dy

or with the help of (1), we get

∂F3
∫ ∫S F3 k • n dS = ∫ ∫ ∫V dV . ...(2)
∂z
Similarly, by projecting S on the other co-ordinate planes, we get
∂F2
∫ ∫S F2 j • n dS = ∫ ∫ ∫V dV ...(3)
∂y
∂F1
and ∫ ∫S F1 i • n dS = ∫ ∫ ∫V dV ...(4)
∂x
Adding (2), (3) and (4), we get
 ∂F1 ∂F ∂F 
∫ ∫S ( F1 i + F2 j + F3 k ) • n dS = ∫ ∫ ∫V  + 2 + 3  dV
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂z 

or ∫ ∫ ∫V ∇ • F dV = ∫ ∫S F • n dS.

The proof of the theorem can now be extended to a region V which can be
subdivided into finitely many special regions of the above type by drawing
auxiliary surfaces. In this case we apply the theorem to each sub-region and then
add the results. The sum of the volume integrals over parts of V will be equal to the
volume integral over V. The surface integrals over auxiliary surfaces cancel in pairs,
while the sum of the remaining surface integrals is equal to the surface integral over
the whole boundary S of V.

Note: The divergence theorem is applicable for a

region V if it is bounded by two closed surfaces
S1 and S2 one of which lies within the other.
Here outward drawn normals will have the
directions as shown in the figure.
 V-130

4 Some Deductions from Divergence Theorem

1. Green’s theorem: Let φ and ψ be scalar point functions which together with their
derivatives in any direction are uniform and continuous within the region V bounded by a
closed surface S, then
∫ ∫ ∫V (φ∇ 2 ψ − ψ∇ 2 φ) dV = ∫ ∫S (φ∇ ψ − ψ∇ φ) • n dS.

Proof: By divergence theorem, we have ∫ ∫ ∫V ∇ • F dV = ∫ ∫S F • n dS.

Putting F = φ∇ψ, we get ∇ • F = ∇ • (φ∇ψ)

= φ (∇ • ∇ψ) + (∇φ) • (∇ψ) = φ∇ 2 ψ + (∇φ) • (∇ψ).
Also F • n = (φ∇ψ) • n.
∴ divergence theorem gives
∫ ∫ ∫V [φ∇ 2 ψ + (∇φ) • (∇ψ)] dV = ∫ ∫S (φ∇ψ) • n dS ...(1)

This is called Green’s first identity or theorem.

Interchanging φ and ψ in (1), we get
∫ ∫ ∫V [ψ∇ 2 φ + (∇ψ) • (∇φ)] dV = ∫ ∫S [ψ∇φ] • n dS ...(2)

Subtracting (2) from (1), we get

∫ ∫ ∫V (φ∇ 2 ψ − ψ∇ 2 φ) dV = ∫ ∫S (φ∇ ψ − ψ∇φ) • n dS ...(3)

This is called Green’s second identity or Green’s theorem in symmetrical form.

∂ψ ∂φ
Since ∇ψ = n and ∇φ = n, therefore
∂n ∂n
 ∂ψ ∂φ 
(φ∇ψ − ψ∇φ) • n =  φ n−ψ n • n
 ∂n ∂n 
∂ψ ∂φ
=φ −ψ .
∂n ∂n
Hence (3) can also be written as
 ∂ψ ∂φ
∫ ∫ ∫V (φ∇ 2 ψ − ψ∇ 2 φ) dV = ∫ ∫S φ − ψ  dS.
 ∂n ∂n
Note: Harmonic function: If a scalar point function φ satisfies Laplace’s equation
∇ 2 φ = 0, then φ is called harmonic function. If φ and ψ are both harmonic functions,
then ∇ 2 φ = 0, ∇ 2 ψ = 0.
 ∂ψ ∂φ
Hence from Green’s second identity, we get ∫ ∫S φ − ψ  dS = 0.
 ∂n ∂n
2. Prove that ∫ ∫ ∫ ∇φ dV = ∫ ∫S φn dS.
V

Proof: By divergence theorem, we have ∫ ∫ ∫ ∇ • F dV = ∫ ∫S F • n dS.

V
 V-131

Taking F = φ C where C is an arbitrary constant non-zero vector, we get

∫ ∫ ∫V ∇ • (φC) dV = ∫ ∫S (φC) • n dS. ...(1)

Now ∇ • (φ C) = (∇φ) • C + φ(∇ • C) = (∇φ) • C, since ∇ • C = 0.

Also (φ C) • n = C • (φ n).
∴ (1) becomes
∫ ∫ ∫V C • (∇φ) dV = ∫ ∫S C • (φn) dS

or C•∫∫∫ ∇φ dV = C • ∫ (φn) dS
V S

or C • ∫ ∫ ∫ ∇φ dV − ∫ ∫S φn dS = 0.
 V 
Since C is an arbitrary vector, therefore we must have
∫ ∫ ∫V ∇φ dV = ∫ ∫S φn dS.

3. Prove that ∫ ∫ ∫ ∇ × B dV = ∫ ∫S n × B dS.

V

Proof: In divergence theorem taking F = B × C, where C is an arbitrary constant

vector, we get
∫ ∫ ∫V ∇ • (B × C) dV = ∫ ∫S (B × C) • n dS. ...(1)

Now ∇ • (B × C) = C • curl B − B • curl C = C • curl B, since curl C = 0.

Also (B × C) • n = [B, C, n] = [C, n, B] = C • (n × B).
∴ (1) becomes
∫ ∫ ∫V (C • curl B) dV = ∫ ∫ S C • (n × B) dS
or C • ∫ ∫ ∫ (∇ × B) dV = C • ∫ ∫ (n × B) dS
V S

or C • ∫ ∫ ∫ (∇ × B) dV − ∫ ∫S (n × B) dS = 0.
 V 
Since C is an arbitrary vector therefore we can take C as a non-zero vector which is
not perpendicular to the vector
∫ ∫ ∫V (∇ × B) dV − ∫ ∫S (n × B) dS.
Hence we must have
∫ ∫ ∫V (∇ × B) dV − ∫ ∫S (n × B) dS = 0

or ∫ ∫ ∫V (∇ × B) dV = ∫ ∫ (n × B) dS.
S

Example 4: (i) For any closed surface S, prove that ∫ ∫ curl F • n dS = 0.

S
(Meerut 2009B; Purvanchal 14; Avadh 14)
 V-132

(ii) Evaluate ∫ ∫ r • n dS, where S is a closed surface.

S
(Agra 2006; Kumaun 07; Bundelkhand 09; Purvanchal 14)
(iii) If F = ax i + by j + cz k , a, b, c are constants show that
4
∫ ∫S F • n dS = 3 π (a + b + c),
where S is the surface of a unit sphere.
(Bundelkhand 2001, 07, 08; Rohilkhand 07; Kashi 13)
Solution: (i) By divergence theorem, we have
∫ ∫S curl F • n dS = ∫ ∫ ∫V (div curl F) dV ,

where V is the volume enclosed by S

= 0, since div curl F = 0.
(ii) By the divergence theorem, we have
∫ ∫S r • n dS = ∫ ∫ ∫V ∇ • r dV = ∫ ∫ ∫V 3 dV ,
since ∇ • r = div r = 3
= 3V, where V is the volume enclosed by S.
(iii) By the divergence theorem, we have
∫ ∫S F • n dS = ∫ ∫ ∫V (∇ • F) dV ,
where V is the volume enclosed by S
= ∫ ∫ ∫V [∇ • (a x i + by j + cz k )] dV

∂ ∂ ∂ 
= ∫ ∫ ∫V  (a x) + (by) + (cz ) dV
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
= ∫ ∫ ∫V (a + b + c ) dV
4
= (a + b + c ) V = (a + b + c ) π,
3
4 4
since the volume V enclosed by a sphere of unit radius is equal to π(1)3 i. e., π.
3 3
Example 5(i): Show that ∫ ∫ n dS = 0 for any closed surface S.
S (Purvanchal 14)
(ii) Prove that ∫ ∫ r × n dS = 0 for any closed surface S.
S (Agra 2007)
(iii) Prove that ∫ ∫ n × (a × r) dS = 2Va, where a is a constant vector and V is the volume
S

enclosed by the closed surface S. (Avadh 2011, 12)

Solution: (i) Let C be any arbitrary constant vector.
Then C• ∫ ∫ n dS = ∫ ∫S C • n dS
S

= ∫ ∫ ∫V (∇ • C) dV , by divergence theorem
= 0, since div C = 0.
 V-133

Thus C•∫ ∫ n dS = 0, where C is an arbitrary vector.

S

Therefore we must have ∫ ∫ n dS = 0.

S
(ii) Let C be any arbitrary constant vector. Then
C•∫∫ r × n dS = ∫ ∫S C • [(r × n)] dS = ∫ ∫S (C × r) • n dS
S

= ∫ ∫ ∫V [∇ • (C × r)] dV , by divergence theorem

= ∫ ∫ ∫V [r • curl C − C • curl r] dV = 0,
since curl C = 0 and curl r = 0.
Thus C•∫∫ r × n dS = 0, where C is an arbitrary vector.
S

Therefore, we must have ∫ ∫ r × n dS = 0.

S

(iii) We know that

∫ ∫ ∫V ∇ × B dV = ∫ ∫S n × B dS. [See article 4, part 3]

Putting B = a × r, we get
∫ ∫S n × (a × r) dS = ∫ ∫ ∫V ∇ × (a × r) dV

= ∫ ∫ ∫V curl (a × r) dV

= ∫ ∫ ∫V 2a dV , since curl (a × r) = 2a

= 2a ∫ ∫ ∫ dV = 2Va .
V

Example 6: Using the divergence theorem, show that the volume V of a region T bounded by
a surface S is
V = ∫∫ x dy dz = ∫ ∫ y dz dx = ∫ ∫ z dx dy
S S S
1
= ∫ ∫ ( x dy dz + y dz dx + z dx dy).
3 S (Meerut 2010)
Solution: By divergence theorem, we have
∂ 
∫ ∫ S x dy dz = ∫ ∫ ∫V  ∂x ( x) dV = ∫ ∫ ∫V dV = V
∂ 
∫ ∫S y dz dx = ∫ ∫ ∫V  ( y) dV = ∫ ∫ ∫V dV = V
 ∂y 
∂ 
∫ ∫S z dx dy = ∫ ∫ ∫V  (z ) dV = ∫ ∫ ∫V dV = V .
 ∂z 
Adding these results, we get
3V = ∫ ∫ ( x dy dz + y dz dx + z dx dy )
S
1
or V = ∫ ∫ ( x dy dz + y dz dx + z dx dy).
3 S
 V-134

Example 7: Verify divergence theorem for

F = ( x 2 − yz ) i + ( y 2 − zx ) j + ( z 2 − x y ) k
taken over the rectangular parallelopiped 0 ≤ x ≤ a, 0 ≤ y ≤ b, 0 ≤ z ≤ c .
(Meerut 2006B; Avadh 09; Rohilkhand 13)
Solution: We have
div F = ∇ • F
∂ ∂ ∂
= ( x 2 − yz ) + ( y 2 − zx ) + ( z2 − x y )
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 2 x + 2 y + 2z.
∴ volume integer = ∫ ∫ ∫ ∇ • F dV = ∫ ∫ ∫V 2( x + y + z ) dV
V
c b a
= 2∫ ∫ y =0 ∫ x =0 ( x + y + z ) dx dy dz
z= 0
a
c b  x2 
=2 ∫z =0 ∫ y =0  + yx + zx dy dz
2  x =0
c b  a2 
=2 ∫z =0 ∫ y =0  + ay + az  dy dz
2 
b
c  a2 y2 
= 2∫  y+a + azy dz
z =0
 2 2 
y =0

c 2
 a b ab 2
=2 ∫z =0  + + abz  dz
 2 2 
c
 a2 b ab 2 z 2
=2 z + z + ab 
 2 2 2 0
= [a2 bc + ab 2 c + abc 2 ] = abc (a + b + c ).

Surface Integral: We shall now calculate ∫ ∫ F • n dS over the six faces of the
S
rectangular parallelopiped.
Over the face DEFG, n = i, x = a.
Therefore, ∫ ∫ DEFG F • n dS
c b
= ∫z =0 ∫ y =0 [(a2 − y z ) i

+ ( y 2 − za) j + (z 2 − ay) k ] • i dy dz
c b
= ∫z =0 ∫ y =0 (a2 − yz ) dy dz
b
c  2 y2 
= ∫z =0 a y − z  dz
 2 
y =0
 V-135

c
c  2 zb 2   2 z2 2  c 2 b2
= ∫z =0 a b −  dz = a bz − b  = a2 bc − ⋅
 2   4 0 4
Over the face ABCO, n = − i, x = 0. Therefore
∫ ∫ABCO F • n dS = ∫∫ [(0 − yz ) i + ... + ... ] • (− i) dy dz
b
c b c  y2 
= ∫z =0 ∫ y =0 y z dy dz = ∫z =0  z dz
 2  y =0

c b2 b2 c 2
= ∫z =0 z dz = ⋅
2 4
Over the face ABEF, n = j , y = b. Therefore
c a
∫ ∫ ABEF F • n dS = ∫z =0 ∫ x =0 [( x 2 − bz ) i + (b 2 − zx) j

+ ( z 2 − bx ) k ] • j dx dz
c a a2 c 2
= ∫z =0 ∫ x =0 (b 2 − zx) dx dz = b 2 ca − ⋅
4
Over the face OGDC, n = − j, y = 0. Therefore
c a c 2 a2
∫ ∫ OGDC F • n dS = ∫z=0 ∫ x =0 zx dx dz = ⋅
4
Over the face BCDE, n = k , z = c . Therefore
b a a2 b 2
∫ ∫ BCDE F • n dS = ∫ y =0 ∫ x =0 (c 2 − xy ) dx dy = c 2 ab − ⋅
4
Over the face AFGO, n = − k , z = 0. Therefore
b a a2 b 2
∫ ∫ AFGO F • n dS = ∫ y =0 ∫ x =0 x y dx dy = ⋅
4
Adding the six surface integrals, we get
 c 2 b2 c 2 b2   2 a2 c 2 a2 c 2 
∫ ∫S F • n dS =  a2 bc − +  +  b ca − + 
 4 4   4 4 
 a2 b 2 a2 b 2 
+  c 2 ab − + 
 4 4 
= abc (a + b + c ).
Hence the theorem is verified.

Example 8: If F = x i − y j + (z 2 − 1)k , find the value of ∫ ∫S F • n dS where S is the

closed surface bounded by the planes z = 0, z = 1 and the cylinder x 2 + y 2 = 4.

(Garhwal 2000; Kanpur 05; Avadh 13; Kumaun 15)

Solution: By divergence theorem, we have ∫ ∫S F • n dS = ∫ ∫ ∫V div F dV .

 V-136

∂ ∂ ∂ 2
Here div F = ( x) + (− y) + (z − 1) = 1 − 1 + 2z = 2 z.
∂x ∂y ∂z
1 2 √(4 − y 2 )
∴ ∫ ∫ ∫V div F dV = ∫ z = 0 ∫ y =−2 ∫ x = −√(4 − y 2 ) 2z dx dy dz

1 2 √(4 − y 2 )
= ∫ z = 0 ∫ y = −2 [2zx] dy dz
x = −√(4 − y 2 )
1 2
= ∫z = 0 ∫ y = −2 4z √ (4 − y 2 ) dy dz
1
2  z2 
= ∫ y = −2 4 √ (4 − y 2 ) dy
 2  z =0
2 2
= 2∫ √ (4 − y 2 ) dy = 4∫ √ (4 − y 2 ) dy
y = −2 0

y y 2
=4 √ (4 − y 2 ) + 2 sin −1 
2 2 0
π
= 4 [2 sin −1 1] = 4 (2) = 4π.
2

Comprehensive Exercise 2

1. (i) Verify divergence theorem for F = (2 x − z )i + x 2 yj − xz 2 k taken over

the region bounded by x = 0, x = 2, y = 0, y = 2, z = 0, z = 2.

(ii) Verify divergence theorem for F = (2 x − z ) i + x 2 y j − xz 2 k taken

over the region bounded by x = 0, x = 1, y = 0, y = 1, z = 0, z = 1.
(Garhwal 2001; Kumaun 14)
2
2. (i) If F = 4 xz i − y j + yz k and S is the surface bounded by
x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, x = 1, y = 1, z = 1, evaluate ∫ ∫S F • n dS.

(ii) Evaluate ∫ ∫ x 2 dy dz + y 2 dz dx + 2z ( xy − x − y) dx dy
S

where S is the surface of the cube 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1.

(Kumaun 2015)

3. (i) Evaluate ∫ ∫S [4 xz dy dz − y 2 dz dx + yz dx dy] where S is the

surface of the cube bounded by the planes x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, x = 1,

y = 1 and z = 1. (Meerut 2005, 06B, 10B, 11)
 V-137

(ii) Apply Gauss’s divergence theorem to evaluate

∫ ∫S [( x 3 − yz ) dy dz − 2 x 2 y dz dx + z dx dy ]
over the surface of a cube bounded by the coordinate planes and the
planes x = y = z = a. (Rohilkhand 2011)
4. (i) State divergence theorem of Gauss.
(ii) Use Gauss divergence theorem to show that
1 5
∫ ∫S {( x 3 − yz ) i − 2 x 2 y j + 2 k } • n dS = a ,
3
where S denotes the surface of the cube bounded by the planes
x = 0, x = a, y = 0, y = a, z = 0, z = a. (Bundelkhand 2005, 06)
5. Evaluate ∫ ∫ ( x i + y j + z k ) • n dS where S denotes the surface of the cube
S

bounded by the planes x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, x = a, y = a, z = a by the

application of Gauss divergence theorem. Verify your answer by evaluating the
integral directly. (Garhwal 2003)
6. (i) Evaluate by divergence theorem the integral
2 2 3 2
∫ ∫ xz dy dz + ( x y − z ) dz dx + (2 xy + y z) dx dy,
S
where S is the entire surface of the hemispherical region bounded by
z = √ (a2 − x 2 − y 2 ) and z = 0.
(ii) Evaluate ∫ ∫S ( y 2 z 2 i + z 2 x 2 j + z 2 y 2 k ) • n dS

where S is the part of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 above the xy-plane

and bounded by this plane. (Bundelkhand 2006)
7. (i) If F = ax i + by j + cz k , where a,b,c are constants, show that
4π
∫ ∫ S (n • F) dS = 3 (a + b + c),
S being the surface of the sphere ( x − 1)2 + ( y − 2)2 + ( z − 3)2 = 1.
(ii) If S is any closed surface enclosing a volume V and
F = x i + 2 y j + 3 z k , prove that ∫ ∫ F • n dS = 6V .
S
(Rohilkhand 2009B)
8. Verify the divergence theorem for F = 4 xi − 2 y 2 j + z 2 k
taken over the region bounded by the surfaces x 2 + y 2 = 4, z = 0, z = 3.
(Garhwal 2002; Bundelkhand 08)
9. Use Gauss divergence theorem to find ∫ ∫ F • n dS, where
S
F = 2 x 2 y i − y 2 j + 4 xz 2 k and S is the closed surface in the first octant
bounded by y 2 + z 2 = 9 and x = 2.
10. If F = y i + ( x − 2 xz ) j − x y k , evaluate ∫ ∫S (∇ × F) • n dS where S is the

surface of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 above the xy-plane.

 V-138

11. Evaluate ∫ ∫S (∇ × F) • n dS,

where F = ( x 2 + y − 4) i + 3 x y j + (2 xz + z 2 ) k and S is the surface of the
paraboloid z = 4 − ( x 2 + y 2 ) above the xy-plane.
12. Compute
(i) ∫ ∫S (a2 x 2 + b 2 y 2 + c 2 z 2 )1 /2 dS, and

(ii) ∫ ∫S (a2 x 2 + b 2 y 2 + c 2 z 2 ) −1 /2 dS
over the ellipsoid ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 = 1.

13. Evaluate ∫ ∫S ( x 2 + y 2 ) dS, where S is the surface of the cone

z 2 = 3 ( x 2 + y 2 ) bounded by z = 0 and z = 3.
14. Show that ∫ ∫S ( x 2 i + y 2 j + z 2 k ) • n dS vanishes where S denotes the

x2 y2 z2
surface of the ellipsoid + + = 1.
a2 b2 c2
(Meerut 2005, 07; Kumaun 11, 13)
15. If n is the unit outward drawn normal to any closed surface S, show that
∫ ∫ ∫V div n dV = S.

A nswers 2
3 1 3  a3 
2. (i) (ii) 3. (i) (ii) a2  + a
2 2 2  3 
2πa5 π
5. 3a 3 6. (i) (ii)
5 12
9. 180 10. 0
4 4π
11. − 4π 12.(i) π abc. (ii)
3 √ (abc )
13. 9π

5 Stoke’s Theorem
Let S be a piecewise smooth open surface bounded by a piecewise smooth simple closed curve C.
Let F ( x, y, z ) be a continuous vector function which has continuous first partial derivatives
in a region of space which contains S in its interior. Then

∫C F • dr = ∫ ∫S (∇ × F) • n dS = ∫ ∫S (curl F) • dS
 V-139

where C is traversed in the positive direction. The direction of C is called positive if an observer,
walking on the boundary of S in this direction, with his head pointing in the direction of
outward drawn normal n to S, has the surface on the left.
(Meerut 2009; Bundelkhand 10)

Note: F • dr =  F • dr  ds = (F • t) ds, where t is unit tangent vector

∫C ∫C 


ds  ∫C
to C. Therefore F • t is the component of F in the direction of the tangent vector of
C. Also (∇ × F) • n is the component of curl F in the direction of outward drawn
normal vector n of [Link] in words Stoke’s theorem may be stated as follows:
The line integral of the tangential component of vector F taken around a simple closed curve C is
equal to the surface integral of the normal component of the curl of F taken over any surface S
having C as its boundary.

Cartesian equivalent of Stoke’s theorem:

Let F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k . Let outward drawn normal vector n of S make angles
α, β, γ with positive directions of x, y, z axes.
Then n = cos α i + cos β j + cos γ k .
 i j k 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
Also ∇ × F =
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

 F1 F2 F3 
 ∂F ∂F   ∂F ∂F   ∂F2 ∂F 
=  3 − 2 i +  1 − 3 j+  − 1  k.
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 
 ∂F ∂F   ∂F ∂F 
∴ (∇ × F) • n =  3 − 2  cos α +  1 − 3  cos β
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x 
 ∂F ∂F 
+  2 − 1  cos γ.
 ∂ x ∂y 
Also F • dr = ( F1 i + F2 j + F3 k ) • (dx i + dy j + dz k )
= F1 dx + F2 dy + F3 dz .
∴ Stoke’s theorem can be written as
∫C F1 dx + F2 dy + F3 dz

 ∂F3 ∂F   ∂F ∂F 
= ∫ ∫S  − 2  cos α +  1 − 3  cos β
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x 

 ∂F ∂F  
+  2 − 1  cos γ  dS.
 ∂x ∂y  
 V-140

Proof of Stoke’s theorem: Let S be a

surface which is such that its
projections on the xy, yz and zx planes
are regions bounded by simple closed
curves. Suppose S can be represented
simultaneously in the forms
z = f ( x, y ), y = g ( x, z ),
x = h ( z, y ) where f , g, h are
continuous functions and have
continuous first partial derivatives.
Consider the integral
∫ ∫S [∇ × ( F1 i)] • n dS.

 i j k 
 ∂ ∂ ∂  ∂F1 ∂F
We have ∇ × ( F1 i) =   = j − 1 k.
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂z ∂y
 F1 0 0 
 ∂F ∂F  ∂F ∂F
∴ [∇ × ( F1 i)] • n =  1 j • n − 1 k • n = 1 cos β − 1 cos γ .
 ∂ z ∂ y  ∂ z ∂y
 ∂F1 ∂F 
∴ ∫ ∫S [∇ × ( F1 i)] • n dS = ∫∫ S  cos β − 1 cos γ  dS.
 ∂z ∂y 
We shall prove that
 ∂F1 ∂F 
∫ ∫S  cos β − 1 cos γ  dS = ∫C F1 dx.
 ∂z ∂y 
Let R be the orthogonal projection of S on the xy-plane and let Γ be its boundary
which is oriented as shown in the figure. Using the representation z = f ( x, y ) of S,
we may write the line integral over C as a line integral over Γ. Thus
∫C F1 ( x, y, z ) dx = ∫ Γ F1 [ x, y, f ( x, y )] dx

= ∫ Γ {F1 [ x, y, f ( x, y )] dx + 0 dy}
∂F1
= −∫∫ dx dy,
R
∂y
by Green’s theorem in plane for the region R.
∂F1 [ x, y, f ( x, y )] ∂F1 ( x, y, z ) ∂F1 ( x, y, z ) ∂f
But = + ⋅
∂y ∂y ∂z ∂y
[∵ z = f ( x, y)]
 ∂F1 ∂F ∂f 
∴ ∫C F1 ( x, y, z ) dx = − ∫ ∫R  + 1  dx dy ...(1)
 ∂y ∂z ∂y 
Now the equation z = f ( x, y ) of the surface S can be written as
φ ( x, y, z ) ≡ z − f ( x, y ) = 0.
 V-141

∂f ∂f
We have grad φ = − i− j + k.
∂x ∂y
Let | grad φ | = a.
grad φ
Since grad φ is normal to S, therefore, we get n = ± ⋅
a
But the components of both n and grad φ in positive direction of z-axis are positive.
Therefore
grad φ
n=+
a
1 ∂f 1 ∂f 1
or cos α i + cos β j + cos γ k = − i− j + k.
a ∂x a ∂y a
1 ∂f 1 ∂f 1
∴ cos α = − , cos β = − , cos γ = ⋅
a ∂x a ∂y a
dx dy
Now dS = = a dx dy.
cos γ
 ∂F1 ∂F 
∴ ∫ ∫S  cos β − 1 cos γ  dS
 ∂z ∂y 
 ∂F1  1 ∂f  ∂F1 1
= ∫ ∫R  −  −  a dx dy
 ∂z  a ∂y  ∂y a
 ∂F1 ∂F ∂f 
=− ∫ ∫R  + 1  dx dy. ...(2)
 ∂y ∂z ∂y 
From (1) and (2), we get
 ∂F1 ∂F 
∫C F1 dx = ∫ ∫S  cos β − 1 cos γ  dS
 ∂z ∂y 
= ∫ ∫S [∇ × ( F1 i)] • n dS ...(3)

Similarly, by projections on the other coordinate planes, we get

∫C F2 dy = ∫ ∫S [∇ × ( F2 j)] • n dS ...(4)

∫C F3 dz = ∫ ∫S [∇ × ( F3 k )] • n dS ...(5)

Adding (3), (4), (5), we get

∫C ( F1 dx + F2 dy + F3 dz ) = ∫ ∫S [∇ × ( F1 i + F2 j + F3 k )] • n dS

or ∫C F • dr = ∫ ∫S (∇ × F) • n dS.

If the surface S does not satisfy the restrictions imposed above, even then Stoke’s
theorem will be true provided S can be subdivided into surfaces S1 , S2 , ... , S k
with boundaries C1 , C2 , ... , Ck which do satisfy the restrictions. Stoke’s theorem
 V-142

holds for each such surface. The sum of surface integrals over S1 , S2 , ... , S k will
give us surface integral over S while the sum of the integrals over C1 , C2 , ... , Ck
will give us line integral over C.
Note: Green’s theorem in plane is a special case of Stoke’s theorem. If R is a
region in the xy-plane bounded by a closed curve C, then in vector form Green’s
theorem in plane can be written as
∫ ∫R (∇ × F) • k dR = ∫C F • dr.

This is nothing but a special case of Stoke’s theorem because here k = n = outward
drawn unit normal to the surface of region R.

Example 9: Prove that ∫ r • dr = 0. (Meerut 2010)

C

Solution: By Stoke’s theorem ∫C r • dr = ∫ ∫S (curl r) • n dS = 0,since curl r = 0.

Example 10: By Stoke’s theorem prove that div curl F = 0.

Solution: Let V be any volume enclosed by a closed surface.

Then by divergence theorem
∫ ∫ ∫V ∇ • (curl F) dV = ∫ ∫S (curl F) • n dS.
Divide the surface S into two portions S1 and S2
by a closed curve C. Then
∫ ∫S (curl F) • n dS = ∫ ∫ S1 (curl F) • n dS1

+ ∫ ∫ S2 (curl F) • n dS2 . ... (1)

By Stoke’s theorem right hand side of (1) is = ∫C F • dr − ∫C F • dr = 0.

Negative sign has been taken in the second integral because the positive directions
about the boundaries of the two surfaces are opposite.
∴ ∫ ∫ ∫V ∇ • (curl F) dV = 0.
Now this equation is true for all volume elements V. Therefore we have
∇ • (curl F) = 0 or div curl F = 0.
Example 11: Verify Stoke’s theorem for F = y i + z j + x k where S is the upper half
surface of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 and C is its boundary.
(Agra 2000, 06; Kanpur 09; Kumaun 07, 10, 13)
Solution: The boundary C of S is a circle in the xy-plane of radius unity and centre
origin. The equations of the curve C are x 2 + y 2 = 1, z = 0. Suppose
x = cos t, y = sin t, z = 0, 0 ≤ t < 2 π are parametric equation of C. Then
 V-143

∫C F • dr = ∫C ( y i + z j + x k ) • (dx i + dy j + dz k )

= ∫C ( y dx + z dy + x dz )

= ∫C y dx, since on C, z = 0 and dz = 0

2π dx 2π
= ∫0 sin t dt = ∫0 − sin2 t dt
dt
1 2π 1  sin 2t  2 π
=− ∫ (1 − cos 2t ) dt = − t −
2 0 2 2  0

= − π. ...(1)
Now let us evaluate ∫ ∫ curl F • n dS. We have
S
 i j k 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
curl F = ∇ × F =  = – i – j – k.
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

 y z x 
If S1 is the plane region bounded by the circle C, then by an application of
divergence theorem, we have
∫ ∫S curl F • n dS = ∫ ∫ S1 curl F • k dS

[See example 4 after article 4]

= ∫ ∫ S1 (− i − j − k ) • k dS
= ∫ ∫S1 (− 1) dS = − ∫ ∫S1 dS = − S1 .

But S1 = area of a circle of radius 1 = π (1)2 = π.

∴ ∫ ∫S curl F • n dS = − π. ...(2)

Hence from (1) and (2), the theorem is verified.

Example 12: Verify Stoke’s theorem for F = (2 x − y) i − yz 2 j − y 2 z k , where S is the

upper half surface of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 and C is its boundary.
(Kumaun 2003; Kanpur 10, 14; Avadh 09)
Solution: The boundary C of S is a circle in the xy-plane of radius unity and centre
origin. Suppose x = cos t, y = sin t, z = 0,0 ≤ t < 2 π are parametric equations of
C. Then
2 2
∫ F • dr = ∫ [(2 x − y )i − yz j − y z k ] • (dx i + dy j + dz k )
C C
=∫C [(2 x − y) dx − yz 2 dy − y 2 z dz ]

=∫ (2 x − y) dx, since z = 0 and dz = 0

C
2π dx
= ∫0 (2 cos t − sin t) dt
dt
 V-144

2π
=−∫ (2 cos t − sin t) sin t dt
0
2π 1
=−∫ [sin 2t −
(1 − cos 2t)] dt
0 2
2π
 cos 2t 1 1 sin 2t 
= − − − t+
 2 2 2 2  0
1 1 1 1
= − [(− + ) − (π − 0) + (0 − 0)] = π. ...(1)
2 2 2 4
 i j k 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
And (∇ × F) =  
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
2
 2 x − y − yz − y2 z 
= (− 2 yz + 2 yz ) i − (0 − 0) j + (0 + 1) k = k .
Let S1 be the plane region bounded by the circle C. If S′ is the surface consisting of
the surfaces S and S1 , then S′ is a closed surface.
∴ by an application of Gauss divergence theorem, we have
∫ ∫ S′ curl F • n dS = 0 [See example 4(i) after article 4 ]

or ∫ ∫S curl F • n dS + ∫ ∫ S1 curl F • n dS = 0
[∵ S ′ consists of S and S1 ]
or ∫ ∫S curl F • n dS − ∫ ∫ S1 curl F • k dS = 0 [∵ on S1 , n = − k ]

or ∫ ∫S curl F • n dS = ∫ ∫ S1 curl F • k dS.

∴ ∫ ∫S curl F • n dS = ∫ ∫ S1 curl F • k dS

= ∫ ∫ S1 k • k dS = ∫ ∫ S1 dS = S1 = π . ...(2)

Note that S1 = area of a circle of radius 1 = π (1)2 = π .

Hence from (1) and (2) Stoke’s theorem is verified.

Example 13: Verify Stoke’s theorem for F = ( x 2 + y 2 ) i − 2 x yj taken round the

rectangle bounded by x = ± a, y = 0, y = b. (Bundelkhand 2007; Agra 08;
Kumaun 15)
 i j k 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
Solution: We have curl F =  
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
2
x + y2 −2 xy 0 
= (− 2 y − 2 y ) k = − 4 y k .
Also n = k.
b a
∴ ∫ ∫S (curl F) • n dS = ∫ y = 0 ∫ x = −a (− 4 y k ) • k dx dy
 V-145

b a
=−4 ∫ y = 0 ∫ x = −a y dx dy
b a
= − 4∫ [ xy] x = − a dy
y= 0
b
= − 4∫ 2ay dy
y=0
b
= − 4 [ay 2 ] 0 = − 4ab 2 .
2 2
Also o∫ F • dr = ∫ C [( x + y ) i − 2 xy j ] • (dx i + dy j)
C

= o∫ [( x 2 + y 2 ) dx − 2 xy dy ]
C

=∫ [( x 2 + y 2 ) dx − 2 xy dy ] + ∫ +∫ +∫ .
DA AB BE ED

Along DA , y = 0 and dy = 0. Along AB, x = a and dx = 0.

Along BE, y = b and dy = 0. Along ED, x = − a and dx = 0.
a b
∴ ∫C F • dr = ∫ x = −a x 2 dx + ∫ − 2ay dy
y =0
−a 0
+ ∫x=a ( x 2 + b 2 ) dx + ∫ y=b 2ay dy
a a b
= ∫ −a x 2 dx − ∫ ( x 2 + b 2 ) dx − 4a ∫ y dy
−a 0
b
a b  y2 
2 2
=− ∫ −a x dx − 4a ∫0 y dy = − 2ab − 4a   = − 4ab 2 .
 2 
0
Thus ∫C F • dr = ∫ ∫S (curl F) • n dS.
Hence the theorem is verified.

Example 14: Evaluate ∫C F • dr by Stoke’s theorem where

F = y 2 i + x 2 j − (x + z) k
and C is the boundary of the triangle with vertices at (0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0).
(Avadh 2013)
Solution: We have
Y
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂ B (1, 1)
Curl F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
y2 x2 (x + z)
= 0 i + j + 2 ( x − y ) k.
Also we note that z co-ordinate of each vertex O
A (1, 0) X
of the triangle is zero. Therefore the triangle lies
in the xy-plane. So n = k .
∴ Curl F • n = [ j + 2 ( x − y)k ] • k = 2 ( x − y).
 V-146

In the figure, we have only considered the x y plane.

The equation of the line OB is y = x.
By Stoke’s theorem
∫C F • dr = ∫ ∫S (curl F ) • n dS
1 x
= ∫ x =0 ∫ y =0
2 ( x − y ) dx dy
x
1
 y2 
= 2 ∫ x =0  x y −  dx
 2 
 y =0
1  x2  1 x2
= 2∫  x 2 −  dx = 2∫ dx
0 2 0 2

1 1
= ∫ x 2 dx = ⋅
0 3

Comprehensive Exercise 3

1. (i) State Stoke’s theorem.

(ii) By Stoke’s theorem prove that curl grad φ = 0. (Kumaun 2014)
(iii) Verify Stoke’s theorem for the function F = zi + xj + y k where curve
is the unit circle in the xy-plane bounding the hemisphere
z = √ (1 − x 2 − y 2 ). (Garhwal 2003; Agra 07)
2. Verify Stoke’s theorem for the vector F = z i + x j + y k taken over the half
of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 lying above the xy-plane.
3. (i) Verify Stoke’s theorem for the function F = x 2 i + xy j integrated along
the rectangle, in the plane z = 0, whose sides are along the lines
x = 0, y = 0, x = a and y = b.
(ii) Verify Stoke’s theorem for the function F = ( x 2 − y 2 ) i + 2xy j in
the rectangular region in the xy-plane bounded by the lines
x = 0, x = a, y = 0 and y = b . (Kanpur 2008)
2
(iii) Verify Stoke’s theorem for the function F = x i + xy j, integrated
round the square, in the plane z = 0, whose sides are along the lines
x = 0, y = 0, x = a, y = a. (Agra 2002)
4. Verify Stoke’s theorem for the vector A = 3 y i − xz j + yz 2 k , where S is
the surface of the paraboloid 2z = x 2 + y 2 bounded by z = 2 and C is its
boundary.
 V-147

5. (i) By converting into a line integral evaluate

∫ ∫S (∇ × A) • n dS, where A = ( x − z ) i + ( x 3 + yz ) j − 3 xy 2 k

and S is the surface of the cone z = 2 − √ ( x 2 + y 2 ) above the

xy-plane.
(ii) By converting into a line integral evaluate ∫ ∫S (∇ × F) • n dS

where F = ( x 2 + y − 4) i + 3 xy j + (2 xy + z 2 ) k and S is the surface of

the paraboloid z = 4 − ( x 2 + y 2 ) above the xy-plane.
6. (i) Evaluate by Stoke’s theorem ∫C (e x dx + 2 y dy − dz )

where C is the curve x 2 + y 2 = 4, z = 2. (Garhwal 2001; Meerut 09B)

(ii) Evaluate by Stoke’s theorem ∫C ( yz dx + xz dy + xy dz )

where C is the curve x 2 + y 2 = 1, z = y 2 . (Meerut 2006B)

7. (i) Evaluate ∫ ∫ (∇ × F) • n dS, where F = ( y − z + 2) i +
S

( yz + 4) j − xz k and S is the surface of the cube x = y = z = 0,

x = y = z = 2 above the xy-plane.
(ii) Evaluate by Stoke’s theorem ∫ (sin z dx − cos x dy + sin y dz ) where
C

C is the boundary of the rectangle 0 ≤ x ≤ π, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1, z = 3.

(Meerut 2009)
8. If f = ∇ φ and g = ∇ψ are two vector point functions, such that ∇ 2 φ = 0,
∇ 2 ψ = 0, show that

∫ ∫S (g • ∇) f • dS = ∫C (f × g) • dr + ∫ ∫ (f • ∇)g • dS.
S

9. Prove that a necessary and sufficient condition that ∫ F • dr = 0 for every

C

closed curve C lying in a simply connected region R is that ∇ × F = 0

identically.
10. Apply Stoke’s theorem to prove that

∫C ( y dx + z dy + x dz ) = − 2 √ 2 πa2
where C is the curve given by x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2ax − 2ay = 0, x + y = 2a
and begins at the point (2 a, 0, 0) and goes at first below the z-plane.
(Meerut 2005, 06B)
11. Use Stoke’s theorem to evaluate ∫ ∫ (∇ × F) • n dS,
S

where F = y i + ( x − 2 xz ) j − x y k and S is the surface of sphere

x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 , above the xy-plane. (Kumaun 2012)
 V-148

A nswers 3
5. (i) 12π (ii) − 4π 7. (i) − 4 (ii) 2
11. 0

6 Line Integrals Independent of Path

Let F ( x, y, z ) = f ( x, y, z ) i + g ( x, y, z ) j + h ( x, y, z ) k be a vector point function
defined and continuous in a region R of space. Let P and Q be two points in R and
let C be a path joining P to Q. Then

∫C F • dr = ∫ ( f dx + g dy + h dz ) ... (1)

is called the line integral of F along C. In general the value of this line integral
depends not only on the end points P and Q of the path C but also on C.
In other words, if we integrate from P to Q along different paths, we shall, in
general, get different values of the integral. The line integral (1) is said to be
independent of path in R, if for every pair of end points P and Q in R the value of the
integral is the same for all paths C in R starting from P and ending at Q.
In this case the value of this line integral will depend on the choice of P and Q and
not on the choice of the path joining P to Q.

Definition: The expression f dx + g dy + h dz is said to be an exact differential if there

exists a single valued scalar point function φ ( x, y, z ), having continuous first partial
derivatives such that dφ = f dx + g dy + h dz .
It can be easily seen that f dx + g dy + h dz is an exact differential if and only if the
vector function F = f i + g j + h k is the gradient of a single valued scalar function
φ ( x, y, z ).
Because F = grad φ
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
if, and only if f i + g j+ hk = i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
if, and only if f = , g= , h=
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
if, and only if f dx + g dy + h dz = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
if, and only if f dx + g dy + h dz = d φ.

Thus F = grad φ if, and only if f dx + g dy + h dz is an exact differential dφ.

 V-149

Theorem 1: Let f (x, y, z), g (x, y, z) and h (x, y, z) be continuous in a region R of space.
Then the line integral
∫ ( f dx + g dy + h dz )

is independent of path in R if and only if the differential form under the integral sign is exact in
R.
Or
Let F ( x, y, z ) be continuous in region R of space. Then the line integral ∫C F • dr

is independent of the path C in R joining P and Q if and only if F = grad φ where φ ( x, y, z )

is a single-valued scalar function having continuous first partial derivatives in R.
Proof: Suppose F = grad φ in R. Let P and Q be any two points in R and let C be
any path from P to Q in R.
Then ∫C F • dr = ∫C ∇φ • dr
 ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ 
= ∫C  i+ j+ k  • (dx i + dy j + dz k)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ 
= ∫C  dx + dy + dz 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
= ∫C dφ
Q
= ∫P dφ = [ φ ] Q
P

= φ (Q) − φ ( P).

Thus the line integral depends only on points P and Q and not on the path joining
them. This is true, of course, only if φ ( x, y, z ) is single valued at all points P and Q.
Conversely, suppose the line integral ∫C F • dr is independent of the path C

joining any two points P and Q in R. Let P be a fixed point ( x0 , y0 , z 0 ) in R and

let Q be any point ( x, y, z ) in R.
( x, y, z)
Let φ ( x, y, z ) = ∫( x0 , y0 , z0 ) F • dr
( x, y, z)  dr 
= ∫ x0 , y0 , z0  F • ds  ds.
Differentiating both sides with respect to s, we get
dφ dr
=F• .
ds ds
dφ ∂φ dx ∂φ dy ∂φ dz
But = + +
ds ∂x ds ∂y ds ∂z ds
 ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ   dx dy dz 
= i+ j+ k  • i + j+ k 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ds ds ds 
 V-150

dr
=∇φ• .
ds
dr dr
∴ F• =∇φ•
ds ds
dr
or (∇ φ – F) • = 0.
ds
Now this result is true irrespective of the path joining P to Q i. e. this result is true
dr
irrespective of the direction of which is tangent vector to C. Therefore we must
ds
have ∇φ – F = 0 i.e., ∇ φ = F.
This completes the proof of the theorem.

Definition: A vector field F ( x, y, z ) defined and continuous in a region R of space is said to

be a conservative vector field if the line integral ∫ F • dr is independent of the path C in R
C

joining P and Q where P and Q are any two points in R.

By theorem 1, vector field F ( x, y, z ) is conservative if and only if F = ∇ φ where
φ ( x, y, z ) is a single valued scalar function having continuous first partial
derivatives in R. The function φ ( x, y, z ) is called the scalar potential of the vector
field F.

Theorem 2: Let F ( x, y, z ) be a vector function defined and continuous in a region R of

Q
space. Then the line integral ∫ F • dr is independent of the path joining any two points P
P

and Q in R if and only if ∫C F • dr = 0 for every simple closed path in R.

Proof: Let C be any simple closed path in R and

let the line integral be independent of path in
R. Take two points P and Q on C and subdivide
C into two arcs PBQ and QAP. Then
∫C F • dr = ∫ PBQAP F • dr

= ∫ PBQ F • dr + ∫ F • dr
QAP

= ∫ PBQ F • dr − ∫ F • dr
PAQ

= 0,
since the integral from P to Q along a path through B is equal to the integral from P
to Q along a path through A.
Conversely, suppose that the integral under consideration is zero on every simple
closed path in R. Let P and Q be any two points in R which join P to Q and do not
cross. Then
 V-151

∫ PBQAP F • dr = ∫ PBQ F • dr + ∫ QAP F • dr

= ∫ PBQ F • dr − ∫ F • dr.
PAQ

But as given, we have

∫ PBQAP F • dr = 0.

∴ ∫ PBQ F • dr − ∫ PAQ F • dr = 0

or ∫ PBQ F • dr = ∫ PAQ F • dr.

This completes the proof of the theorem.

Theorem 3: Let F ( x, y, z ) = f i + g j + h k be a continuous vector function having

continuous first partial derivatives in a region R of space. If ∫ f dx + g dy + h dz is
independent of path in R and consequently f dx + g dy + h dz is an exact differential in R,
then curl F = 0 everywhere in R. Conversely, if R is simply connected and curl F = 0
everywhere in R, then f dx + g dy + h dz is an exact differential in R or
∫ f dx + g dy + h dz is independent of path in R.

Proof: Suppose ∫ ( f dx + g dy + h dz ) is independent of path in R. Then

f dx + g dy + h dz is an exact differential in R. Therefore
F = f i + g j + h k = grad φ.
∴ curl F = curl ( grad φ ) = 0.
Converse. Suppose R is simply connected and curl F = 0 everywhere in R. Let C be
any simple closed path in R. Since R is simply connected, therefore we can find a
surface S in R having C as its boundary. Therefore by Stoke’s theorem

∫C F • dr = ∫ ∫S (curl F ) • n dS = 0.

Thus ∫C F • dr is zero for every simple closed path C in R.

Therefore ∫ F • dr is independent of path in R.

Therefore F = ∇ φ and consequently f dx + g dy + h dz is an exact differential dφ.

Note: The assumption that R be simply connected is essential and cannot be

omitted. It is obvious from the following illustration.
y x
Illustration: Let F=− 2
i+ j.
x + y2 x2 + y2
Here F is not defined at origin. In every region R of the xy-plane not containing the
origin, we have
 V-152

 
 i j k 
 
∂ ∂ ∂ 
Curl F = 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 y 
x
− 2 2 2
0 
 x + y x + y2 
 ∂  x  ∂  y  
= 0i + 0 j +     
 x 2 + y 2  + ∂y  x 2 + y 2   k
 ∂x     
2 2 2
 x + y − 2 x x 2 + y 2 − 2 y 2 
= +  k
 ( x 2 + y 2 )2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2 
=0k
= 0.
Suppose R is simply connected. For example let R be the region enclosed by a
simple closed curve C not enclosing the origin. Then
 y x 
∫C F • dr = ∫C  − x 2 + y 2 dx + x 2 + y 2 dy 
∂  x  ∂  y 
  − 
= ∫ ∫ R   x 2 + y 2  − ∂y  x 2 + y 2   dx dy,
 ∂x     
by Green’s theorem in plane
= 0.
Suppose R is not simply connected. Let R be the region of the xy-plane contained
1 3
between concentric circles of radii and and having centre at origin. Obviously
2 2
R is not simply connected. We have z = 0, everywhere in R. Let C be a closed curve
in R. The parametric equations of C can be taken as x = cos t, y = sin t, z = 0,
0 ≤ t < 2π.
 y y 
We have ∫C F • dr = ∫C − dx + dy
 x2 + y2 x2 + y2 
 
2π  sin t dx cos t dy 
= ∫t=0 − 2 2 dt
+ 2 2  dt
 cos t + sin t cos t + sin t dt 
2π
= ∫0 (sin2 t + cos 2 t) dt

= 2 π.
Thus we see that ∫C F • dr ≠ 0.

Definition: Irrotational vector field: A vector field F is said to be irrotational if curl

F = 0.
 V-153

We see that an irrotational field F is characterized by any one of the three

conditions :
(i) F = ∇ φ,
(ii) ∇ × F = 0,
(iii) ∫C F • dr = 0 for every closed path.

Any one of these conditions implies the other two.

Example 15: Are the following forms exact ?

(i)__e dx + e dy + e z dz .________
y x

(ii) yz dx + xz dy + xy dz .
Solution:
y
(i) Here F=e i + e x j + e z k.
We have
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
Curl F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
e y
ex ez
= 0 i + 0 j + (e x − e y ) k .
Since curl F ≠ 0, therefore the given form is not exact.

(ii) Here F = yz i + xz j + xy k .
We have
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
Curl F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
yz xz xy
= ( x − x)i − ( y − y) j + (z − z )k
= 0.
Since curl F = 0, therefore the given form is exact.

Example 16: In each of following cases show that the given differential form is exact and
find a function φ such that the form equals dφ :
(i) cos x dx − 2 yz dy − y 2 dz .
(ii) (z 2 − 2 xy) dx − x 2 dy + 2 xz dz .

Solution: (i) Here F = cos x i − 2 yz j − y 2 k .

 V-154

We have
 i j k 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
Curl F =  
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 
cos x − 2 yz − y 2

= (− 2 y + 2 y) i + 0 j + 0 k = 0.
∴ the given form is exact.
Let F = ∇ φ,
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
or cos x i − 2 yz j − y 2 k = i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Then
∂φ
= cos x whence φ = sin x + f1 ( y, z ) ... (1)
∂x
∂φ
= − 2 yz whence φ = − y 2 z + f 2 ( x, z ) ... (2)
∂y
∂φ
= − y 2 whence φ = − y 2 z + f 3 ( x, y). ... (3)
∂z
(1), (2), (3) each represents φ. These agree if we choose
f1 ( y, z ) = − y 2 z , f 2 ( x, z ) = sin x, f 3 ( x, y) = sin x.
∴ φ = sin x − y 2 z to which may be added any constant.
∴ φ = sin x − y 2 z + C.
(ii) Here F = (z 2 − 2 x y) i − x 2 j + 2 xz k . We have

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
Curl F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
z2 − 2 xy − x 2 2 xz
= 0 i + 0 j + 0 k = 0.
∴ the given form is exact.
Let F =∇ φ
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
or (z 2 − 2 xy) i − x 2 j + 2 xz k = i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂φ
Then = z 2 − 2 xy whence φ = z 2 x − x 2 y + f1 ( y, z ) ... (1)
∂x
∂φ
= − x2 whence φ = − x 2 y + f 2 ( x, z ) ... (2)
∂y
∂φ
= 2 xz whence φ = xz 2 + f 3 ( x, y). ... (3)
∂z
 V-155

(1), (2), (3) each represents φ. These agree if we choose

f1 ( y, z ) = 0, f 2 ( x, z ) = xz 2 , f 3 ( x, y) = − x 2 y.
∴ φ = z 2 x − x 2 y to which may be added any constant.
∴ φ = z 2 x − x 2 y + C.

Example 17: Show that the vector field F given by

F = ( x 2 − yz ) i + ( y 2 − zx) j + (z 2 − xy) k
is irrotational. Find a scalar φ such that F = ∇φ.
Solution: We have
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
Curl F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
2
x − yz y 2 − zx z 2 − xy
= (− x + x) i − (− y + y) j + (− z + z ) k = 0.
∴ The vector field F is irrotational.
Let F = ∇φ
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
or ( x 2 − yz ) i + ( y 2 − zx) j + (z 2
− xy) k = i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂φ x3
Then = x 2 − yz whence φ = − xyz + f1 ( y, z ) ... (1)
∂x 3
∂φ y3
= y 2 − zx whence φ = − xyz + f 2 ( x, z ) ... (2)
∂y 3
∂φ z3
= z 2 − x y whence φ = − x y z + f 3 ( x, y). ... (3)
∂z 3
(1), (2), (3) each represents φ. These agree if we choose
y3 z3 x3 + z 3 x3 + y3
f1 ( y, z ) = + , f 2 ( x, z ) = , f 3 ( x, y) = .
3 3 3 3
3 3
x + y + z3
Therefore φ= − xyz + C.
3

7 Physical Interpretation of Divergence and Curl

Physical interpretation of divergence: Suppose that there is a fluid motion whose
velocity at any point is v ( x, y, z). Then the loss of fluid per unit volume per unit time in a small
parallelopiped having centre at P (x, y, z) and edges parallel to the co-ordinate axes and having
lengths δx, δy, δz respectively, is given approximately by
div v = ∇ • v.
 V-156

Let v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k .
x-component of velocity v at P = v1 ( x, y, z ).
∴ x-component of v at centre of face AFED
which is perpendicular to x-axis and is nearer
to origin
 δx 
= v1  x − , y, z 
 2 
δx ∂v1
= v1 ( x, y, z ) − +…
2 ∂x
by Taylor’s theorem
δx ∂v1
= v1 ( x, y, z ) − approximately.
2 ∂x
Similarly x-component of v at centre of opposite face GHCB
δx ∂v1
= v1 + approximately.
2 ∂x
∴ volume of fluid entering the parallelopiped across AFED per unit time
 δx ∂v1 
=  v1 −  δy δz .
 2 ∂x 
Also volume of fluid going out the parallelopiped across GHCB per unit time
 δx ∂v1 
=  v1 +  δy δz .
 2 ∂x 
∴ loss in volume per unit time in the direction of x-axis
 δx ∂v1   δx ∂v1 
=  v1 +  δy δz −  v1 −  δy δz
 2 ∂x   2 ∂x 
∂v1
= δx δy δz .
∂x
Similarly, loss in volume per unit time in y direction
∂v
= 2 δx δy δz ,
∂y
and loss in volume per unit time in z direction
∂v
= 3 δx δy δz .
∂z
∴ total loss of the fluid per unit volume per unit time symbol ·
 ∂v1 ∂v ∂v 
 + 2 + 3  δx δy δz
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
=
δx δy δz
∂v1 ∂v2 ∂v3
= + + = ∇ • v = div v.
∂x ∂y ∂z
 V-157

Physical interpretation of curl: Let S be a circular disc of small radius r and centre
P bounded by the circle C. Let F ( x, y, z ) be a continuously differentiable vector
function in S. Then by Stoke’s theorem

∫C F • dr = ∫ ∫S (curl F ) • n dS = (curl F ) • n ∫ ∫S dS,

by mean value theorem of integral calculus where (curl F ) • n is some value

intermediate between the maximum and minimum values of (curl F ) • n over S.
∴ ∫C F • dr = (curl F ) • n S.

 F • dr
∴ (curl F ) • n = ∫ C  .
S
Taking limit as r → 0, we get at P,
∫ C F • dr
(curl F ) • n = lim .
r→0 S
Now (curl F ) • n is normal component of curl F at P and ∫ F • dr is circulation of
C

F about C. Therefore the normal component of the curl can be interpreted

physically as the limit of the circulation per unit area.

Comprehensive Exercise 4

1. Are the following forms exact ?

(i) x dx − y dy + z dz .
(ii) y 2 z 3 dx + 2 xyz 3 dy + 3 xy 2 z 2 dz .
2. In each of following cases show that the given differential form is exact
and find a function φ such that the form equals dφ :
(i) x dx − y dy − z dz .
(ii) dx + z dy + y dz .
3. (i) Show that
( y 2 z 3 cos x − 4 x 3 z ) dx + 2z 3 y sin x dy + (3 y 2 z 2 sin x − x 4 ) dz
is an exact differential of some function φ and find this function.
(ii) Show that F = (2 x y + z 3 ) i + x 2 j + 3 xz 2 k is a conservative force
field. Find the scalar potential. Find also the work done in moving an
object in this field from (1, − 2, 1) to (3, 1, 4).
 V-158

4. (i) Show that the vector field

F = (2 xy 2 + yz ) i + (2 x 2 y + xz + 2 yz 2 ) j + (2 y 2 z + xy) k
is conservative.
(ii) Show that F = xi + yj + zk is conservative and find φ such that F = ∇φ.
5. (i) Show that F = (sin y + z ) i + ( x cos y − z ) j + ( x − y) k is a
conservative vector field and find a function φ such that F = ∇φ.
(ii) Evaluate ∫ 2 xyz 2 dx + ( x 2 z 2 + z cos yz ) dy + (2 x 2 yz + y cos yz ) dz
C

where C is any path from (0, 0, 1) to (1, π / 4 , 2).

6. Show that the following vector functions F are irrotational and find the
corresponding scalar φ such that F = ∇φ .
(i) F = (sin y + z cos x) i + ( x cos y + sin z ) j + ( y cos z + sin x) k .
(ii) F = ( y sin z − sin x) i + ( x sin z + 2 yz ) j + ( xy cos z + y 2 ) k .
(iii) F = x 3 i + y 3 j + z 3 k .
7. Find a, b, c if F = (3 x − 3 y + az ) i + (bx + 2 y − 4z ) j + (2x + cy + z ) k
is irrotational.
8. Evaluate ∫C yz dx + ( xz + 1) dy + x y dz , where C is any path from

(1, 0, 0) to (2, 1, 4).

9. Show that the form under the integral sign is exact and evaluate
(2 , 0,1)
∫(0, 2 ,1) [ze x dx + 3 yz dy + (e x + y 2 ) dz ].

A nswers 4
1. (i) Exact (ii) Exact
2
x − y2 − z 2
2. (i) Exact; φ = +C
2
(ii) Exact; φ = x + yz + C
3. (i) φ = y 2 z 3 sin x − x 4 z + C
(ii) φ = x 2 y − xz 3 + C; 202
1
4. (ii) φ = ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + C.
2
5. (i) φ = x sin y + x z − yz + C.
(ii) π +1
 V-159

6. (i) φ = x sin y + z sin x + y sin z + C

(ii) φ = xy sin z + cos x + y 2 z + C
1
(iii) φ = ( x 4 + y 4 + z 4 ) + C
4
7. a = 2, b = − 3, c = − 4.
8. 9 9. e2 − 5

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).

1. If C is the curve x 2 + y 2 = 1, z = y 2 , then by Stoke’s theorem

∫ ( yz dx + zx dy + xy dz) is
C

(a) 0 (b) 3
(c) 5 (d) None of these
2. If S denotes the surface of the cube bounded by the planes x = 0, x = a, y = 0,
y = a , z = 0, z = a then by the application of Gauss divergence theorem the
value of ∫ ∫ ( x i + y j + z k ) • n dS is
S

(a) a3 (b) 2a3

(c) 3a3 (d) 0

Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks “……”, so that the following statements are complete and correct.

1. For any closed surface S, ∫ ∫ curl F • n dS = …… .

S
2. If n is the unit outward drawn normal to any closed surface S, then

∫ ∫ ∫V div n dV = …… .
(Bundelkhand 2008)
3. The value of ∫C r • d r = …… .
(Agra 2008)
4. A necessary and sufficient condition that ∫ F • d r = 0 for every closed
C
curve C lying in a simply connected region R is that ∇ × F = ……
identically.
 V-160

5. By Stoke’s theorem, ∫C F • d r = …… .

6. ∫ ∫S r • n dS = …… .
(Kumaun 2009)

True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.

1. ∫ ∫S n dS = 0 for any surface S.

2. Green’s theorem in plane is a special case of Stoke’s theorem.
3. Green’s theorem states that “the surface integral of the normal component of
a vector F taken over a closed surface is equal to the integral of the divergence
of F taken over the volume enclosed by the surface”.

A nswers
Multiple Choice Questions
1. (a) 2. (c)

Fill in the Blank(s)

1. 0 2. S 3. 0 4. 0
5. ∫ ∫ (∇ × F) • n dS 6. 3V
S

True or False
1. F 2. T 3. F