UNIT-V

INTRODUCTION TO FILTERS

INTRODUCTION TO FILTERS

What Is a Filter?

A filter is a circuit capable of passing (or amplifying) certain frequencies while attenuating
other frequencies. Thus, a filter can extract important frequencies from signals that also
contain undesirable or irrelevant frequencies.

In the field of electronics, there are many practical applications for filters. Examples include:

 Radio communications: Filters enable radio receivers to only "see" the desired signal
while rejecting all other signals (assuming that the other signals have different frequency
content).

 DC power supplies: Filters are used to eliminate undesired high frequencies (i.e., noise)
that are present on AC input lines. Additionally, filters are used on a power supply's
output to reduce ripple.

 Audio electronics: A crossover network is a network of filters used to channel low-

frequency audio to woofers, mid-range frequencies to midrange speakers, and high-
frequency sounds to tweeters.

 Analog-to-digital conversion: Filters are placed in front of an ADC input to

minimize aliasing.

Four Major Types of Filters

The four primary types of filters include the low-pass filter, the high-pass filter, the band-
pass filter, and the notch filter (or the band-reject or band-stop filter). Take note, however,
that the terms "low" and "high" do not refer to any absolute values of frequency, but rather,
they are relative values with respect to the cutoff frequency.

Figure 1 below gives a general idea of how each of these four filters works:
 UNIT-V
INTRODUCTION TO FILTERS

Figure 1. A basic depiction of the four major filter types.

There is also such a thing as an all-pass filter, but I'm not considering it to be one of the four
basic filter types for this article.

Passive and Active Filters

Filters can be placed in one of two categories: passive or active.

Passive filters include only passive components—resistors, capacitors, and inductors. In

contrast, active filters use active components, such as op-amps, in addition to resistors and
capacitors, but not inductors.

Passive filters are most responsive to a frequency range from roughly 100 Hz to 300 MHz.
The limitation on the lower end results from the fact that the inductance or capacitance would
have to be quite large at low frequencies. The upper-frequency limit is due to the effect of
parasitic capacitances and inductances. Careful design practices can extend the use of passive
circuits well into the gigahertz range.

Active filters are capable of dealing with very low frequencies (approaching 0 Hz), and they
can provide voltage gain (passive filters cannot). Active filters can be used to design high-
order filters without the use of inductors; this is important because inductors are problematic
in the context of integrated-circuit manufacturing techniques. However, active filters are less
suitable for very high-frequency applications because of amplifier bandwidth limitations.
Radio-frequency circuits must often utilize passive filters.
 UNIT-V
INTRODUCTION TO FILTERS

Some Key Points and Terms

Response curves are used to describe how a filter behaves. A response curve is simply a
graph showing an attenuation ratio (V OUT / VIN) versus frequency (see Figure 2 below).
Attenuation is commonly expressed in units of decibels (dB). Frequency can be expressed in
two forms: either the angular form ω (units are rad/s) or the more common form of f (units of
Hz, i.e., cycles per second). These two forms are related by ω = 2πf. Finally, filter response
curves may be plotted in linear-linear, log-linear, or log-log form. The most common
approach is to have decibels on the y-axis and logarithmic frequency on the x-axis.

Figure 2. Response curves for the four major filter types.

Note: A notch filter is a bandstop filter with a narrow bandwidth. Notch filters are used to
attenuate a narrow range of frequencies.

Below are some technical terms that are commonly used when describing filter response
curves:

 -3 dB frequency (f3dB). This term, pronounced "minus 3dB frequency", corresponds to

the input frequency that causes the output signal to drop by -3dB relative to the input
signal. The -3 dB frequency is also referred to as the cutoff frequency. It is the frequency
at which the output power is reduced by one-half (which is why this frequency is also
called the "half-power frequency"), or the output voltage is the input voltage multiplied
by 1/√2. For low-pass and high-pass filters, there is only one -3 dB frequency. However,
 UNIT-V
INTRODUCTION TO FILTERS
there are two -3 dB frequencies for band-pass and notch filters—normally referred to
as f1 and f2.
 Center frequency (f0). The center frequency, a term used for band-pass and notch
filters, is a central frequency between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies. The center
frequency is commonly defined as the arithmetic mean (see equation below) or the
geometric mean of the lower and upper cutoff frequency.
 Bandwidth (β or B.W.). The bandwidth is the width of the passband, and the passband
is the band of frequencies that do not experience significant attenuation when moving
from the input of the filter to the output of the filter.
 Stopband frequency (fs). This is a particular frequency at which the attenuation reaches
a specified value.
 For low-pass and high-pass filters, frequencies beyond the stopband frequency are
referred to as the stopband.
 For band-pass and notch filters, two stopband frequencies exist. The frequencies
between these two stopband frequencies are referred to as the stopband.
 Quality factor (Q): The quality factor of a filter conveys its damping characteristics. In
the time domain, damping corresponds to the amount of oscillation in the system’s step
response. In the frequency domain, higher Q corresponds to more (positive or negative)
peaking in the system’s magnitude response. For a bandpass or notch filter, Q represents
the ratio between the center frequency and the -3dB bandwidth (i.e., the distance
between f1 and f2).
 For both band-pass and notch filters:

Q = f0 /f2 –f1

Single tuned and Double Tuned Filters

A single tuned filter which is a series RLC circuit tuned. to a single harmonics
frequency provides a low harmonic. impedance characteristic generally
single-tuned filters (STFs) are widely used to suppress one harmonic frequency, while
multiple STFs simultaneously eliminate more than one harmonic frequency.

What is the difference between single tuned and double tuned circuits?

Single tuned amplifiers use one parallel resonant circuit as the load impedance in each stage
and all the tuned circuits are tuned to the same frequency. ... Double tuned amplifiers use two
 UNIT-V
INTRODUCTION TO FILTERS
inductively coupled tuned circuits per stage, both the tuned circuits being tuned to the same
frequency.

Double Tuned Filter

The double-tuned filter consists of a series LC circuit and a parallel RLC circuit. If f1 and f2 are the
two tuning frequencies, both the series circuit and the parallel circuit are tuned to approximately the
mean geometric frequency, f m = f 1 f 2.

Low Pass Filter:

A low-pass filter is a filter that passes signals with a frequency lower than a selected cutoff
frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. The
exact frequency response of the filter depends on the filter design. The filter is sometimes
called a high-cut filter, or treble-cut filter in audio applications. A low-pass filter is the
complement of a high-pass filter.

High-Pass Filter

A high-pass filter (HPF) is an electronic filter that passes signals with a frequency higher than
a certain cutoff frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies lower than the cutoff
frequency. The amount of attenuation for each frequency depends on the filter design.
 UNIT-V
INTRODUCTION TO FILTERS

Band-Pass Filter

A band-pass filter or bandpass filter (BPF) is a device that passes frequencies within a certain range
and rejects (attenuates) frequencies outside that range. It's the opposite of a band-stop filter.

Band Rejection Filter

In signal processing, a band-stop filter or band-rejection filter is a filter that passes

most frequencies unaltered, but attenuates those in a specific range to very low levels. It is the [1]

inverse of a band-pass filter. A notch filter is a band-stop filter with a narrow stopband (high Q
factor).
 UNIT-V
INTRODUCTION TO FILTERS
RC FILTER:

RC circuits can be used to filter a signal by blocking certain frequencies and passing others.
The two most common RC filters are the high-pass filters and low-pass filters; band-pass
filters and band-stop filters usually require RLC filters, though crude ones can be made with
RC filters.

RL FILTER:

A resistor–inductor circuit (RL circuit), or RL filter or RL network, is an electric circuit composed

of resistors and inductors driven by a voltage or current source.[1] A first-order RL circuit is composed
of one resistor and one inductor, either in series driven by a voltage source or in parallel driven by a
current source. It is one of the simplest analogue infinite impulse response electronic filters.

Constant K Filter

Constant k filters, also k-type filters, are a type of electronic filter designed using
the image method. They are the original and simplest filters produced by this methodology
and consist of a ladder network of identical sections of passive components. Historically, they
are the first filters that could approach the ideal filter frequency response to within any
prescribed limit with the addition of a sufficient number of sections. However, they are rarely
considered for a modern design, the principles behind them having been superseded by other
methodologies which are more accurate in their prediction of filter response.

Constant K Filter

'Constant-k' implies that the product of underlying impedances Z1 and Z2 must be a constant
independent of frequency. Therefore, L1 C1 has to be equal to L2 C2 if the filter is to be of a
constant-k type. This constraint is imposed on band-pass filter design.
 UNIT-V
INTRODUCTION TO FILTERS

What is the difference between K type and m-derived filter?

For the constant-k filter, it varies in the pass-band and remains constant in the
attenuation band. J. 'or the m-derived filter, the phase varies in the pass-band, remains
constant up to the frequency of infinite attenuation and drops to zero at that frequency
and then remains stationary afterwards.

Composite Filters in Network Analysis:

Composite Filters in Network Analysis – In prototype filter sections, the attenuation
characteristic is not very sharp in the attenuation band as it is expected. This drawback can be
overcome by using m-derived filter sections which are derived from respective prototype
filter sections. But it is observed that in the stop band attenuation drastically reduces after
f∞ in low pass section and before f ∞ in high pass section. This drawback of m-derived filter
can be overcome by connecting number of sections including prototype sections and m-
derived sections with terminating half sections. Such a combination of different sections is
called composite filter.
 UNIT-V
INTRODUCTION TO FILTERS
The comparison of attenuation constant variations in low pass prototype section, m-derived
section and composite section is as shown in the Fig. 9.44.

In Composite Filters in Network Analysis, cut off frequency and the design impedance are
the two important design specifications. The number of various sections in the composite
filter totally depends on the attenuation characteristics required. If it is required that the
attenuation should rise sharply in the attenuation band, we must select at least one m-derived
section with low value of m.

In general, for lower values of m, attenuation at cut off rises rapidly. The typical value of m
for such attenuation at cut off is m= 0.3 to 0.35. If it is required to maintain this attenuation at
a high value in attenuation band, we must connect either a prototype section or another m-
derived section with comparatively larger value of m.
If required both the sections can be used in the composite filter. To have proper impedance
matching and constant characteristic impedance throughout pass band, we must connect the
terminating sections with m = 0.6.