THE HUMAN BODY [THE

SKELETON]
The skeleton is made up of the different bones of the body. It is also referred
to as the skeletal system. It gives support and shape to the body. It helps in
our movement and protects the delicate parts of the body.

The bones of the human skeleton are different in size and shape. The bones
in the body can be basically classified into three [3] groups:

1. Long bones
2. Vertebrae
3. Phalanges

The Long Bones

The long bones are found in the arms and the legs. The upper arm bone is
called the humerus, while the lower arm bones are the ulna and radius. The
thigh bone is the femur, while the leg bones are tibia and fibula.

The Vertebrae

These are small bones which are arranged to make a series [a set] called the
Vertebral Column. The vertebral column is often termed as the backbone.
The backbone starts from the neck through the back to the tail. Examples
are cervical bones and lumbar vertebrae at the lower back.

Phalanges and Carpals

The hands and feet are made up of small bones called Phalanges. Connected
to phalanges are eight Carpals arranged in two rows of four each.

JOINTS

A joint is a place in the body where two or more bones meet. It is the joint in
the body that makes movement of the body or part of the body possible.
Examples of places where joints can be found in the body are neck, wrists,
shoulders, waist, fingers, toes, knees and elbows. The two types of joints in
the body are:

(a) Movable joints (b) Immovable or Fixed joints

Movable Joints: These are places in the body where bones that meet
together can still slide on each other. Examples of movable joints in the body
are:

(i) Ball and Socket joints: on shoulders and hip

(ii) Hinge joints: on toes, fingers, knees and elbows
(iii) Pivot joints: on neck
(iv) Gliding joints: on wrists and ankles

Immovable Joints: These are joints where two or more bones are joined
together but with little or no movement possible. They have no cavities as in
the majority of joints. Examples include the bones of the skull [which are
joined by sutures] and joints in the pelvic girdle.

Functions of Bones and Joints

 They provide support for the body.

 They give shape to the body.
 They protect the delicate organs like the brain, lungs and heart.
 They work with the help of muscles to make movements possible.
 Muscles are attached to them.

Exercises

 Define the skeletal system

 What is the bone of the human head called?
 Mention all the types of bones we have
 List 3 functions of bones and joint
 Draw a human skeleton
 COLORS
Components of White Light

Our natural white light comes from the sun. The white light does not have
just one color. It is made up of seven colors which combine together. These
colors are: Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet [ROYGBIV]. These
colors are called the spectrum of white light. Similarly, beautiful colors in the
rainbow are due to dispersion of sunlight by water droplets suspended in the
air after rain has fallen.

Classification of Colors

1. Primary colors
2. Secondary colors

Primary Colors: are colors that cannot be made by mixing other colors.
They are RED, BLUE and YELLOW.

Secondary Colors: are colors that result from the mixing of two or more
primary colors. Examples are Magenta, Cyan, Orange.

YELLOW + RED = ORANGE

RED + BLUE = PURPLE

BLUE + YELLOW = GREEN

Exercise

 What is white light?

 List the colors that make up the white light.
 Define Primary and Secondary colors.
 Red + Blue = ?
 THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
The food we eat has to be broken down into smaller parts that can be
absorbed and moved around inside the body by the blood. The process of
breaking down food into smaller parts for absorption by the body is called
Digestion and it happens in the Digestive System.

The digestive system consists of several organs. They include:

Mouth: is the place where digestion of food begins. The mouth produces
saliva which lubricates food so that it becomes easy for swallowing.

Pharynx: also known as the throat. It receives food from the mouth.

Oesophagus: is a muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach. It

contracts and expands to allow passage of food.

Stomach: is a sac-like organ that stores, mixes and digests food with the
help of the gastric juice it produces.

Small Intestine: is a long tube where most of the digestion occur. Nutrients
are absorbed from the small intestine to the bloodstream.

Large Intestine: The food that is not properly digested in the small
intestine reaches the large intestine and it absorbs water and certain
vitamins from the food and forms waste into feces.

Pancreas: helps in the conversion of food into energy.

DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

 Indigestion: also known as Dyspepsia, is the discomfort felt in the

upper stomach caused by eating too much or too quickly.
 Flatulence: also known as Kabag, is the feeling of being bloated
because gas builds up in the abdomen. It is due to eating hurriedly or
swallowing large chunks of food.
 Constipation: is the painful discharge of feces.
 Diarrhea: is the frequent bowel movement of watery feces
  Gallstones: are formed in the gall bladder due to too much
cholesterol in one’s diet.
 Appendicitis: is the inflammation of the appendix due to bacteria
containing food entering the appendix.
 Intestinal Parasites: are worms that usually enter the digestive tract
through food and water. It causes abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea
and vomiting.

PROPER CARE OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

 Eat food rich in fiber to help in bowel movement.

 Avoid eating too much spicy food.
 Eat less sweets in between meals.
 Refrain from buying uncovered ready-to-eat foods.
 Eat slowly and chew food well before swallowing.
 Avoid swallowing big chunks of food to prevent blockage in the
pharynx.
 Avoid eating too much at a time to prevent indigestion.
 Drink plenty of water every day.
 Relax when having meals.

EXERCISE

 Define digestion.
 Digestion begins at the ?
 What helps in converting food to energy for the body’s use?
 Dyspepsia is another name for?
 List 5 ways to take proper care of the digestive system
 PERIODIC TABLE
What is an atom? An atom is the smallest possible unit of a chemical
element. The chemical element is a basic substance that cannot be broken
down into simpler substances. Each of the elements has a chemical symbol
and atomic number.

The symbol for some element is the first letter or first two letters of its name.
For example:

H is the symbol of Hydrogen.

He is the symbol of Helium.

O is the symbol of Oxygen.

Periodic Table is the arrangement of chemical elements from the lowest

atomic number to the element with the highest atomic number. The atomic
number of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of
that element.

There are 118 known elements. 92 elements are found in nature. Additional
20 are created by scientists. The remaining are much more common than
others.

The first 10 elements with their symbols and atomic number in the periodic
table are tabulated below:

Atomic Elements Symbols Mnemonics Type

Number
1 Hydrogen H Hi Non-
metal
2 Helium He Hello Noble gas
3 Lithium Li Little Metal
4 Beryllium Be Betty’s Metal
5 Boron B Brother Metalloid
6 Carbon C Came Non-
 metal
7 Nitrogen N Now Non-
metal
8 Oxygen O Only Non-
metal
9 Fluorine F From Non-
metal
10 Neon Ne New York Noble gas

EXERCISE

 What is atom?
 Define chemical element.
 List the first 10 elements of the periodic table.

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Reproduction is the ability of living things to produce young ones of their
kind. Most plants develop from their seeds, which comes from the flower.
Flowers contain both male and female parts. Seeds are formed from the
union of the male and female reproductive parts. Many plants can also
produce young ones without seeds. For example, cassava and sugar cane are
planted from a cutting of the parent plant.

Parts of the Flower

The organ of reproduction in a flowering plant is the flower. Parts of a flower

are divided into two:

 Stamen: is the male part of a flower consisting of anther and filament.

 Pistil: is the female part of a flower consisting of stigma, style and
ovary.

Parts of a Flower Function

Sepals Protects the floral parts in the bud.
Petals Attracts insects because of the
possession of sweet smell and bright
colors.
Anthers Produces pollen grains.
Stigma Receives pollen grains during
pollination.
Style Pollen tubes that carry the male
 gamete to the ovary grow through
it.
Ovary Contains the ovules [eggs].

Pollination

This is the transfer of pollen [yellow dust] from the anther to the stigma
[sticky section] of a flower. We have two types of pollination. These are:

 Self Pollination: is a type of pollination in which pollen grains from a

flower are transferred to the stigma of the same flower.
 Cross Pollination: In this case, pollen grains from one flower are
transferred to the stigma of another flower.

The agents of pollination includes: man, wind, water, birds, snails and
insects.

Fertilization

Fertilization is a process whereby the male gamete from the pollen tube
unites with the egg cell [female gamete] in the ovule of a flower. The union
of the two cells gives rise to zygote. The formed zygote develops into an
embryo. The fertilized ovule forms the seeds and the ovary forms the fruit.

Differences between Pollination and Fertilization

Pollination Fertilization
It is the transfer of male parts It is the union of the male gamete
[pollen grains] onto the female and the female gamete.
parts.
It takes place outside the plant. It takes place inside the plant.
Agents are needed for pollination to Agents are not needed for
take place fertilization to take place.

The stages involved during reproduction in a flowering plant are: Pollination,

Fertilization and Development of ovules and ovary to form seeds and fruits
respectively.
 BLOOD CIRCULATION
Components of Blood

Blood is the liquid substance that circulates in the body, taking food
materials round the parts of the body. Blood is the life of the body. Blood is
made up of the following:

 Red Blood Cells: also known as Erythrocytes, are numerous and

contain red respiratory pigment called haemoglobin, which takes up
oxygen from the lungs to form oxy-haemoglobin. Therefore, it is red
blood cells that carry oxygen from the lungs to other parts of the body.
Red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow of large bones.
 White Blood Cells: also known as Leucocytes, are less numerous
and larger in size than the red blood cells. They are formed in the bone
marrow and lymphatic tissues. They protect the body against diseases.
 Platelets: also known as Thrombocytes, are tiny cells produced in
the bone marrow. They prevent loss of blood when there is a cut or
wound on the skin, by allowing the blood to clot.
 Plasma: is the liquid portion of blood. It makes up 60% of the total
volume of blood. It has about 90% of water, with digested soluble
materials such as protein, glucose and salt.

Importance of Blood

 Blood is the basis of life.

 It keeps us warm by circulating heat round the body.
 The burning of soluble food substances by oxygen, which later releases
energy to the body takes place in the blood.
 Blood is the transporting medium in the body. It carries oxygen and
digested food to all parts of the body. It also carries waste products
from the cells to excretory organs.
 Blood protects the body from diseases.

Diseases that affect Blood

 Anaemia: is a disorder that arises as a result of a shortage in the red

blood cells. The shortage of blood cells may be due to lack of iron in
the body, destruction of blood cells by malaria parasites or loss of
blood.
 Sickle Cell: is an inherited or genetic disease of the red blood cells. It
is due to the replacement of soluble normal haemoglobin, which has a
high attraction for oxygen, with less soluble abnormal haemoglobin
which has a markedly attraction for oxygen.
 Leukaemia: is blood cancer. It is a blood disease in which the
production of white blood cells is greatly increased until there is an
imbalance of red and white blood cells. It is caused when the body is
exposed to radioactive particles or x-rays, chemicals, tobacco smoking
and it could be genetic.
 Malaria: is a disease that arises due to the multiplication of
ppasmodia [malaria parasite] in the red blood cells of man. Malaria
causes fever.
 AIDS: AIDS is Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. It is a serious
condition caused by a virus called Human Immunodeficiency Virus
[HIV]. This virus destroys white blood cells that protect the body from
diseases. Thus, the body is exposed to different kinds of diseases.
 THE HUMAN HEART

The heart is the muscular organ that pumps blood round the body. It contains
four chambers namely: Right auricle, Left auricle, Right ventricle, Left
ventricle.

The major difference between the auricles and the ventricles is that the walls
of the ventricles are thicker and more muscular than those of the auricles.

Function of the Heart

 The heart pumps blood to all parts of the body.

 It keeps blood in continuous flow round the body.

Blood Vessels

Blood vessels are tubes through which blood moves round the body. These
vessels are:

 Arteries: are blood vessel that carry blood away from the heart
 Veins: are blood vessels that carry blood from other parts of the body
to the heart.
 Capillaries: is the tiny network of blood vessels that connect the veins
to the arteries. They carry blood between arteries and veins.

The Circulatory System

The Circulatory System is the route by which blood moves round the body. It
is made up of the heart, blood and blood vessels. There are two types of
blood circulation in the body. They are:

 Pulmonary Circulation: is one which blood flows from the heart to

the lungs and back to the heart.
 Systemic Circulation: is one in which blood is pumped from the heart
to the other parts of the body and back to the heart.

The right auricle and ventricle contains blood with less oxygen and more
carbon dioxide. The left auricle and ventricle contains blood with more
oxygen that comes from the lungs.

The heart is filled with blood, as a result of the relaxation of the involuntary
muscles of the heart called Cardiac Muscles. When the muscles of the
heart contracts, the heart pumps blood out through the right and left
ventricles into the pulmonary arteries and aorta respectively.
 WATER CYCLE
The water cycle is the continuous process of water moving on, above and
below the Earth’s surface. It is a vital process that sustains life on earth.

STAGES OF WATER CYCLE

 Evaporation: Water heats up and turns into water vapor. It

occurs on oceans, lakes, rivers, and even puddles. Plants release
water vapor through transpiration.
 Condensation: Water vapor cools and turns into clouds. Water vapor
condenses onto tiny particles (dust, salt, etc.). It forms droplets.
 Precipitation: Water falls to the Earth as rain, snow, sleet, or hail. It
replenishes groundwater and surface water. It supports plant and
animal life.
  Runoff: Water flows over the ground into rivers, lakes, and oceans. It
recharges groundwater and shapes the landscape.

HOW RAIN IS FORMED

Rain formation is a crucial part of water cycle. The process includes:

 Cloud Formation: Water vapor in the air condenses onto tiny

particles (dust, salt, etc.), forming clouds.
 Droplet Growth: Water vapor continues to condense onto the
particles, making the droplets grow.
 Collision and Coalescence: Droplets collide and merge, forming
larger droplets.
 Precipitation Trigger: Droplets become too heavy to stay suspended
in the air.
 Rainfall: Water falls to the Earth as rain.

Factors affecting Rain Formation

 Temperature: Warm air rises, cools, and condenses, forming

clouds. If it's too warm, clouds may not form.
 Humidity: High humidity means more water vapor, increasing chances
of rain.
 Wind direction: Wind can bring moisture or dry air, affecting rain
formation.
 Particles (Aerosols): Dust, salt, and pollutants provide nuclei for
water vapor to condense onto.
 Atmospheric Pressure: Low pressure systems can lead to rain.

IMPORTANCE OF WATER CYCLE

 Water cycle maintains water supply.

 It regulates Earth’s temperature.
 Water cycle supports plant and animal life.
 It replenishes groundwater and surface water.
 It shapes landscapes through erosion and deposition.
 It supports agriculture and food production.
 HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
Human beings exists as males and females. They also have reproductive
parts. These organs form the reproductive system.

When there is sexual intercourse between a male and a female, the male sex
cell [sperm] fertilizes the female sex cell [ovum] to produce a fertilized egg
called zygote. This union of the male and female sex cell is called
fertilization. The zygote later develops into a young baby.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes in a scrotal sac,

penis, sperm duct [vas deferens], urethra and some associated glands.

Functions of the Male Reproductive Organs.

Organs Functions
Testes Produces sperm.
Scrotal sac Protects testes.
Penis Introduces sperm into the vagina.
Vas Deferens Transfers sperm from testes to
seminal vesicle.
Urethra Carries sperm within the penis into
the female organ.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system consists of ovaries, oviduct, uterus and

vagina.

Functions of the Female Reproductive Organs

Organ Function
Ovaries Produces eggs.
Oviduct Carries the egg cells to the uterus.
Uterus Receives and cares for the
developing foetus.
Vagina Outlet from the uterus or womb.

PROCESS OF REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is the process whereby living organisms produce young ones of

their kind. The type of reproduction in human beings is sexual.

The male sex produces the male gametes [sperm cells], while the female sex
produces the female gametes [ovum or egg cells]. The sperm is introduced
into the female sex organ where it fuses with the egg during fertilization.
This fusion produces a zygote, which develops into a new offspring inside the
uterus of the female.

It takes about nine months for the embryo of a human being to be fully
grown and be born.

EXERCISES

 Define reproduction.
 Name the sex cells of both male and female.
 List three male reproductive organs.
 List three female reproductive organs.
 Draw a well labelled diagram of the male and female reproductive
system.