National Higher School of Nanosciences and

Nanotechnology
Department of Basic Studies
Preparatory Cycle

Course Title: Transport phenomena

Course Code: PT

Second Year

Course Coordinator: Dr. M’hamed Bousbai

Week No. 2

CHAPTER 1: HEAT TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION

1.1 The Conduction Rate Equation
The objectives of this chapter are:
- We wish to develop a deeper understanding of Fourier’s law, What form does it take for
different geometries?
- Develop, from basic principles, the general equation, termed the heat equation, which
governs the temperature distribution in a medium.

Recognizing that the heat flux is a vector quantity, we can write a more general statement of
the conduction rate equation (Fourier’s law) as follows, in Cartesian coordinates, the
general expression for the heat flux is:

(1.1)

Fourier’s law is a vector expression indicating that the heat flux is normal to an isotherm and
in the direction of decreasing temperature.
Finally, note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or
gas).
 Thermal Conductivity
From Fourier’s law, Equation 1.1, the thermal conductivity associated with
conduction in the x-direction is defined as

Similar definitions are associated

with thermal conductivities in the y-
and z-directions (ky, kz), but for an
isotropic material the thermal
conductivity is independent of the
direction of transfer, kx = ky = kz ≡ k Figure : 1.1 : Range of thermal conductivity for various
states of matter at normal temperatures and pressure.
 1.2 The Heat Diffusion Equation
A major objective in a conduction analysis is to determine the temperature field in a medium
resulting from conditions imposed on its boundaries.
A differential equation whose solution provides the temperature distribution in a stationary
medium.

Based on applying conservation of energy to a differential control volume through which energy
transfer is exclusively by conduction.

The conduction heat rates perpendicular to each of

the control surfaces at the x-, y-, and z-coordinate
locations are indicated by the terms 𝑞𝑥 , 𝑞𝑦 , and 𝑞𝑧 ,
respectively.

Figure : 1.2
 1.2 The Heat Diffusion Equation
The conduction heat rates at the opposite
surfaces can then be expressed as a Taylor series   T 
k  
  T    T 
k   k   q  C P
T
(1.2)
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
expansion where, neglecting higher-order terms,
Net transfer of thermal energy into the Thermal Change in
energy thermal
control volume (inflow-outflow)
generation energy storage

It is often possible to work with simplified.

For example, if the thermal conductivity is
constant, the heat equation is:

Figure : 1.3
1.2 The Heat Diffusion Equation
Cylindrical Coordinates

1   T  1   T    T  T
 kr   2  k    k   q  C P (1.3)
r r  r  r     z  z  t

Figure : 1.4

Spherical Coordinates
Figure : 1.5

1   2 T  1   T  1   T  T
 kr  k    k   q  C P (1.4)
r 2 r  r  r 2 sin 2     r 2 sin     t
One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
We begin our consideration of one-dimensional, steady-state conduction by discussing heat
transfer with no internal generation of thermal energy.
We will consider heat conduction through simple systems in which the temperature and the heat
flux depend on a single coordinate.

The following geometries (forms) will be examined:

• Plane wall:
Described by a rectangular coordinate . The heat-transfer area (A), perpendicular to the
direction of heat flow, is constant (independent of x).
• Hollow cylinders:
Radial heat conduction through the cylindrical wall.
• Spherical bodies:
Radial heat conduction through the wall of the body.
 Temperature Distribution
 Plane Wall
● Heat equation:
d  dT 
k   0 (1.5)
dx  dx 
For one-dimentional, steady-sate conduction in plane
with no heat generation, the heat flux is a constant,
independent of x. If k is assumed to be constant, by
integration we obtain the solution :
T(x) = C1 x + C2
● Boundary conditions :

● Temperature distribution :
x
T ( x )  TS ,1  (TS ,2  TS ,1 ) (1.6)
L
Figure : 1.6
We may use Fourier’s law to determine the conduction heat transfer rate, that is :

(1.6)

Note that A is the area of the wall normal to the direction of heat transfer and, for the
plane wall, it is a constant independent of x. The heat flux is then :

(1.7)

These equations indicate that both the heat rate qx and heat flux qx′′ are constants,
independent of x.
 Thermal Resistance
A very important concept is suggested by equation (1.6). In particular, an
analogy exists between the diffusion of heat and electrical charge. Just as an
electrical resistance is associated with the conduction of electricity, a thermal
resistance may be associated with the conduction of heat. Defining
resistance as the ratio of a driving potential to the corresponding transfer
rate, it follows from (1.6) that the thermal resistance for conduction in a plane
wall is :

(1.8)

Similarly, for electrical conduction in the same system, Ohm’s law provides
an electrical resistance of the form :

(1.9)
 Thermal Resistance
A very important concept is suggested by equation (1.6). In particular, an
analogy exists between the diffusion of heat and electrical charge. Just as an
electrical resistance is associated with the conduction of electricity, a thermal
resistance may be associated with the conduction of heat. Defining
resistance as the ratio of a driving potential to the corresponding transfer
rate, it follows from (1.6) that the thermal resistance for conduction in a plane
wall is :

(1.8)

Similarly, for electrical conduction in the same system, Ohm’s law provides
an electrical resistance of the form :

(1.9)
A thermal resistance may also be associated with heat transfer by convection at a
surface. From Newton’s law of cooling :

(1.10)

The thermal resistance for convection is then :

(1.11)

The equivalent thermal circuit for the plane wall with convection surface conditions
is shown in Figure 1.6. The heat transfer rate may be determined from separate
consideration of each element in the network. Since qx is constant throughout the
network, it follows that :

(1.12)
In terms of the overall temperature difference, T,1− T,2, and the total thermal resistance,
Rtot, the heat transfer rate may also be expressed as :

(1.13)

Because the conduction and convection resistances are in series and may be summed, it
follows that :
(1.14)
 • The Composite Wall
Consider the series composite wall of Figure 1.6.
The one-dimensional heat transfer rate for this
system may be expressed as :

(1.15)

where T,1 − T,4 is the overall temperature

difference, and the summation includes all
thermal resistances. Hence :

Figure : 1.7 : Equivalent thermal

circuit for a series composite wall (1.16)
With composite systems, it is often convenient to work with an overall heat transfer
coefficient U, which is defined by an expression analogous to Newton’s law of cooling.
Accordingly :

(1.17)

where T is the overall temperature difference. The overall heat transfer coefficient is
related to the total thermal resistance, and from Equations 1.15 and 1.17 we see that
UA = 1/Rtot. Hence, for the composite wall of Figure 1.7 :

(1.18)
2.2 - Electrical analogy: concept of thermal resistance
Hollow cylinders
Heat Equation
For steady-state conditions with no
heat generation, the appropriate form
of the heat equation is :

(1.19)

The rate at which energy is conducted

across any cylindrical surface in the
solid may be expressed as :
Figure : 1.8 : Hollow cylinder with
(1.20) convective surface conditions
Temperature Distribution
By integration of the equation 1.19, we obtain the solution :
(1.21)
To obtain the constants of integration C1 and C2, we introduce the following
boundary conditions:
(1.22)
We obtain the temperature distribution:

(1.23)

Note that the temperature distribution associated with radial conduction through
a cylindrical wall is logarithmic, not linear, as it is for the plane wall under the
same conditions.
We obtain the following expression for the heat transfer rate :

(1.24)

From this result it is evident that, for radial conduction in a cylindrical wall, the thermal
resistance is of the form :

(1.25)
Composite cylindrical wall

The heat transfer rate may be expressed as :

(1.26)

The foregoing result may also be

expressed in terms of an overall heat
transfer coefficient :

(1.27)

Figure : 1.9 : Temperature distribution for a

composite cylindrical wall
2.2 - Electrical analogy: concept of thermal resistance
The Sphere
For steady-state, one-dimensional conditions with no heat generation. The
appropriate form of Fourier’s law is

(1.28)

Figure : 1.10 : Conduction in a spherical shell

Acknowledging that qr is a constant, independent of r, Equation 1.28 may be
expressed in the integral form

(1.29)

Assuming constant k, we then obtain

(1.30)

the thermal resistance is defined as the temperature difference divided by the heat
transfer rate, we obtain
(1.31)