EXPLODING DOTS

ADVANCED VERSION FOR PERSONAL FUN

JAMES TANTON
[Link]

This material is adapted from the text:

THINKING MATHEMATICS!
Volume 1: Arithmetic = Gateway to All

available at the above website.

CONTENTS:
Base Machines ……………………………… 2
Arithmetic in a 1 ← 10 machine ……………………………… 5
Arithmetic in a 1 ← x machine ……………………………… 12
Infinite Processes
Decimals ……………………………… 17
The Geometric Series ……………………………… 19
EXPLORATIONS with Crazy Machines ……………………………… 21
Final Thoughts ……………………………… 28
 EXPLODING DOTS 2

BASE MACHINES

Here’s a simple device that helps explain, among other things, representations of
numbers.

A 1 ← 2 base machine consists of a row of boxes, extending as far to the left as

one pleases. To operate this machine one places a number of dots in the right most
box, which the machine then redistributes according to the following rule:

Two dots in any one box are erased (they “explode”) to be replaced with one
dot one box to their left.

For instance, placing six dots into a 1 ← 2 machine yields four explosions with a
final distribution of dots that can be read as “1 1 0.”

Placing 13 dots into the machine yields the distribution “1 1 0 1” and placing
50 dots into the machine, the distribution “1 1 0 0 1 0.”

EXERCISE: Check these.

EXERCISE: Does the order in which one chooses to conduct the explosions
seem to affect the final distribution of dots one obtains?
(This is a deep question!)

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 3

Of course, since one dot in a cell is deemed equivalent to two dots in the
preceding cell, each cell is “worth” double the cell to its right. If we deem
the right-most cell as the units, then each cell of the machine corresponds
to the powers of two. Thirteen, for instance, equals 8 + 4 + 1 and the base-2
representation of 13 is 1101.

The 1 ← 2 machine converts all numbers to their binary representations.

In the same way, a 1 ← 3 machine (three dots explode to make one dot to
the left) gives the base-3 three representations of a number and a 1 ← 10
machine the base-10 representations.

EXERCISE:
a) Use a 1 ← 3 machine to find the base-3 representations of the
numbers 8, 19 and 42.

b) Use a 1 ← 5 machine to find the base-5 representation of the number

90.

c) Use a 1 ← 10 machine to find the base-10 representation of the

number 179. (Actually think your way through this!)

COMMENT: You might find it easiest to conduct this work on a chalk board.
Erasing dots on paper is not easy.

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 4

One can have fun with base machines and develop some interesting
mathematical curiosities. Consider, for example, a 2 ← 3 machine. This machine
replaces three dots in one box with two dots one place to the left. Placing ten dots
in the machine produces the following result:

10 → 2101
(Check this!) What base is this machine?

We have that three units is “worth” two x s ( 2 x = 3 ⋅ 1 ) and three x s is worth two
3
x 2 s ( 2 x 2 = 3 x ), and so on. This gives x = . We have a base one-and-a-half
2
3 2
3 3 3
machine! And as a check, it is true that 2 ×   + 1 ×   + 0 × + 1 × 1 equals ten!
2 2 2
(Check this.)

OPTIONAL EXERCISE: Write the number 1 through 30 in base one-and-a-half

using a 2 ← 3 machine. Any patterns?

OPTIONAL EXERCISE: In what way a 2 ← 4 machine differ from a 1 ← 2

machine? (They should both be some form of base-2 representations.)

Write the numbers 1 through 30 as given by a 2 ← 4 machine and as given by a

1 ← 2 machine. Does there seem to be an easy way to convert from one
representation of a number to the other?

OPTIONAL EXERCISE: Discuss the utility of a 1 ← 1 machine.

Discuss the utility of a 2 ← 1 machine.

MORE ON THESE AND OTHER CRAZY MACHINES IN THE

EXPLORATIONS AT THE END OF THIS PACKET (Page 21)

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 5

ARITHMETIC IN A 1 ← 10 MACHINE

The positional notational system we use today for writing and manipulating numbers
is precisely the 1 ← 10 machine in action.

ADDITION: Addition in a 1 ← 10 machine is straightforward. For instance, adding

together 279 and 568 yields 2 + 5 = 7 dots in the 100s position, 7 + 6 = 13 dots in
the 10s position, and 9 + 8 = 17 dots in the 1s position. It is reasonable to write this
answer as 7 | 13 | 17, using vertical bars to separate unit of powers of 10.

Since ten of the 13 dots in the 10s cell “explode” to leave three behind and create
one extra dot in the 100s place our answer is equivalent to 8 | 3 | 17. Also, for the
17 dots in the 1s place, ten can explode to leave 7 behind and to create an extra dot
in the 10s place. We have the final answer 279 + 568 = 8 | 4 | 7 , which is just the
number 847. (The process of exploding tens of dots is usually called carrying.)

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 6

It is actually much quicker and easier to complete addition problems column-wise

from left to right (rather than right to left as is traditionally taught) and leave
“carrying” until the end of the process.

EXERCISE:
a) Quickly solve the following addition problems by working left to right and
leaving all carrying of digits to last.

b) Compute 56243 × 7 by leaving all carrying to the end.

SUBTRACTION:
Subtraction is nothing but the addition of negative quantities. In our dots and
boxes model let’s work now with dots and “anti-dots.” We will represent dots as
solid circles and shall represent anti-dots as hollow circles and note that each anti-
dot annihilates an actual dot.

The problem:

is an addition of dots and anti-dots problem:

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 7

As another example we see that 423 – 254, represented by diagram:

has answer:

That is:

423 – 254 = 2|-3|-1

This is absolutely valid mathematically, though the rest of the world may have
difficulty understanding what “two hundred and negative thirty negative one”
means! To translate this into familiar terms we can “unexplode” one of the solid
dots to add ten solid dots to the middle box. This gives the representation: 1 | 7 | -
1. Unexploding again gives: 1|6|9.

Thus we have:
423 – 254 = 169.

COMMENT: In grade-school this process of “unexploding” is called “borrowing

digits.” Young students are taught to unexplode as they work though a subtraction
problem rather than leave all the unexploding until the end.

EXERCISE: Use this method, working from left to right (and not right to left as
one is taught in grade school) to compute the following quantities:

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 8

MULTIPLICATION:
Some simple multiplication problems are conceptually clear in the dots and boxes
model. For example:

45076 × 3 = 12 | 15 | 0 | 21 | 18
= 13 | 5 |0 | 21 | 18
= 13 | 5 |2 | 1 | 18
= 13 | 5 | 2| 2 | 8 = 135228.

DIFFICULT CHALLENGE: Develop a method for performing long multiplication in

the dots-and-boxes model.
Use your method to compute 354 × 672 .

Although it is possible to develop long-multiplication procedures in the dot-and-

boxes model, they tend to be somewhat artificial. This is a limitation of this model.

LONG DIVISION
Despite its limitation with multiplication, one significant advantage of the dots-and-
boxes model is that it explains the process of long division with conceptual ease.

Consider, for instance, the problem of dividing 384 by 12. This means we wish to
count the number of times we can find groups of 12 within 384 dots. Here’s the
traditional algorithm for doing this:

This algorithm is quite mysterious and devoid of straightforward meaning.

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 9

As a dots-and-boxes problem, we are seeking groups of 12 within 384. And this is

just a task of recognizing patterns:

Notice that we recognize three group of 12 at the tens level (namely, one hundred
and two tens) and two groups of 12 at the units level (namely, one ten and two
units).

Thus 384 ÷ 12 is indeed 32.

COMMENT: Can you see that the traditional long-division algorithm actually is this
process in disguise?

EXERCISE: Compute the following division problems using the dots-and-boxes

method:

a) 235431 ÷ 101
b) 30176 ÷ 23

COMMENT: One may have to “unexplode” dots along the way.

EXERCISE: Compute 2798 ÷ 12 in a 1 ← 10 machine and show that this problem

leaves a remainder of 2.

COMMENT: The dots and boxes method is, as mentioned before, difficult to carry
out on paper. (This method is not being advocated as a preferred method.) But do
note, nonetheless, the conceptual ease of understanding that comes from the dots
and boxes approach.

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 10

EXERCISE:
a) Use a 1 ← 5 machine to show that, in base 5:

2 014 ÷ 11

equals 133 with a remainder of one.

b) What is 2 014 ÷ 11 = 133 R 1 as a statement in base 10? (That is, translate each
of the numbers 2014, 11, 133, and 1 into their base 10 versions. Verify that the
division statement is correct.)

EXERCISE: Quickly compute each of the following:

a) 263207 × 3
b) 563872 × 9
c) 673600023 × 2

d) Use the 1 ← 10 machine to explain why multiplying a number in base 10 by 10

results in simply placing a zero at the end of the number.

e) Comment on the effect of multiplying a number written in base b by b.

EXERCISE: Here’s a trick for multiplying two-digit numbers by 11:

To compute 14 × 11 , say, split the 1 and the 4 and write their sum,5, in between:
14 × 11 = 154

To compute 71 × 11 split the 7 and the 1 and write their sum, 8, in between:

71 × 11 = 781

In the same way:

20 × 11 = 220
13 × 11 = 143
44 × 11 = 484

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 11

It also works if one does not carry digits:

67 × 11 = 6|13| 7 = 737
48 × 11 = 4 | 12 | 8 = 528

a) Why does this trick work?

b) Quickly, what’s 693 ÷ 11 ?
c) Quickly work out 133331 × 11 .

A number is a palindrome if it reads the same way forwards as it does backwards.

For example, 124454421 is a palindrome.

d) TRUE OR FALSE and WHY: Multiplying a palindrome by 11 produces

another palindrome.

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 12

ARITHMETIC IN AN 1 ← x MACHINE

Much of the arithmetic we have conducted in a 1 ← 10 machine is not bound to the

specifics of base 10. We can, for instance, perform long division in a 1 ← 5 machine
or a 1 ← 8 machine in exactly the same way.

In fact, if we simply write the base number of the machine as x, and work with an
1 ← x machine, then the same computation provides a method for dividing
polynomials. For example, consider:

(3 x 2 + 8 x + 4) ÷ ( x + 2)

We see that (3 x 2 + 8 x + 4) ÷ ( x + 2) = 3 x + 2 .

Thus the division of polynomials can be regarded as a computation of long division!

( ) ( )
EXERCISE: Compute x 4 + 2 x 3 + 4 x 2 + 6 x + 3 ÷ x 2 + 3 using an 1 ← x machine.

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 13

Let’s examine an example with negative coefficients. Let’s compute

(x 3
− 3 x + 2 ) ÷ ( x + 2 ) using dots and anti-dots.

To do this, begin by drawing the representations of each polynomial.

Our task is to find groups of within the top diagram, and right away
matters seem problematic. One might think to “unexplode” dots to introduce
new dots (or anti-dots) into the diagram but there is a problem with this:
We do not know the value of x and therefore do not know the number of
dots to draw for each “unexplosion.”

The way to cope with this difficulty is to employ an alternative trick: We can fill
empty cells with dots and anti-dots. This keeps the value of the cell zero, but
creates the dots we seek in our patterns.

It also creates anti-versions of what we seek:

Add another dot/antidot pair:

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 14

and we have:

x3 − 3x + 2
= x2 − 2 x + 1.
x+2

(Check this by multiplying x 2 − 2 x + 1 by x + 2 .)

EXERCISE: Use dots-and-boxes to compute the following:

x3 − 3x 2 + 3x − 1
a)
x −1

4 x 3 − 14 x 2 + 14 x − 3
b)
2x − 3

4 x5 − 2 x4 + 7 x3 − 4 x2 + 6 x − 1
c)
x2 − x + 1

x10 − 1
d)
x2 − 1

Challenge: Is there a way to conduct the dots and boxes approach with ease on
paper? Rather than draw boxes and dots, can one work with tables of numbers that
keep track of coefficients? (The word “synthetic” is often used for algorithms one
creates that are a step or two removed from that actual process at hand.)

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 15

EXERCISE: Use an 1 ← x machine to compute each of the following:

x2 − 1
a)
x −1

x4 − 1
b)
x −1

x6 − 1
c)
x −1

d) Will x even − 1 always be a multiple of x − 1 ?

x6 − 1
e) Compute
x +1

f) Will x even − 1 is also always be a multiple of x + 1 ?

g) Explain why 2100 − 1 must be a multiple of 3 and be a multiple of 5.

(HINT: Let x = 22 . Then 2100 − 1 = x50 − 1 .) Show that it is also a multiple of 33 and
of 1023.

h) Is x 7 + 1 divisible by x − 1 ? Is it divisible by x + 1 ?

i) Is x odd + 1 a multiple of x − 1 ? Of x + 1 ?

j) Explain why 2100 + 1 is a multiple of 17. Show that 3100 + 1 is a multiple of 41.

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 16

EXERCISE:
a) Compute ( x 6 + x 5 + 5 x 4 + 5 x3 + 9 x 2 + 5 x + 2) ÷ ( x 2 + x + 2) .

b) Put x = 10 into your answer for a). What long division arithmetic problem
have you solved?

EXERCISE: REMAINDERS

4 x 4 − 7 x3 + 9 x 2 − 3x − 1
a) Using an 1 ← x machine show that equals
x2 − x + 1
4 x 2 − 3 x + 3 with a remainder of 2 x − 3 yet to be divided by x 2 − x + 1 .

4 x 4 − 7 x3 + 9 x 2 − 3x − 1 2x − 3
(This means: = 4 x 2 − 3x + 2 + 2 .)
x − x +1
2
x − x +1

x4
b) Compute
x2 − 3

5 x 5 − 2 x 4 + x3 − x 2 + 7
c) Compute
x3 − 4 x + 1

HINT: Drawing dots and anti-dots in cells is tiresome. Instead of drawing 84 dots
(as you will need to do at one point for problem c) it is easier just to write “84.”

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 17

AN INFINITE PROCESS: DECIMALS

As we know, the process of long division can produce nonzero remainders.

a) Show that, in base 5, dividing 1432 by 13 yields the answer 110 with a
remainder of 2.

If one is willing to work with negative powers of five and keep “unexploding” dots,
we can continue the long division process to see that, in base 5,
1432 ÷ 13 = 110.1111... .

b) Compute 8 ÷ 3 in a base 10 machine and show that it yields the answer

2.666…

c) Compute 1 ÷ 11 in base 3 and show that it yields the answer 0.020202….

(In base three, “11” is the number four, and so this question establishes that the
1
fraction written in base 3 is 0.02020202…)
4

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 18

2
d) Show that the fraction (here written in base 10) has, in base 4, “decimal”
5
representation 0.121212... .

e) What fraction has decimal expansion 0.32323232… in base 7? Is it possible

to answer this question by calling this number x and multiplying both sides by
10 and 100? (Does “100” represent one hundred?)

f) Written in base 9, let x = 0.13131313... . With numerator and denominator

written in base 10, what fraction is x ?

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 19

ANOTHER INFINITE PROCESS: THE GEOMETRIC SERIES

Consider again an 1 ← x base machine.

1
We can use this machine to divide 1 by 1 − x , that is, to compute .
1− x

The quantity “1” is a single dot in the units position and the quantity “ 1 − x ” is an
anti-dot in the x position.

We wish to find copies of in the picture . Of

course there are none at this stage.

The trick is to fill and empty box with a dot and anti-dot pair. This gives us a copy

of in the units position.

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 20

We can repeat this trick:

and again, infinitely often!

This shows that, as a statement of algebra, we have:

1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + ⋯
1− x

1
a) Use this technique to show that = 1 − x + x2 − x3 + x4 −
1+ x

x
b) Compute
1 − x2

1
c) Compute and discover the Fibonacci numbers!
1 − x − x2

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 21

EXPLORATIONS WITH CRAZY MACHINES

CRAZY MACHINE ONE: A DIFFERENT BASE 3

Here’s a new type of base machine. It is called a 1 | − 1 ← 0 | 2 machine and
operates by converting any two dots in one box into an anti-dot in that box and a
proper dot one place to the left.

This machine also converts two antidots in one box to an antidot/dot pair.

a) Show that the number 20 has representation 1 | −1 | 1 | −1 in this machine.

b) What number has representation 1 | 1 | 0 | −1 in this machine?
c) This machine is a base machine:

Explain why x equals 3.

Thus the 1 | − 1 ← 0 | 2 shows that every number can be written as a combination

of powers of three using the coefficients 1 , 0 and −1 .

d) A women has a simple balance scale and five stones of weights 1, 3, 9, 27 and 81
pounds.

I place a rock of weight 20 pounds on one side of the scale. Explain how the women
can place some, or all, of her stones on the scale so as to make it balance.

e) Suppose instead I place a 67 pound rock on the woman’s scale?

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 22

CRAZY MACHINE TWO: BASE NEGATIVE FOUR

A −1 ← 4 machine and operates by converting any four dots in one box into an
anti-dot one place to the left (and converts four antidots in one box to an actual
dot one place to the left).

a) This machine is a base machine:

Explain why x equals −4 .

b) What is the representation of the number one hundred in this machine?

What is the representation of the number negative one hundred in this
machine?

c) Verify that 2 | −3 | −1 | 2 is a representation of some number in this machine.

Which number? Write down another representation for this same number.

1
d) Write the fraction as a “decimal” in base −4 by performing long division
3
1
in a −1 ← 4 machine. Is your answer the only way to represent in this
3
base?

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 23

CRAZY MACHINE THREE: BASE TWO, BASE TWO, BASE TWO

We have seen at the start of these notes that a 1 ← 2 machines converts numbers
into their base-two representations.

The exercise on page 4 asks us to consider a 2 ← 4 machine. In case you haven’t

yet done it …

a) Verify that a 2 ← 4 machine is indeed a base two machine.

That is, explain why x = 2 is the appropriate value for x in this machine.

b) Write the numbers 1 through 30 as given by a 2 ← 4 machine and as

given by a 1 ← 2 machine.

c) Does there seem to be an easy way to convert from one representation

of a number to the other?

Now consider a 1 | 1 ← 3 machine:

d) Verify that a 1 | 1 ← 3 machine is also a base two machine.

e) Write the numbers 1 through 30 as given by a 1 | 1 ← 3 machine. Is there

an easy way to the 1 | 1 ← 3 representation of a number its 1 ← 2
representation, and vice versa?

1
FUN QUESTION: What is the “decimal” representation of the fraction in each
3
of these machines? How does long division work for these machines?

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 24

CRAZY MACHINE FOUR: BASE PHI

Consider the very strange machine 1 | 0 | 0 ↔ 0 | 1 | 1 . Here two dots in consecutive

boxes can be replaced with a single dot one place to the left of the pair and,
conversely, any single dot can be replaced with a pair of consecutive dots to its
right.

Since this machine can move both to the left and to the right, let’s give it its full
range of “decimals” as well.

a) Show that, in this machine, the number 1 can be represented as

0.10101010101…. (It can also be represented just as 1 !!)

b) Show that the number 2 can be represented as 10.01.

c) Show that the number 3 can be represented as 100.01

d) Explain why each number can be represented as a in terms of 0s and 1s with

no two ones consecutive. (TOUGH: Are such representations unique?)

Let’s now address the question: What base is this machine?

e) Show that in this machine we need x n + 2 = x n +1 + x n for all n .

f) Dividing by x n this tells us that x must be a number satisfying x 2 = x + 1 .

There are two numbers that work. What is the positive number that works?

g) Represent the numbers 4 through 20 in this machine with no consecutive 1s.

Any patterns?

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 25

RELATED ASIDE??

The Fibonacci numbers are given by:

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, …,

They have the property that each number is the sum of the previous two terms.

In 1972, Edouard Zeckendorf proved that every positive integer can be written as
a sum of Fibonacci numbers with no two consecutive Fibonacci numbers appearing in
the sum. For example:

17 = 13 + 3 + 1
and
46 = 34 + 8 + 3 + 1

(Note: 17 also equals 8 + 5 + 3 + 1 but this involves consecutive Fibonacci numbers.)

Moreover, Zeckendorf proved that the representations are unique:

Each positive integer can be written as a sum of non-consecutive Fibonacci

numbers in precisely one way.

This result has the “feel” of a base machine at its base.

Is there a way to construct a base machine related to the Fibonacci numbers in

some way and use it to establish Zeckendorf’s result?

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 26

CRAZY MACHINE FIVE: BASE ONE-AND-A-HALF AGAIN

Recall the 2 ← 3 machine from page 4. It takes three dots in one box and replaces
them with two dots one place to the left.

3
This machine produces the base representations of numbers. The first twenty-
2
four representations are:
1→1 9 → 2100 17 → 21012
2→2 10 → 2101 18 → 21200
3 → 20 11 → 2102 19 → 21201
4 → 21 12 → 2120 20 → 21202
5 → 22 13 → 2121 21 → 21220
6 → 210 14 → 2122 22 → 21221
7 → 211 15 → 21010 23 → 21222
8 → 212 16 → 21011 24 → 210110 ⋯

a) Any patterns? Why must all the representations (after the first) begin with
the digit 2? Do all the representations six and beyond begin with 21? What
can you say about final digits? Last two final digits?

b) Notice: 1 dot gives the first one-digit answer

3 dots gives the first two-digit answer
6 dots give the first three-digit answer
9 dots give the first four-digit answer
and so on.

This gives the sequence: 1, 3, 6, 9, 15, 24, 36, 54, 81, 123, …
ANY PATTERNS?

c) If aN represents the N th number in the sequence from part b), use the
properties of the 2 ← 3 machine to establish that:
 3a N
 if aN is even
2
aN +1 = 
 3 ( aN + 1) if a is odd

N
2
HINT: If m dots are needed in the right most box to get an N -digit answer, how
many dots are needed to get m dots in the second box?

d) To this day no one knows an explicit formula for aN . Is it possible to

compute a1000 without having to compute a999 and a998 and so on before it?

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 27

RELATED ASIDE?? In 1937 L. Collatz posed the following problem …

Choose any positive integer.

If it is even, divide it by two.
If it is odd, triple it and add one.
Either way, this gives a new integer.
Repeat.

For example, starting with 7 we obtain the sequence:

7 → 22 → 11 → 34 → 17 → 52 → 26 → 13 → 40 → 20 → 10 → 5 → 16
→ 8 → 4 → 2 →1→ 4 → 2 →1→ 4 → 2 →1→⋯

Collatz asked:
Does every integer eventually lead to a 4 → 2 → 1 cycle?

No one currently knows … but the conjecture has been checked and found to hold
for all numbers from 1 through to 3 ⋅ 253 (which is about 270000000000000000).

COMMENT: This problem is sometimes called the HAILSTONE PROBLEM because

the chain of numbers one obtains seems to bounce up and down for a good while
before eventually falling down to 1. For example, the number 27 takes 112 steps
before entering a 4 → 2 → 1 cycle, reaching a high of 9232 before getting there!

a) Play with Collatz conjecture. Write a computer program to plot the number
of steps it takes for each number to fall into a 4 → 2 → 1 cycle. Any visual
structures?

b) Does the mathematics of a 2 ← 3 connect with Collatz’ problem in some

direct way? Ponder and explore.

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]

 EXPLODING DOTS 28

FINAL THOUGHTS …

Invent other crazy machines …

Invent a | b | c ↔ d | e | f machines for some wild numbers a, b, c, d , e, f .

Invent a base half machine

Invent a base negative two-thirds machine

Invent a machine that has one rule for boxes in even positions and a
different rule for boxes in odd positions.

Invent a base i machine or some other complex number machine.

How does long division work in your crazy machine?

1
What is the fraction in your crazy machine?
3

1
((OOH! What’s in a 2 ← 3 machine?))
3

TOUGH QUESTION … Do numbers have unique representations in your

machines or multiple representations?

Go wild and see what crazy mathematics you can discover!

© 2009 James Tanton [Link]