_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT VI. DC MOTORS

Overview

This unit will give you an understanding of the general principle involve in the
operation of a dc motor. In here, the significance of back emf is discussed as well the
derivation of the voltage equation. The unit also discusses how torque is developed in a dc
motor as well as the different types of dc motors.

Learning Objectives

At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

1. state the principle of operation of a dc motor;

2. determine the direction of rotation of a dc motor;
3. understand Fleming’s left hand rule;
4. write the voltage equation of the dc motor;
5. determine the magnitude of the back emf;
6. state the voltage equation for a dc motor;
7. state the torque equation for a dc motor;
8. distinguish between the different types of dc motors; and
9. determine the operating characteristics of the different types of dc motors.

1
Lesson Proper

6.1 Principle of Operation of a DC Motor

The principle of operation of a dc motor can be stated in a single statement as “when a

current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force”.
In a practical dc motor, field winding produces a required magnetic field while armature
conductors play a role of a current carrying conductors and hence armature conductors
experience a force.

Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field as shown in the Fig. 6.1 (a). The
magnetic field is produced by a permanent magnet but in a practical dc motor it is produced
by the field winding when it carries a current.

Now this conductor is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a current in a

particular direction. Consider that it carries a current away from an observer as shown in the
Figure 6.1(b). Any current carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field around it,
hence this conductor also produces its own flux, around.

The two fluxes present are:

1. The flux produced by the permanent magnet called main flux.

2. The flux produced by the current carrying conductor.

These are shown in the Fig. 6.2(a). From this, it is clear that on one side of the conductor,
both the fluxes are in the same direction. In this case, on the left side of the conductor there
is gathering of the flux lines as two fluxes help each other. As against this, on the right of the
conductor, the two fluxes are in opposite direction and hence try to cancel each other. On the
left, there exists high flux density area while on the right of the conductor there exists low
flux density area as shown in the Fig. 6.2 (b).

2
The overall armature experiences a twisting force called torque and armature of the motor
starts rotating as shown in Fig. 6.3

6.2 Direction of Rotation of Motor

The magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor in a motor is given by:

F  BlI Newtons (N)

B = Flux density due to the flux produced by the field winding

l = Active length of the conductor

I = Magnitude of the current passing through the conductor

3
 The direction of such force i.e. the direction of rotation of a motor can be determined by
Fleming’s left hand rule.

6.3 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

Fleming’s left hand rule is illustrated in Fig. 6.4.

It can be seen from the Fig. 6.5 that if the direction of the main field in which current
carrying conductor is placed, is reversed, force experienced by the conductor reverses its
direction. Similarly, keeping main flux direction unchanged, the direction of current passing
through the conductor is reversed, and the force experienced by the conductor reverses its
direction. However, if both the directions are reversed, the direction of the force experienced
remains the same.

4
6.4 Significance of Back EMF

After a motoring action, there exists a generating action. There is an induced emf in the
rotating armature conductors according to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction. This
induced emf in the armature always acts in the opposite direction of the supply voltage. This
is according to the Lenz’s Law which states that the direction of the induced emf is always so
as to oppose the cause producing it. In a dc motor, electrical input i.e. the supply voltage is
the cause and hence this induced emf opposes the supply voltage. This emf tries to set up a
current through the armature which is in the opposite direction to that, which supply voltage
is forcing through the conductor.

So as this emf always opposes the supply voltage, it is called back emf and denoted as Eb,
basically it gets generated by the generating action which we have seen earlier in case of
generators. So its magnitude can be determined by the emf equation which is derived earlier.
So

PNZ
Eb 
60 A volts

This emf is shown schematically in the Fig. 6.6 (a). So if V is supply voltage in volts and
Ra is the value of the armature resistance, the equivalent electric circuit can be shown as in
the Fig. 6.6 (b).

6.5 Voltage Equation of a DC Motor

The voltage equation is:

V = Eb + IaRa + brush drop

If we neglect brush drop, the generalized voltage equation is,

V = Eb + IaRa

5
 The back emf is always less than supply voltage (Eb<V). But Ra is very small hence under
normal running conditions, the difference between back emf and supply voltage is very small.
Hence from the voltage equation, we can write,

V  Eb
Ia 
Ra

Example 6.1

A 220 V dc motor has an armature resistance of 0.75 ohm. It is drawing an armature current
of 30A, drawing a certain load. Calculate the induced emf in the motor under this condition.

Solution:

V = 220V, Ia = 30A, Ra = 0.75 ohm are the given values.

For a motor, V = Eb + IaRa

220 = Eb + 30(0.75)

Eb = 197.5 Volts

Example 6.2

A 4 pole, dc motor has lap connected armature winding. The flux per pole is 30 mWb. The
number of armature conductors is 250. When connected to 230 V dc supply it draws an
armature current of 40A. Calculate the back emf and the speed with which motor is running.
Assume armature resistance is 0.6 ohm.

Solution:

P = 4, A = P = 4 as lap, V = 230V; Z = 250

Ø = 30 mWb = 30x10-3 Wb

Ia = 40A

From voltage equation,

V = Eb + IaRa

230 = Eb + 40(0.6)

Eb = 206 V

And

∅𝑃𝑁𝑍
𝐸𝑏 =
60𝐴

6
 30𝑥10−3 (4)𝑁(250)
206 =
60𝑥4

𝑁 = 1648 𝑟𝑝𝑚

6.6 Back Emf as a Regulating Mechanism

Due to the presence of back emf the dc motor becomes a regulating machine i.e. motor
adjusts itself to draw the armature current just enough to satisfy the load demand. The basic
principle of this fact is that the back emf is proportional to speed Eb  N. So the back emf
regulates the flow of armature current and it automatically alters the armature current to
meet the load requirement. This is the practical significance of the back emf.

6.7 Power Equation of a DC Motor

The voltage equation of a dc motor is given by,

V = Eb + IaRa

Multiplying both sides of the above equation by Ia we get,

VIa = EbIa + Ia2 Ra

This equation is called power equation of a dc motor.

VIa = Net electrical power input to the armature measured in watts.

Ia2Ra = Power loss due to the resistance of the armature called armature copper loss.

So difference between VIa and Ia2Ra I.e. input - losses gives the output of the armature.
This is denoted as Pm.

Power input to the armature - Armature copper loss = Gross mechanical power
developed in the armature

6.8 Condition for Maximum Power

For a motor from power equation it is known that,

Pm = Gross mechanical power developed = EbIa = VIa - Ia2Ra

For Maximum Pm,

𝑑𝑃𝑚
=0
𝑑𝐼𝑎

0 = 𝑣 − 2𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎

𝑉
𝐼𝑎 =
2𝑅𝑎

7
 𝑉
𝑖. 𝑒 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 =
2

Substituting in voltage equation,

𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 +
2
𝑉
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
2

6.9 Torque Equation of A DC Motor

Let us consider a wheel of radius R meters acted upon by a

circumferential force F newtons as shown in the Fig. 6.7.

The wheel is rotating at a speed of N rpm. Then the angular

speed of the wheel is,

2𝜋𝑁
𝜔= 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐
60

So work done in one revolution is,

W = F x distance travelled in one revolution  Fx2R Joules

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
And 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝐹𝑥2𝜋𝑅 𝐹𝑥2𝜋𝑅 2𝜋𝑁

= = 60 = (𝐹𝑥𝑅)𝑥 ( )
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝑟𝑒𝑣 60
𝑁

𝑃 = 𝑇𝑥𝜔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑁 − 𝑚

𝜔 = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Let Ta be the gross torque developed by the armature of the motor. It is also called armature
torque. Then

Power in armature = Armature torque x 

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 2𝜋𝑁
𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑇𝑎 𝑥
60𝐴

But Eb in a motor is given by,

∅𝑃𝑁𝑍
𝐸𝑏 =
60𝐴
∅𝑃𝑁𝑍 2𝜋𝑁
𝑥 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑇𝑎 𝑥
60𝐴 60
1 𝑃𝑍
𝑇𝑎 = ∅𝐼𝑎 𝑥
2𝜋 𝐴
𝑃𝑍
𝑇𝑎 = 0.159𝐼𝑎 𝑁−𝑚
𝐴

This is the torque equation in a dc motor.

Example 6.3

A 4 pole dc motor takes a 50A armature current. The armature has lap connected 480
conductors. The flux per pole is 20 mWb. Calculate the gross torque developed by the
armature of the motor.

Solution:

P= 4, A = P = 4, Z = 480

 = 20mWb = 20x10-3 Wb, Ia = 50A

𝑃𝑍 4𝑥480
𝑇𝑎 = 0.159𝑥∅𝐼𝑎 = 0.159𝑥20𝑥10−3 𝑥50𝑥 = 76.394 𝑁 − 𝑚
𝐴 4

6.10 Types of Torque in the Motor

Basically the torque in the armature and hence gross torque produced is denoted as Ta.

The torque which is available at the shaft for doing the

useful work is known as load torque or shaft torque
denoted as Tsh.

Ta = Tf + Tsh

The shaft torque magnitude is always less than the armature torque.

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 Net output of motor = Pout = Tsh x 

6.11 No Load Condition of a Motor

The motor draws an armature current of Ia0.

𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏0
𝐼𝑎0 =
𝑅𝑎

Where Eb0 is back emf on no load, proportional to speed N0.

Now armature torque Ta for motor is,

𝑇𝑎 ∝ ∅𝐼𝑎

Now Ta= Tf + Tsh

But on no load, Tsh = 0

Ta0 = Tf

So on no load, motor keeps on rotating at a speed of N0 rpm drawing an armature current

Ia0.

So on no load,

Torque developed = Torque required to overcome friction, windage, iron losses

Power developed (Eb0 x Ia0) = Friction, windage and iron losses

Where Eb0 = Back emf on no load

Ia0 = Armature current on no load

This component of stray losses I.e. Eb0 Ia0 is practically assumed to be constant
though the load on the motor is changed from zero to the full capacity of the motor. So Tf
is practically assumed constant for all load conditions.

Example 6.4

A 4 pole, lap wound dc motor has 540 conductors. Its speed is found to be 1000 rpm when it
is made to run light. The flux per pole is 25mWb. It is connected to 230V dc supply. The
armature resistance is 0.8 ohm. Calculate,

(a) Induced emf, (b) Armature current , ( c) Stray losses, (d) Lost torque

10
Solution:

P = 4, A=P=4

Running light means it is on no load.

N0 = 1000 rpm

Z = 540 and  = 25x10-3 Wb

𝜙𝑃𝑁𝑍 25𝑥10−3 𝑥4𝑥1000𝑥50

𝐸𝑏0 = = = 225 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
60𝐴 60𝐴

(a) Induced emf Eb0 = 225 V

From voltage equation,

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏0 + 𝐼𝑎0 𝑅𝑎

230 = 225 + 𝐼𝑎0 𝑥0.8

𝐼𝑎0 = 6.25 𝐴

(a) On no load power developed is fully the power required to overcome stray losses.

Stray losses = Eb0Ia0 = 225x 6.25 = 1406.25 W

Eb 0 Ia 0 1406.25 1406.25 x60

Tf     13.428
0 2N 0 2x1000
Lost torque 60 N-m

6.12 Types of DC Motors

Similar to the dc generators, dc motors are classified depending upon the way of
connecting the field winding with the armature winding.

6.12.1 DC Shunt Motor

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 In this type, the field winding is connected across
the armature winding and the combination is
connected across the supply, as shown in the Fig. 6.9.

Let Rsh be the resistance of shunt field winding.

Ra be the resistance of armature winding.

[Link] Voltage and Current Relationship

IL = Ia + Ish

𝑉
𝐼𝑠ℎ =
𝑅𝑠ℎ

V = Eb + IaRa + Vbrush

And Vbrush is generally neglected.

Now   Ish

6.12.2 DC Series Motor

In this type of motor, the series field winding is

connected in series with the armature and the supply,
as shown in the Fig. 6.10.

Let Rse be the resistance of the series field

winding.

[Link] Voltage and Current Relationship

IL = Ise = Ia

V = Eb + IaRa + IseRse + Vbrush

V = Eb + Ia(Ra + Rse) + Vbrush

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 Main Point : In series motor, entire armature current is passing through the series field
winding. So flux produced is proportional to the armature current.

𝜙 ∝ 𝐼𝑠𝑒 ∝ 𝐼𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟

6.12.3 DC Compound Motor

The compound motor consists of part of the field winding connected in series and part
of the field winding connected in parallel with armature

[Link] Long Shunt Compound Motor

In this type, the shunt field winding is connected

across the combination of armature and the series field
winding as shown in the Fig. 6.11.

IL = Ise + Ish

But Ise = IL

IL = Ia + Ish

𝑉
𝐼𝑠ℎ =
𝑅𝑠ℎ

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑠𝑒 + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ

𝐼𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝑎

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 ) + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ

[Link] Short Shunt Compound Motor

In this type, the shunt field is connected purely

in parallel with armature and the series field is
connected in series with this combination shown in
the Fig. 6.12.

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 IL = Ise

And IL = Ia + Ish

So V = Eb + IseRse + IaRa + Vbrush

But Ise = IL

V = Eb + ILRse + IaRa + Vbrush

Drop across shunt field winding is,

= V - ILRse + Eb + IaRa + Vbrush

𝑉 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑠𝑒 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑠ℎ = =
𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝑅𝑠ℎ

Apart from these two, compound motor can be classified into two more types,

(1) Cumulatively compound motors and (2) differential compound motors.

6.13 Torque and Speed Equations

From torque equation

𝑇 ∝ 𝜙𝐼𝑎

PZ
That is because , 0.159 A is a constant for a given motor.

Now 𝜙 ∝ 𝐼𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

For series motors

𝑇 ∝ 𝐼𝑎 𝜙 ∝ 𝐼𝑎2

For a dc shunt motor, Ish is constant as long as supply voltage is constant. Hence  is
proportional to the armature current Ia.
𝜙𝑃𝑁𝑍
Similarly as 𝐸𝑏 = 60𝐴

Then 𝐸𝑏 ∝ 𝜙𝑁
𝐸𝑏
𝑁 ∝ 𝜙

But V = Eb + IaRa neglecting brush drop

Eb = V - IaRa

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 Speed equation becomes,

𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝑁 ∝
𝜙

So for a shunt motor as flux is constant,

𝑁 ∝ 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎

While for series motor, flux is proportional to Ia.

𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑠𝑒
𝑁 ∝
𝐼𝑎

6.14 Speed Regulation

The speed regulation for a dc motor is defined as the ratio of change in speed
corresponding to no load and full load condition to speed corresponding to full load.

Mathematically

𝑁𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝑁𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑥 100

% 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑁𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

6.15 DC Motor Characteristic

The performance of a dc motor under various conditions can be judged by the following
characteristic

(1) T vs Ia:

The graph showing the relationship between the torque and the armature current is
called a torque-armature current characteristic. These are also called electrical
characteristics.

(2) N vs. Ia

The graph showing the relationship between the speed and armature current
characteristics.

(3) N vs. T

The graph showing the relationship between the speed and the torque of the motor is
called speed-torque characteristics of the motor. These are also called mechanical
characteristics.

15
6.16 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor

(1) Torque- Armature current characteristics

For a dc motor 𝑇 ∝ 𝐼𝑎

For a constant value of Rsh and supply voltage V, Ish is also constant and hence flux is also
constant.

𝑇 ∝ 𝜙𝐼𝑎

𝑇𝑎 ∝ 𝜙𝐼𝑎

The equation represents a straight line,

passing through the origin, as shown in the Fig. 6.13.
Torque increases linearly with armature current.

To generate high staring torque, this type of motor requires a large value of armature
current at start. This may damage the motor hence dc shunt motors can develop moderate
starting torque and hence suitable for such applications where starting torque requirement
is moderate.

(2) Speed-Armature current characteristics

From the speed regulation, we get

𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝑁 ∝
𝜙

𝑁 ∝ 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 as 𝜙 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

So as load increases, the armature current increases and hence drop IaRa also increases.

(3) Speed – Torque characteristics

These characteristics can be derived

from the above characteristics. This graph is similar
to speed-armature current characteristics as torque
is proportional to the armature current. This curve
shows that the speed almost remains constant
though torque changes from no load to full load
conditions. This is shown in the Fig. 6.15.

16
6.17 Characteristics s of DC Series Motor

(1) Torque-Armature current characteristics

In case of series motor the series field winding is carrying the entire armature
current. So flux produced is proportional to the armature current.

𝜙 ∝ 𝐼𝑎

Hence 𝑇𝑎 ∝ 𝜙𝐼𝑎 ∝ 𝐼𝑎2

Thus torque in case of series motor is proportional to the square of the armature current.
This relation is parabolic in nature as shown in the Fig. 6.16.

As load increases, armature current increases and torque produced increases

proportional to the square of the armature current up to a certain limit.

Hence after saturation the characteristics take the shape of straight line as flux becomes
constant, as shown. The difference between Ta and Tsh is loss torque Tf which is also shown in
the Fig. 6.16.

(2) Speed – armature current characteristics

From the speed equation, we get

𝐸𝑏
𝑁 ∝ 𝜙

𝑉−𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 −𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑠𝑒

𝑁 ∝ 𝐼𝑎

As 𝜙 ∝ 𝐼𝑎 in case of series motor.

Now the values of Ra and Rse are so small that the effect of change in Ia speed overrides
the effect of change in V-IaRa-IaRse on the speed.

Hence in the speed equation, Eb ≅ V and can be assumed constant. So speed equation
reduces to,

17
 1
𝑁 ∝
𝐼𝑎

So speed-armature current characteristics is rectangular hyperbola type as shown in the

Fig. 6.17.

(3) Speed-torque characteristics

In case of series motors,

1
𝑇 ∝ 𝐼𝑎2 and 𝑁 ∝ 𝐼𝑎

Hence we can write,

1
𝑁 ∝ Thus as torque increases when load increases,
√𝑇
the speed decreases. On no load, torque is very less
and hence speed increases to dangerously high value. Thus
the nature of the speed-torque characateristics is similar to
the nature of the speed-armature current characteristics.

The speed torque characteristics of a series motor is

shown in the Fig. 6.18.

6.18 Characteristics of DC Compound Motor

Compound motor characteristics basically depends on the fact whether the motor is
cumulatively compound or differential compound. All the characteristics of the compound
motor are the combination of the shunt and series characteristic.
Cumulative compound motor is capable of developing large amount of torque at low
speeds just like series motor. However it is not having a disadvantage or series motor even at
light or no load. The shunt field winding produces the definite flux and series flux helps the
shunt field flux to increase the total flux level.
So cumulative compound motor can run at a reasonable speed and will not run with
dangerously high speed like series motor, on light or no load condition.
In differential compound motor, as two fluxes oppose each other, the resultant flux
decreases as load increases, thus the machine runs at higher speed with increase in the load.
This property is dangerous as on full load, the motor may try to run with dangerously high
speed

18
6.19 Applications of DC Motors

Table 6.1. Applications of various Types of DC Motors

Type of Motor Characteristics Applications

Shunt Speed is fairly constant and 1) Blowers and fans
medium starting torque 2) Centrifugal and reciprocating
engines
3) Lathe machine
4) Machine tools
5) Milling Machines
6) Drilling Machines
Series High starting torque. No load 1) Cranes
condition is dangerous. Variable 2) Hoists, Elevators
speed. 3) Trolleys
4) Conveyors
5) Electric locomotives
Cumulative High starting torque. No load 1) Rolling mills
compound condition is allowed. 2) Punches
3) Shears
4) Heavy Planers
5) Elevators
Differential Speed increases as load increases Not suitable for any practical
compound application

Example 6.5
A 4 pole, 250 dc series motor has a wave connected armature with 200 conductors. The flux
per pole is 25 mWb when motor is drawing 60A from the supply. Armature rsistance is 0.15
ohm while series field winding resistance is 0.2 ohm. Calculate the speed under this condition.
Solution:
P = 4, Z = 200
A = 2, 𝜙 = 25x10-3 Wb
Ia = IL = 60A
Ra = 0.15 ohm
Rse = 0.2 ohm
V = Eb + IaRa + Ia Rse
250 = Eb + 60(0.15 + 0.2)

𝐸𝑏 = 229𝑉
𝜙𝑃𝑁𝑍
𝐸𝑏 = 60𝐴
25𝑥10−3 𝑥4𝑁𝑥200
229 = 60𝑥2
N = 1374 rpm

19
Example 6.6

A dc shunt motor runs at a speed of 1000 rpm on no load taking a current of 6A from the
supply, when connected to 220V dc supply. Its full load current is 50A. Calculate its speed on
full load. Assume Ra = 0.3 ohm and Rsh = 110 ohms.

Solution:
Let no load speed be N0 = 1000 rpm
IL0 = Line current on no load = 60A
IL0 = Ia + Ish
𝑉 220
𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 2𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ 110
𝐼𝑎0 = 𝐼𝐿0 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 6 − 2 = 4𝐴
Back emf on no load Eb0 can be determined from the voltage equation.
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏0 + 4𝑥0.3

On full load condition, supply voltage is constant and hence,

𝑉 220
𝐼𝑠ℎ = = =2𝐴 (remains same)
𝑅𝑠ℎ 110
IL = IaFL + 2
IaFL = 48A
V = EbFL + IaFLRa
220 = EbFL + 48x0.3
EbFL = 205.6V
From the speed equation
𝐸𝑏
𝑁 ∝
𝜙

But ∅ is constant as Ish is constant for both the load conditions.

𝑁0 𝐸𝑏0
=
𝑁𝐹𝐿 𝐸𝑏𝐹𝐿

𝐸𝑏𝐹𝐿 205.6
𝑁𝐹𝐿 = 𝑁0 = 1000 𝑥 = 939.67 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝐸𝑏0 218.8

20
Example 6.7
A dc series motor is running with a speed of 800 rpm while taking a current of 20A from the
supply. If the load is changed such that the current drwan by the motor is increased to 50A,
calculate the speed of the motor on new load. The armature and series field winding
resistance nare 0.2 ohm and 0.3 ohm respectively. Assume the flux produced is proportional
to the current. Assume supply voltage as 250V.

Solution:
For load 1, N1 = 800 rpm, I1 + Ia1 = 20A
For load 2, I2 = Ia2 = 50A
Ra = 0.2 ohm , Rse = 0.3 ohm
From voltage equation
V = Eb1 + Ia1Ra + Ise2Rse
But I1 = Ia1 = Ise1 = 20A
250 = Eb1+20(0.2+0.3)
Eb1 = 240 V

And V = Eb2 + Ia2Ra + Ise2Rse

250 = Eb2 + 50(0.2+0.3)
Eb2 = 225 V

From the speed equation

𝐸𝑏
𝑁 ∝
𝜙

𝜙 ∝ 𝐼𝑠𝑒 ∝ 𝐼𝑎

𝑁1 𝐸𝑏1 𝜙2
= 𝑥
𝑁2 𝐸𝑏1 𝜙1

𝑁1 𝐸𝑏1 𝐼𝑎1
= 𝑥
𝑁2 𝐸𝑏2 𝐼𝑎2

𝐸𝑏2 𝐼𝑎1
𝑁2 = 𝑁1 𝑥 𝑥
𝐸𝑏1 𝐼𝑎2

225 20
= 800 𝑥 𝑥 = 300 𝑟𝑝𝑚
240 50

21
6.20 Effect of Armature Reaction on Performance of a DC Motor

One of the important effects of armature reaction is delayed commutation as the current
in the coil undergoing commutation tries to maintain in the same direction. Thus armature
reaction at the brush axis must be neutralized. This is achieved by using interpoles.

In the case of motors, due to armature reaction a field is produced at geometric neutral
axis which has same nature at the pole ahead of it. Thus interpole must produce a field
corresponding to main pole behind it so that armature reaction is neutralized. In Fig. 6.25
the coils undergo commutation along the axis at X shown.

Example 6.8

A 120 V, dc shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.2 ohm and a field resistance of 60
ohms. It runs at 1800 rpm taking a full load current of 40A. Find the speed on half load
condition.

Solution:

V = 120V, Ra = 0.2 ohm, Rsh = 60 ohms

For full load, IL1 = 40A, N1 = 1800 rpm
V 120
I sh
   2A
For shunt motor, R
sh
60
For full load, Ia1 = IL1 - Ish = 40 - 2 = 38A
Eb1 = V - Ia1Ra = 120 - 38(0.2)
Eb1 = 112.4 V
1
For half load, 𝑇2 = 𝑇
2 1
𝑇 ∝ 𝜙𝐼𝑎 ∝ 𝐼𝑎 𝑎𝑠 𝜙 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑇1 𝐼𝑎1
=
𝑇2 𝐼𝑎2

22
 𝑇1 38
=
0.5𝑇1 𝐼𝑎2

𝐼𝑎2 = 19𝐴

𝐸𝑏2 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎 = 120 − 19 (0.2) = 116.2 𝑉

Use speed equation, 𝑁 ∝ 𝐸𝑏 𝑎𝑠 𝜙 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

𝑁1 𝐸𝑏1
=
𝑁2 𝐸𝑏2

1800 112.4
=
𝑁2 `116.2

𝑁2 = 1860.85 𝑟𝑝𝑚

23
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT VII. SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS AND STARTERS

Overview

The unit will give you a knowledge of the factors that affect the speed of dc motors
and how to employ techniques to control it. The unit also discusses the advantages and
disadvantages of such controls.

Learning Objectives

At the end of the unit you will be able to:

1. enumerate the factors affecting the speed of dc motors;

2. employ various methods to control the speed of dc methods;
3. enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods of
controlling the speed of dc motors; and
4. solve problems involving speed control of dc motors.

24
Lesson Proper

7.1 Factors Affecting the Speed of a DC Motor

The speed equation can be written as,

E V  IaRa
N b

 

Z, P, A are constants

If we neglect voltage drops the speed equation is now

V
N V
 as E b

The factors affecting the speed of a dc motor are,

1. The flux 
2. The voltage across the armature
3. The applied voltage V.

The various methods of speed control are,

1. Flux control methods.

2. Rheostatic control.
3. Voltage control method.

7.2 Ratings of a DC Motor

V
N
From 

So for V = Vrated and   I f rated I

N rated
 V rated
I frated

25
 1.3 Speed Control of a DC Motor

7.3.1 Flux Control

The flux can be controlled by adding a rheostat

in series with the shunt field winding. This is
shown in, Fig. 7.1

Thus by this method, the speed control

above rated value is possible.

Here are some of the advantages of Flux Control Method

1. A smooth and easy control is provided.

2. Possible speed control above rated speed.
3. Since the field winding resistance is high this means that the field current is small.
This makes the method more economical and efficient.
4. Since the field current is small therefore the size of the rheostat is also small.

Here are some of the disadvantages of Flux Control Method

1. It is not possible to control the speed below its rated speed.

2. When there is a decrease in flux , there is an increase in speed . Motor operation at
this condition is unstable because the increase in speed will affect the motor’s commutation.

7.3.2 Armature Voltage Control Method or Rheostatic Control

Since the supply voltage is constant, by adding a variable resistance in series with the
armature, the voltage across the armature can be controlled. This is shown in the figure

Some of the Advantages of Rheostatic Control

1. Speed control below rated value is relatively smooth and easy.

2. The rheostat can be used as a starter in a potential divider arrangement.
3.
Some of the Disadvantages of Rheostatic Control

1. There are huge power losses due to the armature current passing through the
external resistance.

26
 2. The required rheostat should be of large size and capacity because the armature
current in this case is much more than the field current.
3. It is not possible to control the speed above its rated value.
4. It is very expensive and less efficient because it entails large power losses.
5. It needs expensive heat dissipation system.

Example 7.1

A 250 V dc shunt motor has a shunt field resistance of 200 ohms and an armature resistance
of 0.3 ohm is running at 1500 rpm while drawing a current of 22A from the supply. Determine
the armature current and the speed at which this motor will operate if 150 ohms resistance
is added in series with the field winding.

Solution:

Fig 2.8 shows the given conditions for this problem.

The method to be used is flux control method.

V = 250 V, Ra = 0.3 ohm, Rsh = 200 ohms

For the first condition,

IL1 = 22A

V 250
I sh1
   1.25 A
R sh
200

Ia1 = IL1 - Ish1 = 22- 1.25 = 20.75 A

𝑇 ∝ 𝜙𝐼𝑎 ∝ 𝐼𝑠ℎ 𝐼𝑎 𝑎𝑠 (𝜙 ∝ 𝐼𝑠ℎ )

𝑇1 𝐼𝑠ℎ1 𝐼𝑎1
= 𝑥
𝑇2 𝐼𝑠ℎ2 𝐼𝑎2

When load torque is constant , then T1 = T2

Ish1Ia1 = Ia2Ish2 (1)

27
 𝑉 250
Now 𝐼𝑠ℎ2 = = = 0.7142
𝑅𝑠ℎ + 𝑅𝑥 (200+150)

Substituting in (1)

1.25 x 20.75 = Ia2 x 0.7142

Ia2 = 36.3125A

Therefore

Eb1 = V - Ia1Ra = 250 - 20.75 (0.3)

Eb1 = 243.775V

Eb2 = V - Ia2Ra = 250 - 36.3125(0.3)

Eb2 = 239.1062 V

From the speed equation

𝐸𝑏 𝐸𝑏
𝑁 ∝ ∝
𝜙 𝐼𝑠ℎ

𝑁1 𝐸𝑏1 𝐼𝑠ℎ2
= 𝑥
𝑁2 𝐸𝑏2 𝐼𝑠ℎ1

1500 243.775 0.7142

= 𝑥
𝑁2 239.1062 1.25

𝑁2 = 2575.03 𝑟𝑝𝑚

28
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
UNIT VIII. TESTING OF DC MACHINES

Overview

The unit will give you the knowledge on how to employ various tests to determine
the efficiency of dc motors. In this chapter the various losses taking place in a in a dc machines
are discussed. The power flow in a dc machines are also discussed in this chapter.

Learning Objectives

At the end of the unit, you will be able to

1. cite the different test performed in a dc machine to determine its efficiency;

2. compute the various losses taking place in a dc machine;
3. understand the power flow diagram; and
4. solve for the efficiency of dc machines.

29
Lesson Proper

8.1 Losses in a DC Machine

The different losses in a dc machine whether it is a motor or a generator are

classified into three groups as:

1. Copper losses
2. Iron or core losses

3. Mechanical losses
8.1.1 Copper Losses

The copper losses are the losses taking place due to the current flowing in a winding.
The the various copper losses can be given by,

Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra

Where Ra = armature winding resistance

Ia = armature current

Shunt field copper loss = Ish2Rsh

Where Rsh = shunt field winding resistance

Ish = shunt field current

Series field copper loss = I2seRse

Where Rse = Series field winding resistance

Ise = Series field current

8.1.2 Iron or Core Losses

These losses are also called magnetic losses. These losses include hysteresis loss and
eddy current loss.

The hysteresis loss is proportional to the frequency and the maximum flux density
Bm in the air gap and is given by,
1.6 𝑓𝑉 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Hysteresis loss = 𝐾𝐵𝑚

Where K = constant

V = Volume of core in m3

F = Frequency of magnetic reversal

30
 This loss is basically due to reversal of magnetization of the armature core.

The eddy current loss exists due to eddy currents.

Eddy current loss = KB2mf2t2V

Where K = constant

t = thickness of each lamination

V = volume of core

F = frequency of magnetic reversals

The hysteresis loss is minimized by selecting the core material having low hysteresis
coefficient. While eddy current loss is minimized by selecting the laminated construction for
the core.

These losses are almost constant for the dc machines.

8.1.3 Mechanical Losses

These losses consist of friction and windage losses. Some power is required to
overcome mechanical friction and wind resistance at the shaft. The mechanical losses are
also constant for a dc machine.

The magnetic and mechanical losses together are called stray losses. Stray losses
along with constant field copper losses are called constant losses. While the armature
current is dependent on the load and thus armature copper losses are called variable
losses.

Thus for a dc machine,

Total losses = Constant losses + Variable losses

The power flow and energy transformation diagrams at various stages, which takes
place in a dc machine are represented in Fig. 8.1 (a) and (b).

31
8.2 Efficiency of a DC Machine

For a dc machine, its overall efficiency is given by,

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
%𝜂 = 𝑥 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Let Pout = total output of a machine

Pin = Total input of a machine4

Pcu = Variable losses

Pi = Constant losses

Then Pin = Pout + Pcu + Pi

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
%𝜂 = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 10
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑛 + 𝑃𝑐𝑢 + 𝑃𝑖

8.3 Condition for Maximum Efficiency

In case of a dc generator the output is given by ,

Pout = VI

Pcu = variable losses = Ia2Ra = I2Ra

Ia = I neglecting shunt field current

𝑉𝐼 𝐼
%𝜂 = 𝑥 100 = x 100
𝑉𝐼+ 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑃𝑖 𝐼𝑅 𝑃
𝐼+ ( 𝑎 + 𝑖 )
𝑉 𝑉𝐼

The efficiency is maximum, when the denominator is minimum. According to

maxima-minima theorem,

𝑑 𝐼𝑅𝑎 𝑃𝑖
[𝐼 + ( + )] = 0
𝑑𝐼 𝑉 𝑉𝐼 2
𝑅𝑎 𝑃𝑖
− =0
𝑉 𝑉𝐼 2

𝐼 2 𝑅𝑎 − 𝑃𝑖 = 0

32
 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑐𝑢

So for the maximum efficiency, the condition is,

Variable losses = Constant losses

Example 8.1

A 6 pole, 500 volts, wave connected shunt motor has 1200 armature conductors and
useful flux/pole of 20mWb. Armature and field resistance are 0.5 ohms and 250 ohms. What
will be the speed and torque developed by the motor when it draws 20 Amp. From supply?
Neglect armature reaction. If magnetic and mechanical losses are 900 watts find

(a) Useful torque (b) efficiency at this load.

Solution:

P = 6, V = 500V, wave wound so A=2

Z = 1200,  = 20 mWb, Ra = 0.5 ohm, Rsh = 250 ohms, IL=20A

𝑉 500
𝐼𝑠ℎ = = =2𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ 250

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 20 − 2 = 18 𝐴

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎

500 = 𝐸𝑏 + 18(0.5)

𝐸𝑏 = 491 𝑉

𝜙𝑃𝑁𝑍
𝐸𝑏 =
60𝐴

20𝑥10−3 𝑥 6 𝑥 𝑁 𝑥 1200
491 =
60 𝑥 2

𝑁 = 409.167 𝑟𝑝𝑚

The electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed is,

Pm = EbIa = 491 x 18 = 8838 W

𝑃𝑚 𝑃𝑚 8838
𝑇𝑔 = = = = 206.26 𝑁 − 𝑚
𝜔 2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋𝑥409.167
( 60 ) ( 60 )

33
 𝑃𝑍
Or Tg can be calculated by using expression 0.159𝜙𝐼𝑎 also.
𝐴

Pout = Pm - Mechanical losses = 8838-900 = 7938 W

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 7938
𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑇𝑠ℎ = = = 185.26 𝑁 − 𝑚
𝜔 2𝜋𝑥409.167
60

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝐼𝐿 = 500 𝑥 20 = 10000

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 7938
%𝜂 = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100 = 79.38
𝑃𝑖𝑛 10000

8.4 Testing of DC Motors

The efficiency of a dc motor is given by,

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑡

Different methods of testing dc motors.

(1) Direct method of testing

(2) Indirect method of testing

8.4.1 Direct Method of Testing

In this method the dc motor which is to be tested is actually loaded and input and
output are measured. The efficiency is given by

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Generally this method is employed to small motors. The motor is loaded by means
of a brake applied to the water cooled pulleys.

The main drawback of this method is that the accuracy in determining the
mechanical power output of the motor is limited. Alternately it is difficult to provide full
load for the large capacity motor.

8.4.2 Indirect Method of Testing

In these methods the motor is not loaded directly but the losses and efficiency at different
loads can be estimated.

34
 8.4.3 Swinburne’s Test or No Load Test

The test is shown in Fig. 8.2.

The no load armature current Ia is measured by ammeter A1 whereas the shunt

current is measured by ammeter A2.

Advantages

1. Since constant losses are known, the efficiency can be estimated at any load.
2. The method is convenient and economical as less power is required for testing even
a large motor i.e. only no load power is to be supplied.
3. The motor is not required to be loaded, i.e. only test to be carried out is the no load
test.

Disadvantages

1. In this method, the iron losses are assumed to be constant which is not the true case
as they change from no load to full load. Due to armature reaction at full load there
will be distortion in flux which will increase the iron loss.
2. The only test which is carried out is the no load test. Hence it is difficult to know
whether there will be satisfactory commutation at full load.
3. We have assumed that there is rise in temperature of 40ºC at full load which cannot
be checked actually as we are not actually loading the motor.
4. As it is a no load test it cannot be performed on a series motor.

35
Example 8.2

A 440 V dc shunt motor takes a no load current of 2.5A. The resistance of the shunt field
and the armature are 550 ohms and 12 ohms respectively. The full load line current is 32A.
Find the full load output and the efficiency of the motor.

Solution:

No load current = 2.5A ,

No load input = VI = 440x2.5 = 1100 W

𝑉 440
𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 0.8𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ 550

In dc shunt motor,

I = Ish + Ia

Ia = I - Ish = 2.5 - 0.8 = 1.7 A

No load armature copper loss = Ia2Ra = (1.7)2 x 1.2 = 3.468 watts

Constant losses = No load input - No load armature Cu loss

= 1100 - 3.468 = 1096.532 W

Now, full load line current I.e. I = 32 A

I = Ish + Ia

Ia = I - Ish = 32 - 0.8 = 31.2 A

Full load armature copper loss = Ia2Ra = (31.2)2 x 1.2 = 1168.128 W

Total losses = Full load armature Cu loss + Constant losses

= 1168.128 + 1096.532 = 264.66 W

Full load motor input = VI = 440 x 32 = 14080 W

Full load motor output = Input - Losses = 14080 - 2264.66 = 11815.34 W

% Efficiency at full load = full load Output/Full load Input x 100

11815.34
= 𝑥 100 = 83.91
14080

36
 8.4.4 Brake Test

Another method of testing the dc motor is brake test method. This is a direct method of
testing the motor. In this method, the motor is put on the direct load by means of a belt and
pulley arrangement.

Advantages

The advantages of brake test,

1. Actual efficiency of the motor under working conditions can be found out.
2. The method is simple and easy to perform.
3. Can be performed on any type of dc motor.
Disadvantages

The disadvantages of brake test,

1. Due to friction, heat is generated and hence there is large dissipation of energy.
2. Some type of cooling arrangement is necessary.
3. Convenient only for small machines due to limitations regarding heat dissipation
arrangements.
4. The power developed gets wasted hence method is expensive.
5. The efficiency observed is on lower side.

8.4.5 Hopkinson’s Test

This test is called regenerative test or back to back test which can be carried out on
two identical dc machines mechanically coupled to each other and simultaneously tested.

Advantages

The various advantages of Hopkinson’s test are,

1. The power required for conducting the test is small compared to full load powers
of the two machines.
2. Since the machines are operated at full load conditions, change in iron loss due to
distortion in flux at full load will be included in the calculations.
3. As the machines are tested under full load conditions, the temperature rise and
quality of commutation of the two machines can be observed.
4. The test is economical as power required to conduct the test is very small which
is just sufficient to meet the losses.
5. There is no need for arranging any actual load. Similarly by changing the field
currents of two machines, the load can be easily changed and a load test over
complete range of load can be taken.

37
 Disadvantages

The various disadvantages of Hopkinson’s test are

1. There is difficulty in availability of two identical machines.

2. The iron losses in the two machines cannot be separated. The iron losses are different
in both the machines because of different excitations.
3. The machines are not loaded equally in case of small machines which may lead to
difficulty in analysis.

This test is better suited in case of large machines.

38
References

Bakshi, M.V. & Bakshi, U.A. (2005). Electrical Machines – I. Pune, India: Technical Publications
Pune

Siskind, C.S. (1982). Electrical Machines, 2nd ed Philippine Edition. Manila, Philippines :
Merriam & Webster Bookstore, Inc.

Theraja, A.K. (2005). AC & DC machines in S.I. system of units, Volume 2 of A Textbook of
Electrical Technology. Pennsylvania, USA: S. Chand Limited.

39