RESEARCH METHODS

1.​ SELF REPORT- QUESTIONNAIRES

TYPE OF Closed questions have fixed choices, Open questions are subjective.
example yes or no Participants can freely express
QUESTIONS
themselves, the data collected is more in
depth.

ADVANTAGE The data collected is quantitative. so the It helps to collect more rich and in-depth
analysis is done objectively. No research data. Moreover, it freely expresses the
bias. Secondly, quantitative data can be participants viewpoint and is more
shown on graphs and find average using subjective. Therefore, the validity
the central measure of tendency. increases.
DISADVANTAGE Participants are not able to freely An open ended question requires
express their opinion and believe, subjective analysis which can involve
therefore the validity reduces. researchers’ bias as the data qualitative.
Moreover, the validity is reduced.
Secondly, it is harder to analyse from
closed questions as a huge amount of
data is to be analysed. It can be time
consuming. Moreover, other researchers
might interpret the data differently,
making the findings less reliable

EVALUATING -​ Things to avoid when creating questionnaires

1.​ Double barrelled questions, Two questions in one single questions as it creates confusion
QUESTIONNAIRES:
2.​ Ambiguous (unclear) questions, it is important that the participants understand the question
correctly, if not, the validity will get affected.
3.​ Do not use technical terms until your target audience understands it.
4.​ Don't use emotive language
ADVANTAGE collecting data is quick and easy. participants may not be willing to
Moreover, participants do not have to answer the questions properly to
travel such as during an face-to-face elaborate in the open ended
interview, and can gather a large sample questions, so it will limit the amount
quickly and is time effective. of data being collected
DISADVANTAGE participants may not give socially desirable participants can give socially
answers as they would in a face-to-face desirable answers may think that
interview due to the fear of being judged. these answers will make them look
Therefore, the validity increases. if the good, but does not actually reflect
questionnaire is done anonymously. their own viewpoint
 2.​SELF REPORT- INTERVIEWS

TYPES EXPLANATION ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

Have a predetermined fixed gives an opportunity to some participants may

STRUCTURED
list of questions. All the gather in-depth rich data give socially desirable
questions are the same to answers as they are
all participants and in the speaking directly with the
same order. researcher, (afraid of
being judged) which can
reduce the validity.

The main topic is An unstructured interview An unstructured interview

UNSTRUCTURED gives an opportunity to gives an opportunity to
predetermined. There is a
gain good insight about gain good insight into
research question that some areas which are what people think and
gives direction to the unexpected (as the feel about things.
interview. However, there is researcher is not However, there can be
no set list of fixed restricted with a set list of researchers' bias.
questions. The interview is questions) and can
based on what participants discover thoughts and
ideas that they had not
choose to talk about. previously considered.

There are a number of key semi structured interview semi structured interview
SEMI
questions listed (that guide gives an opportunity to gives an opportunity to
STRUCTURED the interview). However, gain good insight about gain good insight into
they can be asked in any some areas which are what people think and
unexpected (as the feel about things.
order. Moreover, new
researcher is not However, there can be
questions can be restricted with a set list of researchers' bias.
introduced based on what questions) and can
the participant says. Some discover thoughts and
questions may be the same ideas that they had not
to all participants, but not previously considered.
all. There is a possibility of
follow-up questions to
clarify anything and can
help to gain good insights
about some areas that
were unexpected.
 [Link] STUDIES

EXPLANATION ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

It is a detailed investigation. Moreover, The data is more valid as The researcher is following the
researchers follow one person or a group of it is collected from several same participant for an
people connected to each other as a family research methods and extended period of time.
for a long period of time and tend to be used triangulation is used. Therefore their objectivity could
to study unusual and rare cases. When the be reduced while making
data is collected from various research conclusions. They may have a
predetermined opinion about
methods such as interviews and
the participant which can
questionnaires is called triangulation. They involve research bias and the
collect the data from the participant itself, validity could be reduced.
their family, school, psychometric data and
workplace. The results of a case study tend
to be more valid as they use triangulation. researchers can gather It is difficult to replicate
rich and detailed longitudinal studies as the data
Both quantitative and qualitative data is
information about an collected is about a unique
collected. Most of the time, case studies are individual which gives individual person and
longitude studies. When the researcher is them a unique insight into replication is not possible. It
publishing the case study, they often begin participants' life and give might be that that specific
the case history first which provides rich and a good understanding of experience led to the actions in
detailed background information which helps whatever aspects of a certain way that is not
to put out the current behaviour into behaviour they are representative of others,
starting. meaning the findings may not
account.
be generalised to others.

[Link] TESTS:

EXPLANATION ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

psychometric means measuring the mind, the results collected or participants will show demand
psychometric test measures the individual numerical, therefore, characteristics they may give
differences between people’s personality, quantitative data which answers which are socially
knowledge and skills. Moreover, the tests can be interpreted desirable and does not match their
are designed to measure the people’s objectively, therefore, no way of thinking which can reduce
differences. Average of all the participants subjectivity and less the validity of the results
chances of biased
(large random sample) is taken to find an
average which creates a baseline to which psychometric test is fast if participants perform under a
the rest of the results can be compared to. and cost-effective stressed situation, their answers
The score can be from very low to very may not be correct, stress could
high, and most of the people should affect how they respond in a
somewhere be in the middle. This is called psychometric test, which can
reduce the validity and the
normal distribution.
reliability as if test tested again, the
participants result may be
Floor and ceiling effect
if the scores by everyone are very high, it
gives a ceiling effect, whereas if the scores
are very low compared to the average, it
gives a floor effect.
 [Link]:
EXPLANATION ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
following one individual or a group of Longitudinal studies have advantage by the time longitudinal
individuals for an extended period of over cross-sectional studies where research is completed. It
time, giving tasks and tests to them sub samples from within a population may no longer be
with intervals in between and are simultaneously tested and generalised due to changes
recording how their behaviour, compared. Because longitudinal in society. This means it
thoughts, feelings have changed studies are following the same group may lack temporal validity.
of participants as the change and
and developed over a period of time.
develop over period, researchers do
This testing needs to be not have the issue of participant
standardised for valid and reliable variables with changes found, maybe
comparisons to be made between due to differences between
the participant score over time. participants.
(participants need to be reconnected
Moreover, some studies can only be Some participants may also
over time for retesting.) Longitude
done using longitudinal methods as drop out in between due to
study involves gathering the data they require a participant to be their personal reasons.
from a variety of techniques such as observed over a very long period of Therefore, longitudinal
interviews and questionnaires. time, which may not be possible with studies will remain
Moreover, experiments can also be other research methods. incomplete. There is an
conducted using longitudinal design issue of attrition.
where in the experimental group
They avoid participant effects by
there is intervention and support and following the same group of
can compare to the control group participants over an extended period
where there is no intervention and of time
support. Lastly, follow-up sessions
allow psychologists to measure the
long-term impact of the treatments
and intervention on the participants.

[Link]:

TYPE EXPLANATION ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

participants know that they the participants know the participants know that
Overt are being observed that they are being they are being observed
observed, so it is more and may demand
ethical. (consent can characteristics. Wouldn't act
be provided.) in the way they would in
real world
participants do not know the participants do not the participants do not
Covert that they are being know that they are know that they are being
observed and the being observed and will observed, so it is less
not show demand ethical. (consent can not be
 researcher watches them characteristics. provided.)
from a distance. Increases validity.
the researcher joins the researches can closely researchers can become
Participant group of the people and observe and will not less objective as they
becomes part of them to miss out on important become a part of the group,
observe them closely and behaviour and details which can reduce the
gather information in depth. validity

researchers do not join the

Non group of people and
the validity is high as researchers are standing
the researcher is more far away from the
participant observe them from a objective. does not get participants, therefore, can
distance. Moreover, involved in the study. miss out on important
researchers do not interact behaviour and details
with the participants.
the researcher has a more reliable as the observations can also be
Structured predetermined list of behaviours that are subjective to observer bias
behaviours. They want to being recorded are as it relies on observers'
observe. Each behaviour is decided in advance and own judgement as to what
operationalised. They use operationalised. This behaviour to record and
tally marks or tally counts to means the behaviours therefore subjective.
will be broken down into
count the number of times
components. so it is
that behaviour is done by easy to identify and
the participants. record.
the researcher does not
Unstructured have a behaviour checklist
unstructured it can be difficult to record
observation can be all behaviours and
and records all the used as a part of pilot sometimes other interesting
behaviours which matches study to give behaviours might be
with the aim of the study. researchers a good missed
Moreover, qualitative data understanding and
overview of the range of
recorded the researcher
behaviour that they
makes notes. might observe. The
researchers would then
choose a limited
number of those to
observe for their
research
are done in a laboratory all other external participants may try to act
Controlled where all the variables are variables can be and demand characteristics
in control of the researcher. controlled, therefore, in which could reduce the
increasing the validity validity of the result
the researcher goes to the done in the real world in naturalistic observation
Naturalistic real world setting and does settings. so participants the other variables which
not interfere. do not show demand could affect cannot be
characteristics. controlled
 6. CORRELATION:

Correlational studies look at the relation between two variables. These

EXPLANATION variables are known as variables. The data is collected of both the variables
and then plotted on a scatter graph.

Operational definitions for co-variables

It is important to operationalise the two variables this means stating what
they are measuring and how. Correlational study is done in areas where
research hasn’t been done to investigate if there is a relation between the
variables and research could be done in future or in areas where it is not
ethical or practical to measure variables. Quantitative data can be collected
through various ways.

POSITIVE A positive correlation is when both the variables increase together (direct)

NEGATIVE A negative correlation is when one of the variable increases and the other
one decreases (inverse)

NO there is no correlation when both the variables are not related to each other
and no consistent relation between them.
CORRELATION

to see the strength between the two variables, the coefficient of the
EVALUATING co-variable is important. if the coefficient is near 1 in a positive correlation, it
CORRELATION is a strong correlation and if the coefficient is near -1 in a negative
correlation, then it is a strong correlation

areas where research hasn’t been only shows the strength between
ADVANTAGE done to investigate if there is a the two variables. does not infer the
cause and effect relation. Also, do
relation between the variables and
research could be done in future. not tell why the relationship has
allows psychologists to investigate occurred.
new areas of research to see
whether they are worth investigating
further with experimental methods.

correlation can be done in place the presence of the third variable

where research cannot take place cannot be ruled out in coordination.
DISADVANTAGE due to ethical or practical issues to The third variable that is not being
manipulate the variables measured may influence the
relation.
 Hypothesis is a statement where the researcher predicts what they think will
HYPOTHESIS happen during the research

Operationalisation is clearly defining the independent and dependent variable in

an experiment and defining the co-variables in a correlation. Secondly, units are
included. operational definition means how something is measured or observed

Experimental hypothesis, there is a IV and DV (laboratory, and field experiment)

Alternative hypothesis, there are two variables in and correlation (non
experimental studies)

In a directional hypothesis, the researcher predicts in which direction the control

DIRECTIONAL group differs from the experimental group and whether the correlation of two
variables will be positive or negative.

research predicts whether the result of the experimental group will be better or
worse than the control group and the correlation of two variables will be positive or
negative.

Directional hypothesis is done in areas which have already been discovered, and
therefore the researcher knows what the result is expected.

Example- students who listen to music while studying, will perform better in a
memory test, who do not listen to music.
In a non-directional hypothesis, the researcher does not know whether the
NON difference between the control and experimental group will be better or worse, and
DIRECTIONAL the correlation between two variables will be positive or negative.
Therefore, the researcher does not predict the direction of the research.

Such statements start with there will be a significant difference between

experimental and control group, or there will be a significant correlation.

Example- there will be a difference in the memory test of students who listen to
music while studying and those who don’t.

IV will have no effect on the DV

NULL In a null hypothesis, any difference between the control and experimental group is
due to chance.

Such statements start with there will be no difference between the experimental
and control group or there will be no coordination between the two variables and
ends with any result is due to chance

For example, there will be no difference in the memory test of students who listen
to music while studying, and those who don't and any difference in the result could
be due to chance.
 IMPORTANT TERMS

aim is a statement which explains why the researcher is doing the research
Aim and what they hope to achieve.

Standardisation of a procedure includes giving the same instructions and

Standardization same information to all the participants
standardisation, the research becomes more reliable as it can be replicated
again and again

Researchers want to control other variables that could affect DV so that only
Controls: IV causes the effect on DV and the research becomes reliable. Therefore, it is
replicable. Controlled variables are held constant or standardised between the
2 conditions.

Participant variables are the aspect of persons, personality, background,

Participant health well-being, which could affect the behavior in the study. To overcome
variables this we calculate averages.
Moreover, to overcome these participant variables, random allocation could
be used or matched pair design where the researcher can match participants
in both groups. The person in the control group has similar behaviour
characteristics or age to a person in the experimental group

Situational variables are the aspects of the environment which could impact
Situational the participants behavior and affect the result of the study. Such as the
variables temperature lighting noise.
By controlling the environment for all participants the study can become
replicable.

Uncontrolled variables are the factors which are not being measured or
Uncontrolled observed by the researcher which have an unwanted effect on the DV, such
variables as temperature and lightning

Quantitative data is measured in numbers and can be plotted using graphs or

Data analyses charts. Analyse using descriptive data
Researchers calculate the probability (chance) - p value. To see if the null
hypothesis is accepted or rejected. any value less than 0.05 null hypothesis is
rejected. Any value above 0.05 null hypothesis is accepted.
 TYPES OF DATA

QUANTITATIVE ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

quantitative data is the it is easy to compare. participants do not get the opportunity
numerical data There is less risk of research bias as it to freely express themselves, which
(numbers) and is is objective. can reduce the validity of the data. in
fixed choices or fixed scales, the
not in depth
options may not match the
participants' real feelings. It does not
allow us to fully understand.

QUALITATIVE ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

qualitative data is the it is subjective and therefore the there can be researchers' bias as the
non numerical data researchers can understand what their data is subjective and the researcher
(words) and is participants' thoughts and feelings are, is analysing it, reducing the reliability.
increasing the validity of the result. Can It is time consuming compared to
in depth and is
gain in-depth data. qualitative data.
descriptive.

subjective data is usually qualitative data and it is influenced by a person's

SUBJECTIVE thoughts, feelings, opinion. Requires interpretation by the researcher when
analyzed

can improve objectivity by getting another researcher who does not know the aim of the study to
interpret the data. The researcher is likely to be more objective than the primary research
researcher who will have already formed the hypothesis about what the data will show.

objective data is quantitative data and is not influenced by feelings, options and
OBJECTIVE is unbiased. Does not require interpretation by the researcher when analyzed

can improve objectivity by getting another researcher who does not know the aim of the study to
interpret the data. The researcher is likely to be more objective than the primary research
researcher who will have already formed the hypothesis about what the data will show.
 SAMPLING

-​ Sample population
SAMPLING Sampling refers to how the researcher obtains participants for the research.
The target population is the people who the research and the findings can be
generalised to.
Researchers refer participants as the sample.

OPPORTUNITY ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

the participants are easy and quick as participants are unrepresentative of the whole target
selected by the readily available. Moreover, research is population.
researcher who are conducted without any delays. findings may not be generalisable.
readily available

VOLUNTEER ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

participants put participants are motivated and willing the results cannot be generalised as the
themselves forward to as they chose to be a part of the sample of participants for research may
be a part of the research. Therefore, the chances of have only certain personality types and
dropout will be less. are interested in the topic already
research can be done
through advertising
through social media,
newspapers, posters, et
cetera

RANDOM ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

all participants in the more representative of the target it is time consuming and expensive (it
target population, have population as the sample is chosen requires a random number generator to
an equal chance of randomly, therefore, more select the participant)
generalisable Participants may not wish to be a part of
being chosen to be a
the research.
part of the research
 ETHICAL GUIDELINES -HUMANS

GUIDELINE EXPLANATION CORE STUDY

participants must be informed about what is
Valid consent going to happen in the research. All the details
should be provided before they agree to take
part in the research. Consent is not valid until
it is informed. Evidence should be provided,
participant signing a document or taking a box
online. Moreover for children, family members
or close relatives also can give consent.

participants can withdraw from the research

Right to any time without any pressure and the data
withdraw will be destroyed. Moreover, for younger
children, researchers should see the
non-verbal signals. Also, if the child is
comfortable or not.

participants should not be harmed physically,

Minimizing harm mentally, or psychologically. Moreover, other
and maximizing people should also benefit from the study. This
can be done by publishing the findings of the
benefit result so that people can apply them in their
daily life.

participants will not be deceived about

Lack of anything to do with the research as if the
deception participants know the aim of the research, their
behaviour may change

participants’ data should be kept confidential

Confidentiality before and after research, the data should be
kept in passport lock that identity name should
not be included anywhere

research can only be done in public places. It

Privacy is not acceptable that observation is being
done in people's home without their consent

participation leaves with the same mental

Debriefing (state) condition as they entered the room
with.
 ETHICAL GUIDELINES -NON HUMANS

GUIDELINE EXPLANATION CORE STUDY

wherever possible use video clips instead of
Replacement these real animal

researchers should know the scientific and

Species ethical environments that are suitable for the
animal. Moreover, one should have a good
understanding of animal history and should
select an animal which would suffer the least
amount of pain.

animals should suffer the least amount of harm

Minimizing harm and discomfort. Moreover, to maximise the benefit of
maximizing benefit research, the findings should be published so
that other species can benefit from it.
use the least amount of numbers possible.
Numbers Moreover, do not use one animal for an
extended period of time. Reducing a number of
animals using experiments can be achieved by
doing pilot studies, reliable measures of
behaviour, good experimental design, and use
of appropriate statistics.

avoid causing death, disease, psychological or

Procedure- pain and physical discomfort to any animals. Moreover,
distress should balance the harm and the benefit gained
by the research. Secondly, pain can only be
justified if there is no other alternative way and
would help other species or animals in the
future

should create a natural environment for the

Housing animals as animals who live in social groups
could cause stress over overcrowding, could
also lead to stress and aggression, which could
impact the research also

should be provided by the researcher to the

Reward, deprivation, animal. Also, if they use food deprivation, they
aversive stimuli must have a good understanding of species,
normal eating habits.
 METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

VALIDITY ECOLOGICAL TEMPORAL

The extent to which Ecological validity refers to how participant temporal validity means to the
the researcher is behaviour during a research or experiment can extent which the results of the
measuring what they be related to a real life scenario or situation. research can be generalised to
think they are Ecological validity is more in field experiments as different time periods. The
measuring, and the the participants or in their real world setting, results are era-bound and
extent to which the whereas ecological validity in laboratory therefore reducing validity.
findings are useful experiments is low as it is a controlled
and meaningful environment.

Evaluating studies on the basis of validity

Subjective data is the data which can be influenced by personal thoughts,

Subjectivity feelings, opinions and requires analysis. Moreover, this is the qualitative data.
This has low validity as it requires interpretation of behavior. Risk of
subjectivity as the researcher analyzes and makes conclusions based on it.

objective data is not influenced by personal thought, feeling , opinion and does
Objectivity not require analysis. Moreover, is the quantitative data. The validity is high in
such data as there is no bias involved.

Generalisability refers to how the result could be generalised to the whole

Generalizability target population. If the sample size is large enough, and the sampling
technique is correct such as using random allocation can help to increase the
validity.
The extent to which findings can be generalized beyond the sample is called
“population validity”

participants try to guess the aim of the study through the environment. If they
Demand know the aim of the study, they behave in a certain way which they wouldn’t in
characteristics real life. Moreover, participants behave in a manner they think the researcher
wants them to reduce the validity of the result.
But in the case of non-human participants (animals) this problem doesn't
occur.
 reliability is about consistency and can refer to the results from each
Reliability participant and overall findings based on the whole sample.
If you tested your participants again, and the results were same, the results
were reliable
If the whole study was done again, but with different set of participants and
the finding were similar or constant, then it is replicable

Replicability means that other psychologists can repeat the study exactly to
see if they get consistent results. how the research can be done over and
Replicability over again and still get the same results. This is only possible when there is
a standard procedure and everything else is controlled.

Standardisation refers to giving the same instructions and same information

Standardization to all the participants. Following a standardized procedure can help to
increase the replicability of a study

Types of reliability/ how to increase reliability

giving the same test to the same people after a few days and weeks to see if
Test retest the results are still constant. if yes then the result is reliable

to the extent to when two researchers agree to a score for a questionnaire or

Inter-rater test when plotted on a scatter graph, there is a positive relation between the
two researchers results

refers to the extent to which two researchers agree in their rating of behaviours
Inter-observer in an observation.
 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

are descriptive statistics and help researchers to summarise the data and see the
patterns.
measures of central tendency helps to see the midpoint and average is, moreover, can
make the huge amount of data into a single value. Researchers calculate averages of
the control group and experimental group and then compare them to each other.

add all the numbers together and then divide the

MEAN is the average sum by the total number of numbers in the set.

first arrange your data in ascending order. If you

have an odd number of data points, the median is
MEDIAN is the middle value the middle value. If you have an even number, the
median is the average of the two middle values.

is the value that identify the value that appears most frequently
MODE occurs most
frequently

MEASURES OF SPREAD

help researchers to identify how similar data points are to one another and give an
idea of the amount of variation in the data set
measure of spread helps to see how the values differ from highest to lowest, & from
the mean

Standard deviation is the difference of any value

STANDARD and the mean. the higher the value of standard
DEVIATION deviation, the points are not cluttered around the
mean and are more diverse. the smaller the
value of standard deviation means more values
are near the mean and are less diverse.

Range is the difference between the highest and

RANGE the lowest value
 VISUAL REPRESENTATION

The bar graph does not have continuous data, the bar
BAR CHARTS graph bars are not touching each other, on the X axis is
the independent variable and on the Y axis is the
dependent variable. Can also be used to compare the
mean mode and median.

Histogram represents continuous data. The bars are

HISTOGRAMS touching each other. Moreover, the scale can be from 0
to infinity. On the Y axis the frequency on the X axis is
the intervals.

scatter graphs show the correlation between two

SCATTER variables. Any of the variables can be on any axis.
GRAPHS points are represented by dots or crosses. It used to
present correlation data.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

The participants are divided into two groups, either the experimental or the
Independent control group. This is done randomly. Data from the control group provides a
measures baseline to which the researchers can compare the experimenters groups data
with. Each participant is given a number and uses a random number generated to
design divide participants into either of the groups. Moreover, if random allocation is not
used, participant variables could affect the validity of the result. Participant
variables; participants with common characteristics come together in one group,
which makes them different from the people in another group, such as gender,
age, race, intelligence. Which could make it unclear that the effect on DV is due
to IV or these participant variables, therefore, can reduce validity to overcome
this random allocation is used.
 Same participants perform in both the groups and they become their own control
Repeated group set base line for themselves from which comparison can be made which
measures reduces the effect of participant variables. Therefore increases validity. In
repeated measures, each participant performed the experiment twice. However, it
design has its own validity issues such as demand characteristics. Participants have
performed the experiment once so they may know the aim of the research due to
the clues in the surrounding or the ways the researcher speaks. Therefore the
participants can perform in a way they think the research wants them to or to
please the researcher, this may be different from how they would do in real life,
which could lead to a threat to the validity. Secondly, order effect; participants
have performed the task once therefore, in the second round their behavior may
be different from the 1st round, they may be more motivated or know how to do
the task which can lead to them performing it better. It is known as the practice
effect or they could become bored doing the same experiment and may not do it
correctly. This is called the fatigue effect. In both cases, the validity reduces. We
don't know if the IV has caused the effect on DV or the order effect.
To overcome these effects, the researcher can give a gap between both the
experiments a week or so, or can use another technique called counterbalancing.
counterbalancing means that participants are divided into two groups. Group
number one does experimental condition first, then control condition group
number two does the control condition first, then experimental condition. Still
there is an effect of the order but the impact is reduced significantly.

Each participant is given a number and uses a random number generated to

Random divide participants into either of the groups. Moreover, if random allocation is not
allocation used, participant variables could affect the validity of the result. Participant
variables; participants with common characteristics come together in one group,
which makes them different from the people in another group, such as gender,
age, race, intelligence. Which could make it unclear that the effect on DV is due
to IV or these participant variables, therefore, can reduce validity to overcome
this random allocation is used.

participants in the controlled group are matched with the experimental group
Matched pair based on a number of relevant factors. This means for every participant in the
design experimental group, the control group will contain a person who is very similar on
key variables that might have otherwise affected the DV. For example, gender,
age. matched pair design overcomes the problem of participant variables and
order effect, but it is very difficult to find participants with necessary
characteristics, in order to match in both the groups.

It is a special type of experiment. Helps to increase the validity. Moreover, it is

RCT used in clinical research, specially in drug tests, also called the gold standard.
 Some participants are given the real drug where some are given a placebo, which
looks the same as the real drug, but does not have any active ingredients.

Sometimes it is hard to know whether the positive effects of a new drug are due to
The placebo the drug itself or the fact that participants expect that symptoms to improve once
effect to begin a new course of treatment in order to isolate how much of any
improvement is due to the drug and how much is due to the expectancy effect,
researchers use placebo treatment.

Participants do not know if they are receiving the real drug or the placebo. This is
Single blind to avoid the expected effect. When the participants do not know, it is known as a
single blind design. This also reduces the demand characteristics as the
participant will not show positive results or effects. Moreover, it will become more
clear if the effect on the participant is due to the drug itself or the expectancy of
the participant.

If the experiment is collecting the data and recording, it also does not know which
Double blind participants have received the real drug or the placebo. Then it is known as the
double blind design. This helps to reduce the researchers' bias and demand
characteristics as the researchers will analyse it in an objective way, which will
increase the validity.

METHOD FEATURES
Experiment Psychologists conduct experiments to test hypotheses and to see the cause and
effect relation. Moreover, by manipulating the independent variable and measuring
the effect on the dependent variable also controlling the external variables. They
also see how behaviour, thoughts and feelings change in different situations by
manipulating the IV. To make sure the only IV causes any effect on the DV and not
the external variables. Therefore these must be kept the same both the 2 conditions
and should be controlled. can follow a standardized procedure to make the study
more reliable and replicable procedure means the process, what needs to be done
by the experimental and standardized means, the conditions are kept the same for
everyone, standardise instructions and environment.

-​ 4 features of an experiment-

1.​ Manipulate the IV and measure the DV

2.​ Experimenters compare data collected from both the groups and draw
conclusions about cause and effect.
3.​ Make sure the external variables that could affect the DV are controlled
 4.​ Have standardised procedure and standardised instructions so that all
participants have the exact same experience and so that the study can be
replicated to test for reliability.

-​ laboratory -​ field
Location In controlled settings, researchers have away from the control setting is in the real
control over most of the variables and are world natural environment. It is more difficult
away from the real world. to control the external variables which could
cause an unwanted effect on the dependent
variable. However, it can still manipulate the
independent variable.

Control have more control over the variables, for difficult to control the external variables which
example, can control the temperature lighting, can have an unwanted effect on the DV.
and the environment is the same for both the conditions can be different for both the
groups. and are much more confident that groups, therefore difficult to make
only the IV causes the effect on the DV. conclusions about the cause and effect.

Validity Strength- researchers are able to infer cause Weakness- less control over the external
and effect because they have isolated the variables and standardisation of process is
variable to be manipulated and the variable difficult. Moreover, the condition for both the
being measured. groups may not be the same, reducing the
Weakness- low in ecological validity as the validity.
participants may not do what they would do in Strength- high in ecological validity as
real life. The results of laboratory experiments research is being conducted in real world
must be generalized with caution. settings. Participants will behave in a way
Weakness- demand characteristics. that they would do in real life. Therefore, the
Participants may try to do things which are results can be generalized to similar
socially desirable. Moreover, can try to find the situations.
aim of the study and act in the way they think Strength- will not show demand
the researcher wants them to characteristics as the participants do not
know the aim of the study and will not act in
this socially desirable way. Therefore, higher
validity.

Reliability Replicability is high as the procedure can be replicability is low as the procedure cannot be
standardised and all participants have the standardised and the external variables are
same condition. not controlled

Ethics high in ethics as informed consent available, low in ethics as there is no informed consent,
participants know that they are taking part in participants do not know that they are a part
the research. Moreover, have the right to of the research. Moreover, there is no right to
withdraw, any time in between of the research. withdraw. Lastly, no deception can take place
Even deception can take place at the end of as the participants do not know that they are
the research, therefore will not cause any a part of the research. Therefore, it can
psychological harm or psychological stress to cause psychological harm or psychological
the participant. stress to the participants.
 NAME OF THE STUDY: SLEEP AND DREAMS (DEMENT AND KLIETMAN)

APPROACH Biological

PSYCHOLOGY sleep
BEING Brain wave activity during sleep can be measured via an EEG, which detects activity
INVESTIGATED through electrodes connected to scalp sleep. Researchers have identified five distinct
sleep stages.
Stage one and two are the lighter stages of sleep where a person can still be woken up
fairly easily and stage three and four are deeper stages of sleep. In the deeper stages,
brain waves slow down and show a pattern of high amplitude and low frequency. The final
stage is the rapid eye movement sleep here. The brain waves are high frequency and low
amplitude and similar to those seen when they are awake. Researchers often referred to
stages 1 to 4 as non-rapid eye movement and non-REM sleep.
When we first fall asleep, we gradually entered the non-REM sleep before moving to
stages 2 to 4 and then back into the lighter stages of sleep. Instead of entering stage one
the person enters the first episode of REM sleep during the REM sleep a person’s eyes
flickers and moves beneath their eyelids, but other muscles in the body or paralysed. We
move from non-REM to REM sleep in cyclical patterns throughout the night. We spend a
significant proportion of time in non-REM sleep in the first half of the night, and
increasingly more time in REM sleep in the second half of the night.

ultradian rhythms
biological rhythms, which repeat more frequently than once a day are called ultradian
rhythms and sleep stages are a good example in healthy adults of full cycle takes roughly
90 minutes

dreaming
Dreams are subjective memories of what we experience while we sleep, and this study
was interested in Weather. People are more likely to report jeans if woken up in a certain
stage of sleep compared with others.

AIM 1.​ to see if dream recall occurred during REM or non-REM sleep
2.​ To see if there is a link between the estimate of dream length and the length of
REM period
3.​ To see if the pattern of eye movement (vertical/horizontal) is related to the content
4.​ To see if there is a positive correlation between the duration of REM, sleep and
the number of words given in a dream narrative

RESEARCH The study used methods of experiment and correlation, some qualitative data was
METHODOLOGY collected using interview technique.
 three of the aims had independent variables where the researchers were looking for a
difference between conditions. The fourth aim was looking for a correlation between two
variables.
The researchers occasionally interviewed participants after their dream, recall to ask for
the questions

EXPERIMENTAL repeated measure design, meaning the participants to part in both the conditions of each
DESIGN independent variable

VARIABLES AIM -​ IV - whether woken up during REM or -​ DV - whether the participant could
1 non-REM sleep recall the content of their dream in
reasonable details (yes/no)

VARIABLES AIM -​ IV - whether woken up five or 15 -​ DV - perception of whether they

2 minutes after the onset of REM have been dreaming for five or 15
minutes (initially, participants were
asked to report dream length in
minutes)

VARIABLES AIM -​ IV - eye movement pattern before -​ DV - the description of their dream
3 waking up
A.​ Mainly vertical eye movements
B.​ Mainly horizontal eye movements
C.​ Both vertical and horizontal eye
movements
D.​ Very little or no movements

VARIABLES AIM -​ co - variable one : the number of -​ co - variable two : the number of
4 minutes spent in REM sleep words in the corresponding dream
narrative recording

SAMPLE The sample consisted of seven adult males and two adult females. Five would study more
FEATURES intensively with the data from the other four being used to confirm the results. The study
took place in a sleep laboratory at the University of Chicago in the United States of
America.

SAMPLING Opportunity sampling

TECHNIQUE
APPARATUS electroencephalogram (EEG) and electrooculogram (EOG) electrodes to monitor
brainwave activity and eye movements during [Link] were also equipped
with a microphone for recording dream narratives and a doorbell for waking them from
sleep.

each participant reported at the laboratory before usual time, they were asked to avoid
PROCEDURE consuming alcohol and caffeine on the day of the experiment, but to eat normally
 Two or more electrodes were placed near their eye to record the eye movements during
sleep, two or three electrodes were fixed to the scalp to record the brain wave so that the
researcher knew when the person was in REM or non-REM sleep
The participant with them taken to a quiet dark room to sleep, where the wires were
carefully tied up at the top of the head to avoid being tangled in them during night, and
EEG was running throughout the night in the next room throughout the night, participants
were woken up at various times in both REM and non-REM sleep by a doorbell that was
loud enough to wake them up from deep sleep

They were first asked to say whether they had been dreaming or not, and then to
describe the content of their dream into a recording device near their bed. After this, they
were able to go back to sleep. Occasionally, the experimenter entered the room to
question them further about an aspect of their dream. Participants were only considered
to have been dreaming if they could recall their dream content in detail.
Overall, 21% of awakening took place in the first two hours of sleep
29% in the 2 to 4 hours of sleep
28% in hours 4 to 6
22% in hours, 6 to 8

AIM SPECIFIC
PROCEDURE

CONTROLS Sleep lab – All participants slept in the same controlled environment to reduce external
influences.
No caffeine/alcohol – Participants avoided these to prevent effects on sleep.

RESULTS AIM 1 AIM 2 AIM 3

dream recall all participants were -​ vertical eye movement dream

occurred able to determine reports included looking at
predominantly in whether they had been climbers on a cliff climbing
REM sleep. dreaming for five for 15 ladders and throwing a
Participants had a minutes with high basketball
high incidence of accuracy, correct to -​ The only dream report following
dream recall 83% of the time from horizontal movement involved
following awakening 111 awakening with the watching two people through
80%, low incidence exception of one tomatoes at each other
of recall following participant who is only -​ Little movement dreams report
correct 65% of the time included driving a car
 non-REM and tended to -​ Mixed movement dream reported
awakening 7% underestimate the included talking to a group of
length of the time had people searching for something
he had been dreaming and fighting with someone

AIM 4 - there was a moderate positive correlation between the duration of REM and
number of words in dream narrative. The average correlation coefficient 0.58 with
individual results ranging from 0.42 to 0.71.

CONCLUSION Dreaming occurred during periods of REM sleep in distinct episodes throughout the night.
The researcher included that dreaming can be objectively measured by recording REM
cycles during sleep.

APPLICATION Treating sleep issues

TO REAL LIFE An EEG can be used to determine when a person is in REM or non-REM sleep and can,
therefore, be used to support the diagnosis of sleep issues, as some sleep disorders
occur in certain stages of sleep only. A psychologist could also look at the output of the
EEG and compare brain wave patterns with a 'typical' sleeper to see if there are any
differences. This may help psychologists in determining the right course of treatment for
an individual.

Monitoring external influences

Another application of the use of EEG in sleep might be to monitor how people's sleep is
affected by external influences - for example, environmental changes, stress or drugs. A
person's sleep patterns can be recorded before and after a change in order to determine
the effects of an external factor on sleep
 EVALUATION - ethics

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

Maintaining confidentiality was a strength of this Furthermore, no other personal details about the
research. participants were shared.

EVIDENCE LINK
The researchers used participants' initials when This prevented any embarrassment due to the
discussing their results, which kept their identity participants' personal dream content being revealed
hidden. publicly.

EVALUATION - methodological

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

A strength of this research was reliability due to the high level of standardisation in the procedure.

EVIDENCE LINK
All participants were fitted with the same Ensuring such a consistent procedure meant that the
equipment, including electrodes near their eyes study could be replicated to test whether the association
and scalp, with the wires tied together behind between dreaming and REM sleep was reliable.
their head. They all slept in a bed in a quiet, dark
room, were woken by a doorbell and were
required to narrate their dream into a tape
recorder.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

A strength of this study is that the researchers This was to avoid the possibility of the experimenter
ensured nobody else was present when the influencing a person's dream narrative through
participants recalled their dreams. prompting or expectation.

EVIDENCE LINK
Although an experimenter did enter the room This made the research more valid and the dream
occasionally to question the participant further reports free from experimenter effects.
about their dream content, this was after the
participant had given their full recording.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

One issue is that the loss of some dream This may be because the participants simply feeling
recordings might have affected the validity of the more tired after waking from deep sleep and giving a
data. mumbled recording;

EVIDENCE LINK
Of the 152 dreams recalled, the recordings for This may have affected the validity of the data, as
six had to be discarded as they could not be these poor recordings might have been genuine
understood from the tape. dream reports during non-REM sleep

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

One weakness of the operational definition of there may have been significant individual differences
dream length (number of words used in in how verbal each participant was
narrative)

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, some participants may have a This would affect the validity of the data when
broader vocabulary and thus describe a short correlating the number of words in a dream narrative
dream in much more detail than others. and the length of REM sleep.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

A strength of this study was its use of which can be objectively analysed. This would help to
quantitativity data reduce the effects of subjectivity on the interpretation of
the dream content.

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, the number of words in the dream This avoided researcher bias in the interpretation of
narrative was calculated and correlated against data about dreaming and REM sleep, which increases
the amount of time spent in REM sleep. the validity of the findings.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

A strength is that an EEG was used in this study which gave an objective measure of the sleep stage a
participant was in.

EVIDENCE LINK
The frequency and amplitude of brain waves for This increased the validity of the data, as the
both REM / and non-REM can be quantified, researchers could be confident of the sleep stage in
allowing little room for subjective interpretation by which a person was being woken.
the researchers.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

One of the weaknesses was the sample there was a significant variation in the duration of
sleep cycles even between the small number of five
main participants.

EVIDENCE LINK
One participant averaged one period of eye The researchers should, therefore, be cautious when
movement every 70 minutes, while another only generalising any findings to others, as the study
had a period of eye movement every 104 demonstrated individual differences in sleep patterns.
minutes.
 NAME OF THE STUDY: Monkey Toy Preference (Hassett)

APPROACH Biological approach

PSYCHOLOGY play
BEING All animals, including humans, play, but the concept is hard to define due to many
INVESTIGATED different types seen at different development levels. Seashore in 2019 defined play as a
pleasure gained in self expression. This definition may apply to some forms of humans
but does not describe non-human play very well as animals do not really have a sense of
self to express. Bergen in 2015 emphasises that place is always voluntary explaining
that we play because we choose to not because we have to. We also choose what we
wish to play with how and with whom many psychologists agree that play allows an
individual to practice skills required in adulthood, and this is true for both animals and so
play maybe adaptable that is it helps to survive

sex difference and the role of nature

In mammals, biological sex is determined by sex chromosomes, typically XX for females
and XY males although many differences can occur. Typically, these chromosomes
define the level of hormones such as testosterone and oestrogen which causes
differences in the development of male and female brains.
Although visiting a nursery might see boys playing with cars and girls playing with dolls,
psychological research has demonstrated that girls are more lazy to play with trucks,
then boys to play with dolls. These behavioural sex differences are fairly robust and
Hassett et al explore the idea that these differences may be hormonal in origin and their
views conflict with many psychologists who believe gender roles are primarily learned
through socialisation.

socialisation and the role of nurture

In humans, gender reflects a person's individual sense of their own masculinity or
femininity. Children learn about gender and societal expectations of how females and
males behave through interaction with parents and other children. Daily interactions lead
boys and girls to conform to stereotypical gender roles and seek out specific toys. The
fact that boys play less with stereotypical feminine toys and girls play with typical
masculine toys suggest that boys may be more actively discouraged from opposite sex
behaviour. Whereas opposite sex behaviour in girls may be ignored rather than rejected.
Psychologists who accept these ideas believe that different children result from
socialisation.

hormones and toy preferences

Hassett et al reject the socialisation explanation for toy preferences. They believe male
and female children prefer toys that can be used for activities that suit their specific
cognitive abilities. These abilities as stated above depend upon the children’s different
sex hormone levels. This means that toys are selected according to different play
activities they promote rather than society's attitudes regarding gender appropriateness.
 This view is supported by the fact that children tend to explain their own to preferences
in terms of what can be done with a specific toy, in contrast to his gender appropriation
(Eisenberg et al 1982)

AIM 1.​ To test if sex differences in children’s toy preferences result from biological
factors, for example, from parental hormone exposure rather than socialisation
2.​ To investigate if male and female resources, monkeys have similar to
preferences to human infant, despite no socialisation experience with human toys

METHODOLOGY It was an experiment as the researchers were looking for a casual relation between the
monkeys, sex and their toy preferences. The monkeys were observed in their normal
enclosure. This was a natural environment for them as they had been living together at
the research Centre for 25 years.
DATA The data was collected using observation through analysis of video recordings of the
COLLECTION monkeys in their outdoor enclosure.
METHODS
EXPERIMENTAL It was an independent measure as two groups of monkeys were compared, males and
DESIGN females.

VARIABLES IV- DV-

Sex is a naturally occurring independent The dependent variable was whether
variable. Determined by the appearance of the the monkeys interacted more with
external sex organs. flush toys or the wheel toys.

WHAT ELSE Seven trials were completed each with a different pair of toys. When the monkeys
WAS interacted with the toys, their social rank and age was recorded, social rank had already
RECORDED? been determined by observing grooming behaviour. The monkey doing grooming is
always subordinate and the monkey being groomed.

SAMPLE The sample was a troop of 135 monkeys at the Yerkes National Primate Research
FEATURES Centre Field Station.
The troop included both infant and adult monkeys, 14 of the monkeys had previously
participated in research on prenatal hormone, so were not included in the current study
39. Babies less than three months were not included as it was difficult to know their sex.

Out of the remaining 61 females and 21 males monkeys, 34 interacted with the toys on
more than five occasions, 23 females and 11 males and were included in the analysis

SAMPLING opportunity sampling method in their study on sex differences in rhesus monkey toy
TECHNIQUE preferences.
LOCATION
 TOYS FEATURES PLUSH TOYS- WHEEL TOYS-

Toys were placed 1.​ Winnie the Pooh 1.​ Wagon

10 m apart, and the 2.​ Raggedy Ann 2.​ Truck
position was 3.​ Scooby Doo 3.​ Car
counterbalanced 4.​ Koala 4.​ Construction vehicle
5.​ Armadillo 5.​ Shopping cart
6.​ Teddy 6.​ Dump truck
7.​ Turtle Ranging from 16 to 46 cm
Ranging from 14 to 73
cm

PROCEDURE Seven 25-minute observations were completed in the outdoor area of the monkey
enclosure at the research centre.
before each observation, the observer positioned a pair of toys, one wheeled and one
plush in the outdoor area while the monkeys waited indoor

Toys were placed 10 m apart, and the position was counterbalanced - wheel toys were
on the right and flush on the left in half of the trails and the other way round on the
remaining trials. - this ruled out the possibility that the monkeys preferred a certain area
of the enclosure, rather than genuinely preferring the properties of the toys that they
found their

A video camera was focused on each of the toys so that the interactions could be
recorded for later analysis
Two observers, watch the videos and used a behaviour checklist to court every
interaction between the monkey and the toys
Using an app called Handobs- the observations recorded their data using palm pilots,
digital devices, similar to modern mobile phones
They recorded the start and the finish times of each interaction and calculated their
duration in seconds

CHECKLIST -​ Extended touching

-​ Holding
-​ Sitting on
-​ Dragging
-​ Carrying
-​ Manipulating the toys
-​ Briefly touching
-​ Sniffing
-​ Mouthing
-​ Destroying
-​ Jumping away from
-​ throwing them
 unclear behaviour were discussed until the observers agreed to how to code the
interactions
for each interaction, the observer also recorded monkey’s age rank, and sex

RESULTS FEMALE MALE

female showed some preference for plush toys male monkeys significant preferences
with a mean of 7.97 compared with wheel toys for wheel toys with a
mean of 6.96, the difference was not mean of 9.77 compared to plush toys
significant with a mean of 2.06. They also played
There was also no significant difference less with the lush toys compared with
between the male and female in terms of the females.
frequency of wheel toy play 73% of male preferred wheel toys
Only 30% of females preferred the plush toys 9% preferred plus toys
39% preferred the wheel toys 18% showed no significant preference.
30% showed no significant preference for These preferences did not appear to be
either toys affected by age or rank
Females with no preference ran significantly
lowered in the social hierarchy than females
preferred the blush toys, but there was no
significant difference in the rank between the
females who preferred wheel versus plush
toys

SOCIAL RANK when the data from both sexes were combined, there was a significant positive
AND TOY correlation between the social rank and the frequency of interaction for both types of
PREFERENCE toys
Higher ranking, monkeys interacted more with the toys. Interestingly, when the data from
females was examined more closely, the researchers found that the higher the drag the
more females spent interacting with the lush toys. This was not true for the wheel toys.

CONCLUSION Based on the observations and comparison with human infants. concluded that sex type
toy preferences in humans may result from biological sex differences as it observation
suggested that monkeys showed similar preferences to humans even without clear
gender differences in socialisation, they concluded that human to preferences as with
the monkey to preferences reflect hormonal influenced behaviour on cognitive bias,
which interact with learning experience with the social environment
 EVALUATION - ethical issues

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

ethical guidelines for working with primates were The researchers followed the National Institutes of
upheld. Health's Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory
Animals. Also, research at the Yerkes National Primate
Research Center is regulated by the Emory University
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.

EVIDENCE LINK
The monkeys were housed within their usual The procedure does not present any particular ethical
social groups in a 25-metre square outdoor issues as these monkeys lived in captivity and would
enclosure, with a temperature-controlled indoor have been familiar with the keepers entering their
area. They had constant access to water, ate enclosure, meaning they were not subjected to any
monkey chow twice a day and were fed fresh more stress than usual.
fruit and vegetables every day.

EVALUATION - methodological issues

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

A strength was the reliability the use of a carefully operationalised behavioural
checklist.
The detail means that the two independent observers
should have coded behaviours in the same way

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, as well as the behaviour itself This improves the overall reliability of toy preference
(e.g. 'sit on'), the checklist gives a description observations made in this study.
(e.g. seated on the toy or a part of the toy').
 WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION
A weakness was that the standardised This occurred due to one of the monkeys ripping
procedure was abandoned on one of the trials. apart one of the plush toys.

EVIDENCE LINK
The trial was terminated seven minutes early The reliability of the observations of the monkeys' toy
as the researchers were unable to observe the preferences was also compromised.
monkeys' preference for one toy type over
another, as the plush toy now lay in multiple
pieces around the enclosure. As the data
collection period was reduced to only 18
minutes for this trial.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

One strength was that Hassett et al. was validity collected data on seven separate 25-minute trials.
as there were 7 trials.

EVIDENCE LINK
Different pairs of plush and wheeled toys were This increased the validity of the conclusion that
used on each trial - for example, the wagon and males were drawn to wheeled toys in general as
Winnie the Pooh™, the truck and opposed to one specific wheeled toy that might have
Raggedy-Ann™. been a colour or size that the monkeys particularly
liked
 STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION
the use of video cameras rather than having The monkeys were used to the cameras, meaning
human observers present in the monkey their behaviour should not have been affected by
enclosure. them, whereas the presence of a human observer
might have affected the spontaneity of their
interactions/play.

EVIDENCE LINK
The monkeys may have played less if they were suggesting that the cameras increased the validity of
stressed by the humans coming into the the data recorded.
enclosure. Alternatively, they may have played
more in the hope of receiving a reward

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

the use of quantitative data avoiding any subjective interpretation of the data.

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, the researchers recorded the This type of data is more objective as the
duration of individual behaviours (e.g. extended researchers simply have to calculate the average
touch) in seconds. These measurements were time spent interacting with each type of toy for the
taken using the palm pilots to record the start male monkeys compared with the female monkeys
and finish points of each interaction.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

Potential observer bias as the researchers
who analysed the videotapes were both very meaning that their knowledge of the monkey's
familiar and well acquainted with the monkeys gender could have biased their observations.

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, if they knew a monkey was male, Observer bias may have increased subjectivity,
they might have unintentionally coded his meaning that different observers who did not know
behaviour differently from how they would the monkeys may have reached different
have coded it if they believed the monkey was conclusions.
female.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

As toy play/interaction may be affected by social
The lack of adult males in the sample was a rank and age, generalisations should be made with
weakness. caution, especially as the only high-ranking male did
not interact with any of the toys.

EVIDENCE LINK
The 11 male monkeys were all either juvenile, Therefore, the findings can only be generalised to
subadult or elderly. lower-ranking, non-adult males.
NAME OF THE STUDY: Mindfulness and Brain Scans (Holzel)

APPROACH Biological approach

PSYCHOLOGY Mindfulness
BEING This study focuses on the effects of mindfulness, a stress-reduction technique used
INVESTIGATED to improve wellbeing. This technique develops awareness of the present moment
and encourages compassionate and non-judgemental attitudes. Commonly
associated with Eastern religions and philosophies, mindfulness is now practised
globally by millions of people seeking calmness in their fast-paced, and sometimes
stressful, lives. It has also been incorporated into treatment programmes for people
with conditions including anxiety, chronic pain and substance abuse due to the
increasing amount of evidence supporting its positive impact on wellbeing.

Localisation of function
The study also explores localisation of function - the idea that specific brain
structures are responsible for specific behaviours/cognitive processes. For example,
an area called the hippocampus is associated with memory and emotion regulation,
while the insula may be at least partly responsible for awareness. One way of finding
out the function of different brain structures is to monitor how they change over time
following regular practice of a certain skill.
To learn about the link between mindfulness and localisation of function, Britta Hölzel
and her colleagues used MRI scans to create detailed models of the human brain.
These models can then be used to measure microscopic changes that occur in
specific brain structures following mindfulness practice. These changes are called
structural plasticity and can be quantified using voxel-based morphometry (VBM), a
process that measures the concentration of grey matter (a type of brain tissue) in key
brain structures, before and after mindfulness training. Researchers have some
understanding of the function of many brain structures, and once they know which
brain structures are affected by mindfulness, they can start to work out how it
improves wellbeing.

MEASURE OF The Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire was developed by Ruth Baer and her
MINDFULNESS colleagues (Baer et al., 2006) and is a way of measuring changes in five key areas of
mindfulness -
the ability to observe (1)
and describe (2)
passing thoughts and feelings in a non-judgemental (3)
and non-reactive (4)
way and awareness of actions (5).
Each facet (aspect) is positively correlated with wellbeing. Although biopsychologists
are still trying to understand exactly how programmes like MBSR increase wellbeing,
neuroimaging research (using brain scans) is beginning to reveal which brain
structures may be involved.
 PROCESS OF Body scanning: slowly becoming aware of sensations in each area of the body, in
MINDFULNESS turn, gradually developing awareness of the whole body/mind.
MEDITATION Mindful yoga: gentle stretching, co-ordinated, slow movements and breathing with a
focus on the moment-to-moment experience. Full awareness of one's presence in
the here-and-now and the development of self-compassion with an awareness and
acceptance of the body's potential and limitations.
Sitting meditation: developing awareness of the sensation of breathing and of
sensory information (e.g, sight, smell, touch, taste) and emotions, gradually
developing awareness of all aspects of consciousness, including our own presence
in the world.

MEASURING voxel-basso morphometry

CHANGES IN The term voxel, from volume and pixel, is a tiny cubic measurement used to quantify
GREY MATTER the volume of three-dimensional structures. This statistical process allows
researchers to compare the relative size of various brain structures between people,
such as regular meditators and non-meditators and to monitor changes in specific
brain structures over time. The process involves classifying (segmenting) the types
of tissue displayed in the image, e.g. into grey matter (GM) or white matter (WM),
mapping the images onto a template to control for individual differences between
brains (normalising), and statistical technique called smoothing, which helps improve
the overall validity of the data.

AIM 1.​ To identify if regular participation in Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction

(MBSR) leads to measurable neurological changes, which might be
associated with trait changes related to mindfulness practice.
2.​ To identify brain structures which changed as a result of an eight-week MBSR
programme.
METHODOLOGY Hölzel et al. is an experiment; the researchers were looking for a causal relationship
between MBSR and grey matter concentration in various brain structures.
Some measurements were taken in a controlled setting (i.e. the MRI scans), but
other parts of the study occurred in naturalistic environments. For example,
participants incorporated MBSR exercises while walking and doing housework.
Although the main method is an experiment, one part of the study was a correlation,
as the researchers also wanted to know whether there was a non-causal relationship
between time spent on mindfulness exercises and increases in grey matter
concentration.

EXPERIMENTAL The study also uses an independent measures design as there were two separate
DESIGN groups of participants: those in the experimental group, who attended weekly MBSR
sessions, and those in the control group, who also had problems with stress but did
not receive MBSR. This is called a waitlist control group.

This was a longitudinal design as data was collected over an eight-week period. All
participants provided two sets of data: once at the beginning and once at the end of
the eight-week period
 VARIABLES IV- DV-

-​ whether the participants received -​ grey matter concentration in

MBSR or not specific brain structures
-​ whether the data was collected at the (including the hippocampi and
beginning or the end of the insulae) and throughout the
eight-week study period brain - this was calculated
using voxel-based
morphometry
-​ the five facets of mindfulness
measured using the Five
Facets of Mindfulness
Questionnaire (FFMQ) - this
self-report (questionnaire)
includes 39 statements which
participants rate from 1 (never
or very rarely true') to 5 (very
often or always true')
-​ time spent on mindfulness
exercises between the weekly
sessions, which was recorded
in a daily diary.

SAMPLE They had either self-referred or been recommended by their physician due to stress.
FEATURES Six male and ten females (mean age = 38, standard deviation = 4 years) were
assigned to the MBSR group and eleven males and six females (mean age = 39,
standard
deviation = 9.2 years) to the waitlist control group. Self-
reported medical information suggested they were all physically and psychologically
healthy and not taking any regular medication. All agreed that they would aim to
attend the full eight-week programme and complete daily homework'.
The usual course fee was reduced for all participants to thank them for their
participation.
Participants all had limited meditation experience - for example, they had taken no
classes in the last six months, no more than four classes in the past five years and
no more than ten classes in their lifetime.

SAMPLING An opportunity sample of 33 right-handed, healthy adults, aged 25-55 years old were
TECHNIQUE recruited from four MBSR courses at the Center for Mindfulness, New England, USA
LOCATION MBSR courses at the Center for Mindfulness, New England, USA
 PROCEDURE MRI scans of the brain were conducted two weeks before the experimental group's
first MBS session. Three-dimensional digital models were created by taking pictures
of 128 sagittal slices lie. from the top to the bottom) of the brain and combining them
using computer software. Next, the researchers analysed the models using
voxel-based morphometry (VBM] to measure the concentration of grey matter in the
Before the regions of interest (bilateral hippocampi and insulae and the brain as a whole. All
MBSR sessions participants also complete the FFMQ.

During the 8 Next, the experimental group took part in eight weekly MBS sessions. See page 31
week for information on what a typical session would include. Sessions took place at the
Programme Center for Mindfulness at the University of Massachusetts Medical School. The
participants in the experimental group were given a 45-minute audio recording of
guided mindfulness exercises (e.g. body scan, yoga and meditation) to help them to
complete the exercises at home (e.g. while washing up, eating or taking a shower)

After the 8 week Further MRI scans of the brain were taken two weeks after the last MBSR session
MBSR for all participants, including the control group, and everyone took the FFMO again.
Programme Each participant's two scans were compared using VBM computer software to
measure any differences in grey matter concentration and differences in the five
facets of mindfulness scores were calculated.

RESULTS Amount of Mindfulness Practice Grey Matter changes

The MBSR group engaged in an average of The MBS group experienced a
22.6 hours of MBSR exercises. The significant increase in grey matter
standard deviation was relatively large at concentration in their left
6.3 hours, showing that some participants hippocampus, posterior cingulate
practised considerably more than others. cortex, temporoparietal junction and
Overall, participants spent around 27 cerebellum compared with the control
minutes per day participating in group. Changes in the cerebellum
mindfulness exercises. Most time was were observed in two locations; one of
spent body scanning; participants spent these included the brainstem. As the
more than twice as much time on this two groups showed no significant
activity than yoga or meditation [see Table difference in grey matter concentration
1.10). There were no significant in these structures before MBS
correlations between any of the individual training, it appears that the differences
 exercises e.g. body scanning and yoga, or at eight weeks were due to the MBS
yoga and meditation). This suggests that and not pre-existing individual
different people preferred different differences.
exercises but doing a lot of one particular Unlike previous research, no
exercise did not mean that you also did a significant difference was found in grey
lot of either of the other two. matter concentration in the insulae
before and after MBS. Also, changes
in grey matter concentration were not
correlated with the amount of time
spent engaged in mindfulness
exercises or changes on the FFMQ.
This suggests that time spent on
mindfulness is less important than the
regularity of practice.
No brain structures showed a
decrease in grey matter concentration
following the MBSR programme, but
the control group did show a
significant decrease in grey matter
concentration in the posterior cingulate
cortex.

CONCLUSION Hölzel et al. concluded that structural changes (i.e. increased grey matter
concentration) in key brain regions, including the left hippocampus, posterior
cingulate cortex, temporal-parietal junction and cerebellum, can occur as a result of
participation in regular mindfulness practice, even after just eight weeks. They note
that the brain regions identified are involved in processes such as learning, memory,
emotion regulation and perspective-taking, suggesting that these areas are central to
the improvements in wellbeing observed in people who make mindfulness part of
their daily lives. The study did not confirm previous findings relating to the insula and
the researchers conclude that changes in this region may require more than eight
weeks of practice.
 EVALUATION - ethical

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

Protection from harm The researchers took many steps to protect
their participants from physical and
psychological harm.

EVIDENCE LINK
They made sure that none of the participants had metallic These examples illustrate the researchers'
implants (e.g. pacemakers or dental fillings) that could have respect for their participants' wellbeing.
been affected by the magnets in the MI scanner. They did
not allow anyone to participate who might become distressed
in the scanner due to claustrophobia (fear of enclosed
spaces) and two people were allowed to withdraw after their
first scan due to discomfort in the scanner.
Participants in the waitlist control group also received MBS
after the study was complete, so they were also able to
benefit from MBSR.

EVALUATION - methodological issues

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

Reliability - Lack of standardisation lack of standardisation between the weekly
mindfulness participants choosing which exercises
they wanted to do each day

EVIDENCE LINK
where and for how people may have completed This is important as it means the procedure cannot be
the exercises alone in a quiet garden while replicated exactly, so differences in grey matter
others may have been surrounded by concentration post-intervention may not be reliable.
co-workers in a noisy office.
 STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION
Internal consistency in the questionnaire -
Reliability the use of the FFMQ, before and after the MBSR
programme. This questionnaire is highly reliable.

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, it contains eight questions the procedure can be replicated exactly
measuring 'acting with awareness'. The
correlation between the answers to these
eight questions is +0.87. This strong positive
correlation shows that each question reliably
assessed this facet of mindfulness

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

Validity - Experimental method and design
the use of the independent measures design. This
meant that the researchers were able to measure
changes in grey matter concentration for people who
have and have not taken part in MBSR.

EVIDENCE LINK
This was important as it meant that any Therefore, the use of the control group increased the
difference in grey matter concentration in the study's validity, strengthening the conclusion that MBS
experimental group could be put down to caused an increase in grey matter concentration in
MBSR and not just changes that might have certain brain structures.
happened anyway, without this change to
their daily routines.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

Validity - Confounding variables This makes it hard to identify which factors led to their
increased grey matter concentration relative to the
control group (i.e. the mindfulness or the social
aspects of group membership and/or exercise)

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, the experimental group had the which may affect the study's validity.
added benefits of potentially making new friends
at their weekly sessions and taking part in
gentle exercise through yoga stretches, in
addition to the mindfulness/meditation.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

Validity - Self-report data the use of self-reported quantitative data on the FFMQ

EVIDENCE LINK
This questionnaire has 39 items, each scored This is called a response set and it can reduce the
on identical rating scales, where the middle validity of the answers on the FFMQ, meaning the lack
value (3) is labelled 'sometimes true'. In long of correlation between self-reported mindfulness traits
questionnaires like this, participants sometimes and grey matter concentration is also called into
think less carefully about their answers as they question.
go on, simply answering in a similar way to
previous questions.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

Objectivity and subjectivity - Use of
quantitative data the use of quantitative data to measure grey matter
concentration.

EVIDENCE LINK
 This was done using voxel-based This makes the findings more objective as it removes
morphometry and the analysis of this data is the need for the researcher to interpret grey matter
conducted by specialist computer software. concentration.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

Generalising beyond the sample the use of an opportunity sample of only 33
participants, all of whom shared certain characteristics.

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, the participants were aged 25-55 This is important and would also lead to greater
and had an average of 17.5 years of education. confidence when making generalisations about the
As structural plasticity is known to be affected by impact of mindfulness on grey matter concentration in
factors such as age and educational the wider population.
background, it would be helpful to see whether
similar effects would be found with older adults
or people with lower levels of formal education.
 NAME OF THE STUDY: Aggression (Bandura)

APPROACH The learning approach

PSYCHOLOGY Social learning theory

BEING This study investigated social learning theory, which proposes that people observe and
INVESTIGATED imitate the behaviour of others, especially those with whom they identify (example people
who are attractive, powerful or popular) initially, an individual will pay attention to the
behaviour of a role model, retaining this information in their memory. They need to be
physically able to reproduce the behaviour as well as be motivated to do so. Imitation can
be immediate or delayed. Imitation is when a person observes a behaviour but does not
reproduce it until later point in time

Aggression
aggression can be both physical and verbal. It is a behaviour where there is intent to harm
another person or object and is usually forceful. Good self regulation can allow individuals
to inhibit any aggression they feel. This study investigated delayed imitation of aggression
in terms of both verbal and physical aggression. The studies specifically looked at the
aggression shown towards the inanimate objects.

AIM 1.​ To investigate whether children imitate aggression of model in the absence of the
model
2.​ To investigate whether children are more likely to imitate the behaviour of the
same sex model

METHODOLOGY In the experiment, participants observed an aggressive model, a non-aggressive model or

no model in a controlled setting. The subsequent behaviour was observed via one way
mirror in a covert, structured, controlled observation.

design and variable

there were eight experimental conditions- with six participants in each condition. There
was a controlled condition also, which included 24 participants with 12 boys and 12 girls
who saw no model. In the experimental conditions, half of the participants observed an
aggressive model, while half observed a non-aggressive model. Within these groups, half
observed a male model, while half observed a female model. Within these groups, the
models were either the same sex or opposite sex for the participant.

DATA The subsequent behaviour was observed via one way mirror in a covert, structured,
COLLECTION controlled observation.
METHODS
EXPERIMENTAL AGGRESSIVE NON AGGRESSIVE
CONDITIONS -​ 24 children -​ 24 children
-​ 12 males & 12 females -​ 12 males & 12 females
half observed a male model, while half half observed a male model, while half
observed a female model. Within these observed a female model. Within these
groups, the models were either the same groups, the models were either the same sex
sex or opposite sex for the participant. or opposite sex for the participant.

CONTROL included 24 participants with 12 boys and 12 girls who saw no model.
CONDITION

MATCHING OF participants were matched on prior aggression levels. Participants were rated by their
PARTICIPANTS nursery teacher and experimented independently on their social aggression on a four five-
point scales measuring: physical and verbal aggression and aggression towards
inanimate objects and aggressive inhibition. Based on the total scores, participants were
put into three groups. Each of the triplets were randomly assigned to one of the main
three conditions.

SAMPLE 72 children were recruited from the Stanford University nursery. They were 36 girls and 36
FEATURES boys aged 37 to 69 months or 3 to 6 years old with a mean of 52 months.

SAMPLING Opportunity sampling

TECHNIQUE
PHASE 1 In the experimental condition involving a model, the participants were brought to a room
EXPERIMENTAL full of toys and seated at the table in the corner by the experiment who showed them how
CONDITION to make pictures with potato print multicoloured pictures. Stickers were also provided.
These two activities had been shown by previous research to have high interest value for
children. The experimental then took the model to the another corner of the room, which
had a table chair, tinkler toys set (construction set) mallet, and inflatable Bobo doll before
leaving the room

AGGRESSIVE NON AGGRESSIVE

After a minute of playing with tinker toys, in the non-aggressive condition, the model
the model forced on the Bobo doll and played with the tinker toys, quite manner and
was aggressive towards it for the ignored the Bobo doll
remaining nine minutes. Standard
actions were performed by the model
each time in the same sequence.
The model laid the Bobo doll on its side,
sitting on it and punching its nose. They
then lifted it and hit it hard on the head
with the mallet following by throwing the
bobo doll up in the air aggressively and
 kicking it around the room. This
sequence was repeated three times
along with verbally, aggressive
comments.
after 10 minutes, the experiment returned
to the room and told the participant he or
she was been taking to a game room.

PHASE 2 Before the test for imitation, all participants in the experiment were taken to a game room
AGGRESSION to induce mild aggression arousal. This was to ensure that all participants were primed to
AROUSAL initiate aggressive acts equally, regardless of the situation they had observed this room
had attractive toys such as a fire engine, a train a fighter plane, a cable car, a colourful
Spinny toy and doll set the participants were told that the toys were for them to play with,
but as soon as they became engaged, the experimental announced that these were the
very best toys and they were being reserved for other children, the participants were then
taken into the adjoining experimental room in the same straight of frustration

PHASE 3 The experimental room contained the range of toys, including those from the room with
TEST FOR the model, such as Bobo doll and mallet other novel aggressive toys, such as 2 dart guns
DELAYED and non-aggressive toys, the non-aggressive toys included a tea set, crayons and paper,
IMITATION a ball, two dolls, three bears, toy vehicles, a plastic farm animals. These all represented a
fixed position for each child.
The participants spent 20 minutes in the room while their behaviour was recorded. Using
a behaviour checklist via one way mirror was recorded every five seconds. The male
model from the experiment observed all trials and for half of the trials there was a second
observer.

RESPONSE Imitation of physical aggression Imitative verbal aggression Imitative non

MEASURED aggressive verbal
-​ Hitting the Bobo doll with -​ Soak him in the nose response
the mallet -​ Hit him down
-​ Sitting on the bobo doll -​ Throw him in the air -​ He keeps
and punching bobo doll -​ Kick him coming back for
on the nose -​ Pow more
-​ Kicking the bobo doll -​ He sure is a
-​ Toss the bobo doll in air tough fella

OTHER two further categories of partially Non imitative aggressive acts

CATEGORIES imitative behaviour were included: -​ Punches bobo doll: hitting slapping or
-​ mallet aggression: striking pushing doll aggressively
something other than the Bobo -​ Non imitative physical, and verbal
doll with a mallet aggression: any acts or words that
-​ Sitting on the Bodo doll: putting were aggressive, but not performed by
the Bobo doll on its side and the model, such as shoot the bobo or
sitting on it, but non-aggressively stupid ball
 -​ Aggressive gun play: shooting darts or
The number of time, participants playing firing imaginary gunshots at the
the non-aggressively or sat quietly was objects
also recorded

RESULTS Complete imitation of models’ behaviour

participants in aggressive model condition, demonstrated more physical and verbal
aggression and non-aggressive and controlled group
1/ 3 of the participants in the aggressive model condition almost imitated the models'
non-aggressive comments when none in the other conditions did.

Partial imitation of models’ behaviour

exposure to a non-aggressive model inhabited partially imitative mallet aggression,
particularly in girls. In the aggressive model and control groups, partially imitative
aggression is significantly higher for girls. (18 and 13.1 respectively.) than in the
non-aggressive model condition (0.5) sitting on the bobo doll, intended more frequently in
the aggressive model condition than the other two conditions

Non-imitative aggression
being in aggressive model condition did not increase the incidence of non-imitative
aggression such as aggressive gun, play or punching the Bobo doll

Sex of participant or model

-​ boys were more likely to imitate physical aggression than girls
-​ Girls were slightly more likely to imitate verbal aggression than boys, but the
difference was not significant statistically
-​ The male model had a greater effect on participants behaviour overall than the
female model participants who viewed non-aggressive male models,
demonstrated significantly less physical aggression, verbal aggression and mallet
aggression, as well as non-interactive aggression overall than the control group.

Same sex model

-​ children who viewed the same sex model immigrated them more than the opposite
sex model
-​ Boys who witnessed an aggressive male model had the highest imitative
aggression score (25.8) they showed more imitative physical and verbal
aggression, as well as non-imitative. Aggression and aggressive gunplay
compared to the girls who viewed a male model.
-​ Girls were more verbally aggressive and showed more non-imitative aggression
with female aggressive models, compared to boys

non-aggressive behaviour
The only sex differences in the time spent playing with the certain toys were:
-​ girls spent more time playing with dolls the tea set and colouring compared to
boys
-​ Boys spend more time playing with the guns than girls
 The non-aggressive model had some significant effects on participants behaviour
-​ Participants exposed to the non-aggressive model spent more time playing quietly
with the dolls than other two conditions
-​ Participants exposed to the non-aggressive model spent more than twice as much
time sitting quietly, then in the aggressive model condition

CONCLUSION Bandra et al made several conclusions from their data:

-​ Observing an aggressive model can lead imitative aggression in the observer
-​ Boys are more likely to imitate same sex models than girls
-​ Boys are more likely to imitate physically aggressive behaviour than girls, while
girls are slightly more likely to imitate verbally aggressive behaviour than boys
-​ behaviour of male models is more likely to be imitated overall than the behaviour
of female models
 EVALUATION - ethical issues

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

One weakness of Bandura et al's study is the risk The group of children was subsequently more likely to
to the children of psychological harm. imitate this aggressive behaviour.

EVIDENCE LINK
One third of the participants witnessed the Since this reproduction was after a delay, it is possible
aggressive behaviour of a model. that the children continued to demonstrate delayed
imitation of the aggressive behaviour even after the
study had ended, or to feel in an aggressive state of
mind when they returned home.

EVALUATION - methodological

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

A strength of Bandura et al.'s study is the The layout of the toys in the experimental room was
standardised procedure and instructions, which kept the same for participants in the aggressive,
increases the reliability of the study. non-aggressive and control conditions.

EVIDENCE LINK
The length of time the children were observed for This level of consistency makes the study's findings
was also the same, at 20 minutes, and the same about children's delayed imitation of aggression more
behavioural checklist was used to record behaviour reliable.
every five seconds.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

A strength of this study is that high levels of In one half of the trials, two observers independently
inter-observer reliability were found recorded participants' behaviour using a behavioural
checklist in five-second intervals.

EVIDENCE LINK
Their results were correlated and found to always This ensured that there was a high level of
be in the +0.90s consistency in the scoring of aggressive and
non-aggressive behaviours.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

Reliability Inter-rater reliability was a strength There was strong inter-rater reliability between the
researcher and the nursery teacher for the children's
aggression scores

EVIDENCE LINK
The raters' scores had a correlation at +0,89 This indicates a high level of consistency in how the
children were rated across the aggression scales.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

A strength of this study was validity as the They were each rated by their nursery teacher and the
participants were matched on prior aggression experimenter independently on four five-point rating
levels. scales for their: physical aggression, verbal aggression,
aggression towards inanimate objects and aggressive
inhibition.

EVIDENCE LINK
Using the total scores gained, participants were put This increased the validity of the findings, as individual
into triplets, with each being randomly assigned to differences in prior aggression levels should not have
a different condition. caused any differences between conditions.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

A weakness was that only one stooge was used in This means that the children may have imitated the
each male and female condition throughout the model due to some individual feature that was unique to
experiment. the model, rather than their sex.
 EVIDENCE LINK
This confounding variable may have affected how thus the validity of the results.
frequently a model was imitated

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

A strength was that quantitative data was collected which allows for more objective comparisons to be
in this study made between conditions of the independent variables.

EVIDENCE LINK
Data was collected on the number of aggressive Therefore, it was possible to compare numerical data
acts shown by each child, using a behavioural regarding the children's levels of aggression following
checklist. exposure to different types of model without bias,
increasing validity.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

A strength was that the producer was single blind The main observer did not know which condition each
child had been in for any trials for which he had not
been the model, which would increase his objectivity.

EVIDENCE LINK
This means that any similarities or differences which increases the validity of the data for these
between the female conditions were not due to conditions.
bias on the part of the researcher

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

A weakness is that the findings may not be The children were all from the nursery of a prestigious
generalisable to participants from lower university, which was for children of staff and students.
socioeconomic backgrounds. Therefore, these children may have had particularly
educated parents and their home lives may not be
representative of the rest of the population.

EVIDENCE LINK
Their learning experiences may have differed from reducing the validity of the findings.
other children and they may have been more or
less likely to imitate adult behaviour as a result
 NAME OF THE STUDY: Elephant Learning (Fagen et al)

APPROACH learning approach

PSYCHOLOGY Captive elephants play an important role in Nepalese culture. Not only are they part of
BEING many religious ceremonies and customs, but they also work in the timber trade,
INVESTIGATED transportation, park management and tourism. Unfortunately, elephants are vulnerable
to tuberculosis (TB), a potentially fatal disease which can be transmitted between wild
and captive elephants and humans. The disease affects more than 20 per cent of
elephants in Nepal, meaning that finding new ways to combat this problem are crucial
to both animal and human welfare.
This study investigates a way of training the elephants to actively participate in a
veterinary procedure called a trunk wash, which allows them to be tested for the
disease. The elephants had to learn to perform a series of behaviours in the correct
order. If the behaviours were not performed accurately, the TB test result may not be
accurate and an elephant could be infected without anyone knowing. This means that
elephants must achieve a high standard in every behaviour that they are taught. You
will learn more about the specific behaviours that were being reinforced. Here you will
learn about the basic psychological principles that the researchers used.

Operant conditioning and positive reinforcement

The researchers trained the elephants using operant conditioning. In this type of
learning, the consequence of a behaviour determines the probability of that behaviour
being performed again. Fagen et al. trained the elephants by rewarding them for
performing specific trunk movements in the correct order. This is called positive
reinforcement.

Primary and secondary reinforcement

Each time the elephant moved its trunk into the correct position, it was rewarded with
chopped banana. The chopped banana is a primary reinforcer because it meets a
basic need (hunger) and the elephant was likely to move its trunk in the same way
again if the movement was rewarded with banana, a food that the elephants really
enjoy.
Operant conditioning is most successful when the time between the behaviour (trunk
movement) and the consequence is as brief as possible. For this reason, animal
trainers often use secondary reinforcers, such as sounds, which the animal is taught to
associate with the primary reinforcer. In this study, a short blast on a whistle was used
as a secondary reinforcer. The use of the whistle allowed the researchers to reward the
elephants exactly as the desired behaviour was performed, creating a strong
association between the behaviour and the consequence. The whistle is a secondary
reinforcer because in itself it does not meet any of the elephants' needs, but if the
researchers train the elephants to associate the whistle with banana, the whistle can
become a powerful reinforcer in itself.
 Shaping and behavioural chaining
In order to perform the trunk wash, the elephants had to learn several separate
behaviours. Firstly, they had to allow the trainers to inject saline solution into their
trunks. Next, they had to hold their trunks upright so the fluid could travel to the base of
their trunks. Then they had to spray the fluid into a bucket for testing. To begin with, the
animal is rewarded for moving their trunk into any position that is similar to the desired
position. Gradually, the elephant is only rewarded for movements/positions that are
increasingly similar to the final desired behaviour. This is called shaping. Once the
elephant has mastered the first behaviours in the trunk-wash sequence, they will move
onto learning the next one.
Over time, the trainer will begin to reward the elephants only for chaining the learned
behaviours together - the first behaviour must be followed by the second behaviour.
Once they have learned this, they will only be rewarded for chaining three behaviours
in the correct order and so on, until they are able to perform the whole trunk wash, with
each behaviour performed to a satisfactory standard.

AIM This observational study aimed to investigate whether secondary positive

reinforcement could be used to train the elephants to voluntarily complete a trunk
wash, a behaviour that allows the elephants to be tested for a disease called TB

METHODOLOG Fagen et al. conducted a controlled observation of the elephant training sessions. The
Y observations took place while the elephants were chained in their stalls at the stable
where they lived and not in the wild, for example. It was also structured in that the
observers used a behavioural checklist to measure how successful the elephants were
in completing various behaviours involved in the trunk wash

TRAINED To complete a trunk wash, elephants had to:

BEHAVIOURS 1.​ Put their trunk into the trainer's hand (so saline/sterile water can be inserted).
2.​ Lift their trunk and hold (so the fluid can flow into the base of the trunk).
3.​ Lower their trunk into a bucket,
4.​ Blow into the bucket (to remove the fluid).
5.​ Hold steady (keep trunk still) - a final behaviour marking the end of the
sequence, before the elephant can relax.

OTHER Three other steps called targeting, trunk down and trunk out were also taught but not
BEHAVIOURS included in this study, as they were not part of the trunk wash.
TAUGHT
(not included)
SAMPLE The researchers studied five female elephants - four juveniles (infants) aged 5-7 years
FEATURES old and one adult. The young elephants were all born in captivity. The adult elephant
was at least 50 years old. The elephants were chosen as they were all relatively
gentle/tame and none was pregnant, and because their mahouts (handlers) were all
happy to take part. The elephants had no previous experience with secondary positive
reinforcement training and had only ever been trained using traditional methods. The
 mahouts were present in all sessions to maintain the trainers' safety but they did not
interact with the elephants.

SAMPLING Opportunity sample

TECHNIQUE
LOCATION Chitwan, Nepal
TRAINING Elephants were trained in the morning (7.30-10.00 a.m.) and/or afternoon (4.00-7.00
p.m.). Session times depended on the availability of the mahouts, but they were never
more than two days apart.

TRAINING
PROCEDURE How were the elephants trained?
(HOW) 1.​ Capturing: The elephants were encouraged to perform natural behaviours that
were already part of their usual behaviour, using rewards - for example, if an
elephant spontaneously lifted her trunk up, she would be given chopped
banana (a primary reinforcer); this captured the behaviour and made trunk
lifting more common.
2.​ Luring: More unusual behaviours were encouraged by careful positioning of
treats by the trainer - for example, if the trainer needed the elephant to stretch
its trunk out, they would put a treat out of reach to lure them towards it.
3.​ Shaping: To begin with, elephants were rewarded for all behaviours that were
similar to the final goal - for example, they might be rewarded for blowing fluid
near to the bucket. However, gradually the elephants were only rewarded for
accurate behaviours - for example, blowing the fluid into the bucket. Their
behaviours were shaped to become more accurate over time.
4.​ Secondary reinforcers: The trainers taught the elephants to associate the
sound of a whistle la secondary reinforcer) with the arrival of chopped banana
(a primary reinforcer). This meant the whistle could be used to reward
behaviour immediately, helping the elephant to quickly learn the association
between their behaviour and the reward.

VERBAL CUES The trainers introduced one-syllable Behavioural chaining was used to
AND CHAINING verbal cues to prompt the elephants encourage the elephants to perform the
once they had successfully learned all five behaviours in order, following the
five behaviours. These cues were verbal cue. Starting with just two
non-words and meant nothing specific in behaviours, the elephants were only
English or Nepali as the researchers did rewarded if they completed the behaviours
not want the mahouts to think the in the correct order. Gradually, more
elephants could understand human behaviours were added until the elephant
language (a common myth in the area. could perform all five in order.

SYRINGE AND The syringe was only introduced when the elephants had learned the trunk-wash
SAMPLE FLUID behaviours. The syringe is an aversive stimulus as the elephants might find it
unpleasant. To help them to accept the syringe, the trainers gradually brought it closer
 to the elephant's trunk, during step 1 (trunk in hand), rewarding the elephants with
bananas, until they were happy to have the syringe touch their trunks. This is called
desensitisation.
The researchers also used counterconditioning to teach the elephants to associate the
syringe with the arrival of chopped bananas. Gradually, the syringe went from being an
aversive stimulus to a conditioned stimulus. Once the elephants were able to tolerate
the syringe touching the outside of their trunks, the trainer gradually encouraged them
to accept the syringe being placed inside the trunk, slowly moving towards injecting a
droplet of fluid, building gradually from 1 to 15 ml, to the full 60 ml necessary for the
test.

MEASURED There were three main measured variables recorded by an assistant who observed
VARIABLES each training session:
• minutes of training from the point at which the elephant was offered her first cue to
her response to the last cue
• number of offers/cues made by the trainer to the elephant
• success rate for each behaviour and each sequence; starting at session 10, the
elephants were tested after every fifth session. They were tested on everything they
had learned up to that point. They were considered to have passed the training if they
showed the correct behaviour following 8 out of 10 offers/cues (80 per cent).
Behaviours were judged as successful if the trainer felt that they would function
adequately in a real TB trunk- wash test

Elephants were also graded on their ability to perform sequences of behaviours - for
example, trunk in hand followed by trunk up. The success criterion was again 80 per
cent and they could score between 80 and 100 per cent on any sequences they had
learned In this case, individual behaviours were not tested as the elephant had already
shown them as part of the sequence. In this case, the individual behaviours were
scored as 90 per cent successful. If an elephant failed a sequence, they were tested
on shorter sequences and/or individual behaviours.
The only two behaviours that were regularly tested on their own were steps 3 and 5:
trunk down and hold steady.
Training was concluded when the elephant had a success rate of ≥ 80 per cent on the
full five-step trunk wash.

RESULTS The four juvenile elephants all learned the full trunk wash in 25-35 sessions. The mean
average session duration was 12 minutes, ranging from 10 to 13 minutes, and the
overall training time for these elephants was 367 minutes, with a range of 194 minutes
(257-451 minutes).
Elephant 5, the older elephant, was never tested on the full trunk wash as she failed to
learn the full sequence in the time available. The behaviours that she could not master
were blowing into the bucket and holding her trunk steady. Elephants 2 and 4 also
never fully mastered the trunk steady behaviour, except as part of the full trunk wash.
Elephant 5 was also never fully desensitised to the syringe. When her training sessions
were added, the mean increased to 378 minutes. Over the course of the study, the
 elephants' success rate for accurate individual behaviours and sequences increased
from 39 per cent after 10 sessions to 89.3 per cent after 35 sessions.

Individual behaviours varied significantly in terms of the amount of practice necessary

to master them. For example, the most difficult behaviour was the first one (trunk
here/trunk in hand), which took an average of 295 offers, compared with lower trunk
into bucket (61 offers) and blow into bucket (54 offers), which required considerably
less practice

CONCLUSION Fagen et al. concluded that secondary positive reinforcement is effective for training
juvenile, traditionally trained elephants to voluntarily and reliably participate in a trunk
wash.
 EVALUATION - ethics

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

ethical guidelines were followed for both the Despite the elephants' leg chains, they were able to
animals and the trainers. walk away from their trainers if they did not want to
participate.

EVIDENCE LINK
The chains still allowed the elephants to move This is important as it helped reduce distress
freely within their stalls. (psychological harm) of the animals as well as the risk
of physical harm to the trainers, observers and/or
mahouts, who could have been injured if an elephant
became unco-operative.

EVALUATION - methodological

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

the use of a behavioural checklist which detailed the exact operational descriptions of
each of the taught behaviours.

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, the trunk-up behaviour was These detailed descriptions helped increase the
described as the distal end of the trunk is held reliability of the observer's decisions regarding
upward either in a loose curl with the dorsal whether the elephant passed or failed each aspect of
aspect of the tip of the trunk in close contact with the performance test.
the elephant's own forehead or is held diagonally
up and outward with a completely straight trunk.
 STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION
One strength was that the mahouts complied his is important as it means changes in the elephants'
with the researchers' request not to speak to or behaviour must have resulted from the secondary
signal to the elephants in any way. positive reinforcement training delivered by the trainer
and not from additional communication from the
mahout.

EVIDENCE LINK
No additional cues from the mahouts This helps to increase the validity of the finding that
secondary positive reinforcement training is helpful in
training elephants to voluntarily participate in trunk
washing.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

A weakness was Fagen et al's operational To pass the steady performance test, the elephants
definition of 'steady. had to stay still in various different trunk positions.
They had to pass three trunk-here and trunk-down
tests and four trunk-up tests (a very important part of
the trunk wash).

EVIDENCE LINK
The elephants were better at trunk up and trunk This is important as the very prescriptive operational
here but not so good at trunk down, only definition meant the data did not reflect the elephants'
reaching about 70 per cent accuracy overall. As true ability on two of the trunk positions.
the success criterion was 80 per cent, the
elephants regularly failed the steady task.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

A weakness was that the measurement of the Despite the detailed behavioural checklist, the trainer
elephant's performance was subjective. had to decide whether they felt the elephant would be
successful if they were performing a real trunk wash,
not just whether it matched the description on the
checklist or not.

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, the angle of the trunk may not This is a weakness because the trainers may have
have been quite right or some droplets of fluid been biased towards viewing behaviours as
may have been spilled.
 successful when another observer might have
interpreted the same behaviour as unsuccessful

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

Another weakness is the small sample size, Older elephants may be able to learn using secondary
specifically the lack of male and adult elephants positive reinforcement training as this animal suffered
in the sample. from physical issues that might have affected her
behaviour (the mahouts said she might have impaired
vision and/or trunk weakness). She also had an
abscess on her foot, which made her impatient and
unfocused.

EVIDENCE LINK
There was only one adult female (Elephant 5) All of these factors mean it is not possible to
and she failed to learn the full trunk-wash generalise her lack of learning to other older
sequence. elephants.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

Generalising to everyday life The data was collected in a lively, naturalistic setting.

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, large groups of tourists often This increases ecological validity, suggesting that it
gathered during training sessions, plus there were would be possible to achieve similar results with
many distracting noises from animals in the elephants in their normal settings, such as zoos or
surrounding jungle. safari parks.
 NAME OF THE STUDY: Button Phobia (Saavedra and Silverman)

APPROACH Learning approach

PSYCHOLOGY Phobias
BEING This study explores the case of a nine-year-old boy with a phobia of buttons. A phobia
INVESTIGATED is an intense fear or anxiety that occurs every time a person comes into contact with a
certain object or situation. Common phobias include spiders, flying, heights, blood and
injections. While these things may be scary for many people, a person with a phobia
experiences a level of fear that is much higher than you might expect based on the
actual level of danger. In fact, many people have phobias of things that are completely
harmless.
People with phobias will do whatever they can to avoid their feared object/situation and
this can lead to difficulties at home, school and/or work.

Classical conditioning (association or connecting)

One explanation of phobias is that they are learned through classical conditioning. If a
neutral stimulus (something that normally does not cause fear) is present at the same
time as something scary, we may learn to associate the neutral stimulus with the scary
stimulus. The previously neutral stimulus is now called a conditioned stimulus because
it triggers the same level of fear as whatever it was that scared us in the first place. This
is called expectancy learning.

Evaluative learning
Evaluative learning is a special type of classical conditioning. If a neutral stimulus is
paired with something that the person finds really disgusting, then the previously neutral
stimulus may now provoke the same negative reaction as the disgusting stimulus.
Evaluative learning is not the same as expectancy learning; the person does not
anticipate any danger or threat (they do not feel scared), they just experience an
involuntary disgust response due to the strong association that has been made. They
now perceive or evaluate the previously neutral stimulus in a negative way out cannot
always explain why.

Operant conditioning (taught)

Saavedra and Silverman used the principles of operant conditioning in their treatment of
the boy's button phobia. They used positive reinforcement (praise from his mother) to
reward him for handling buttons during the therapy sessions. This made it more likely
that he would approach buttons in a positive way in the future.

AIM 1.​ Highlight the role of evaluative learning and disgust in the development and
treatment of children's phobias.
2.​ Test the efficacy (effectiveness) of imagery exposure as part of an
exposure-based cognitive-behavioural treatment for a specific phobia of buttons.
METHODOLOGY Saavedra and Silverman is an example of a case study. The researchers present an
in-depth exploration of a single case of an unusual/rare condition: button phobia. Both
qualitative and quantitative data were provided using a variety of methods - structured
interview, observation and the use of a psychometric scale to measure subjective
distress. The study was longitudinal as the boy's behaviour was studied before, during
and after treatment, and he also attended follow-up sessions at 6 and 12 months after
treatment.

TRIANGULATION structured interview, observation and the use of a psychometric scale

(methods used)
MEASURED The boy's approach and avoidance behaviours were carefully observed and recorded
VARIABLES during the therapy sessions. Approach behaviours included touching, holding and
manipulating the buttons. A feelings thermometer was used to score the participant's
subjective level of distress on a nine-point scale ranging from 0-8

SAMPLE The participant was a nine-year-old Hispanic-American boy from Florida, USA. He was
FEATURES selected for the study as his mother had brought him to the Child Anxiety and Phobia
Program at Florida International University in Miami due to his phobia of tuitions. His
phobia had started when he was five years old and the boy had been living with his
condition for four years. He did not have any other diagnosed disorders (e.g.
obsessive-compulsive disorder, OCD).

SAMPLING Opportunity sample

TECHNIQUE
LOCATION Child Anxiety and Phobia Program at Florida International University in Miami

INITIAL The boy and his mother were interviewed using a semi-structured interview schedule
ASSESSMENT called the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV-Child and Parent versions
(ADIS-C/P). This interview allowed the researchers to confirm that the boy met the
criteria to be diagnosed with a specific phobia. This was due to his marked and
persistent avoidance of buttons.
The researchers also asked the boy and his mother about stressful life events that may
have triggered the phobia. Sometimes anxiety disorders can be triggered by traumatic
events (e.g., sexual or physical abuse or accidents) and the researchers needed to rule
this out before deciding on the best way to treat it.
They also checked to see whether he met the criteria for any other disorders, such as
OCD. Neither the child nor his mother mentioned the key symptoms of OCD (recurrent,
persistent and/or intrusive thoughts, impulses or images and so this was ruled out.

WHEN DID THE When asked about stressful life events that might have triggered his phobia, the boy
PHOBIA BEGIN? recalled a day at kindergarten (nursery school). He was working on an art project when
he ran out of the buttons that he was gluing onto his poster.
He went to the front of the class to take some more buttons from a large bowl on his
teacher's desk. As he reached in, his hand slipped and the buttons fell onto him. He
said the event was distressing. He and his mother agreed that his avoidance of buttons
had increased since this event and that he had not faced any other stressful or
traumatic events that might be linked to his phobia.
 AFFECT ON To begin with, he did not have too many problems but gradually he became unable to
BOYS DAILY touch/handle buttons. He was unable to get dressed by himself and his schoolwork
FUNCTIONING suffered because he could not concentrate; he was too worried about touching his
school uniform or anything that might have been touched by his shirt buttons. At home,
he avoided clothes with buttons and people with buttons on their clothing.

TREATMENT This phase included four 50-minute -​ In vivo exposures: These

(BEHAVIOURAL exposure-based treatment sessions, 30 minutes involved gradual exposures
EXPOSURE) on his own and 20 minutes with his mother. to buttons in vivo (in real
-​ Creating a disgust/fear hierarchy: The boy life). If the boy was able to
worked with the therapists to create a list tolerate the buttons, his
of 11 stimuli relating to buttons. They mother would reward him
used the feelings thermometer to help the with praise (positive
boy identify how distressing each stimulus reinforcement). This is
would be for him. They then placed the known as contingency
stimuli into rank order from those that management.
caused him.

DISGUST the least distress (large denim jean buttons = 2/8) to

HEIRARCHY the type of buttons that caused him greatest distress
(small coloured and small clear plastic buttons = 8/8)

TREATMENT This phase included seven sessions where the therapists asked the boy to describe
(DISGUST how buttons look, feel and smell and to explain how he felt while imagining them. The
RELATED therapists prompted him to imagine buttons of different sizes, including small ones,
IMAGERY) which he found most distressing. They also used a technique called cognitive
restructuring.

POST The ADIS-C/P was used directly after treatment to measure the efficacy of the
TREATMENT treatment and again 6 and 12 months later.

RESULTS FIRST FOUR SESSIONS NEXT SEVEN SESSIONS

-​ Positive outcomes: The boy faced all 11
When asked about how buttons
situations listed in his disgust hierarchy.
made him feel, the boy said the
Approach behaviours increased - for
idea of buttons on his body was
example, he could tolerate more buttons
disgusting and gross but it was hard
with each exposure
for him to put into words exactly
-​ Negative outcomes: Subjective ratings of
what was disgusting about buttons,
distress (measured using the feelings
except that they smelt unpleasant.
thermometer) increased dramatically
Following the disgust-related
between sessions 2 and 3 and sessions 3
imagery exposure, subjective
and 4.
ratings of distress on the feelings
thermometer decreased.
 He reported being more distressed by medium,
coloured buttons' and hugging his mother when
she wears large plastic buttons than he was
when he first created the hierarchy.
This was expected according to the theory of
evaluative learning and disgust-based phobias,
which differ from fear-based phobias.
POST At each follow-up session, the ADIS-C/P showed that the boy no longer met the
TREATMENT DSM-IV criteria for specific phobia. He reported no distress about button-related stimuli.
He was wearing his school uniform shirt, with small clear plastic buttons, every day
without any problems.

CONCLUSION Evaluative learning is a useful way of understanding the role of disgust in

childhood-specific phobias. While exposure therapy may be helpful in treating
fear-based phobias,
disgust-based phobias may also require imagery exposure and cognitions, which can
be more effective in targeting emotions (e.g. disgust) associated with the stimuli.
 EVALUATION - ethics

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

An important strength of this study is that the Consent was provided for both the initial assessment
researchers gained informed consent from both of his condition and the treatment programme. The
the boy and his mother. mother also consented to the write-up of her son's
case for publication.

EVIDENCE LINK
This was a critical aspect of the study as informed This was especially important in this study as the
consent is necessary to protect people from mother and child were particularly vulnerable due to
psychological harm. the child's phobia.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

psychology harm Case studies often provide very detailed information

EVIDENCE LINK
the detailed description of the bowl of buttons If the child's identity was revealed, this could place him
tipping onto the child in kindergarten, coupled at greater risk of harm, even though his mother
with his age, ethnicity and city where he lived provided consent for publication
(Miami, may have compromised his anonymity -
that is, he may have been recognisable to
classmates or his kindergarten teacher.
 EVALUATION - methodological

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

Reliability - Test-retest reliability of the use of the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for
diagnostic interviews schedule DSM IV-Child and Parent versions (ADIS-C/P). This
instrument has been shown to have excellent reliability
for diagnosing specific phobias in children aged 6-11.

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, Silverman et al. (2001) tested This shows that the boy's diagnosis was reliable.
children twice after 7-14 days and found a
correlation of +0.84.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

Lack of standardisation is a weakness of the Therapy sessions are spontaneous situations where the
case study method as it means the procedure therapist is led by the client's individual needs.
cannot be replicated exactly.

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, if the child seemed particularly This means the therapy sessions cannot be conducted
miserable one week, she might chat for longer in exactly the same way for another individual client, so
than usual before starting the button exposures. it is impossible to test the findings for reliability.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

Validity - The longitudinal design - A strength of Sometimes efficacy studies do not follow up the
this study was the follow-up sessions at 6 and participants and if they do it may only be for a short
12 months. while after the therapy has ended. As the boy was
symptom-free on both occasions

EVIDENCE LINK
This is good evidence that imagery-exposure This is important as some therapies have short-term
therapy can have long-lasting effects for benefits but, without follow-up sessions, researchers
children with specific disgust-related phobias. cannot know whether they experienced a return of
symptoms in the future.
 STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION
A strength of this study was the use of the case which allowed the researchers to collect rich and
study method, detailed data using a variety of techniques.

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, the ADIS-C/P semi-structured This is called triangulation and it improves the validity of
interview was used to confirm his diagnosis, the conclusions about the efficacy of the therapy.
observations were made of how he interacted
with the buttons during therapy and the feelings
thermometer was used to gather self-reported
data to monitor changes in disgust/distress.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

One weakness was the use of self-reported data The mother may have exaggerated the severity of her
from the mother and child. child's symptoms due to her anxiety about her son,
whereas the child may have downplayed his worries,
especially in front of his mother.

EVIDENCE LINK
He may also have wished to please his This is a problem as it increases the subjectivity of the
therapists, especially in the later sessions where data, meaning the efficacy of the therapy may have
he wanted them to feel that their work with him been overestimated.
had been successful

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

generalising beyond the sample A weakness of this case study is that it only focused on
one child

EVIDENCE LINK
a Hispanic-American nine-year-old boy, who This means the findings may not generalise to other
was treated at a prestigious university clinic by children and therapists, especially those who are less
two expert therapists. The therapy might not skilled or experienced.
have been as effective for a child from a
different cultural background, especially if this
contrasted with the therapist's background.
 NAME OF THE STUDY: Obedience (Milgram)

APPROACH Social approach

PSYCHOLOGY BEING Obedience is a result of social pressure, whereby one person complies with
INVESTIGATED direct orders of another person who they perceive have a higher level of
authority than themselves. Snow quoted when you think of the long and
gloomy history of a man, you will find out more hideous crimes have been
committed in the name of obedience than have ever been committed in the
name of rebellion.
However, milligram said obedience also has positive effects such as kindness
and charity due to the social pressure which is important for the well-being of
the society. Milligram thought people obey because the authority figure is
telling them to do so or the location which is the situational factor will have an
effect. Lastly, dispositional factors such as personal conscience were
responsible for obedience.

AIM To investigate the level of obedience, when an authority figure orders a person
to administer a physical punishment to a stranger

METHODOLOGY there is only a dependent variable, therefore cannot be described as an

experiment. The data was collected via observation through a one-way mirror
and an interview conducted after the study was completed, using a laboratory
setting.

DEPENDENT The dependent variable was the level of shock the participant is willing to
VARIABLE administer before refusing to continue. The different levels were from 0 to 30,
with level 30 being 450 V. Obedience was defined as delivering maximum
450V. Any participant who stops before 450V was termed defiant.

OPERATIONALISATION same procedure

same room
same hat
same prods
same electric shock machine
WHAT ALL WAS level of shock given
RECORDED? participants reactions
HOW WAS THE DATA The data was recorded through a videotape and some photographs were
RECORDED? clicked through the one-way mirror. Also, notes were taken of unusual
reactions of the participants.
SAMPLE FEATURES The sample consisted of 40 males aged from 20 to 50 years with a high level
of education from the new haven and area surrounding the USA.
The participant received a payment of $4.50, no matter what they did during
the research. The participants were from various occupations such as High
School teachers, engineers, postal clerks and labourers.
 SAMPLING It was a volunteer sample. The advertisement was done through a local
TECHNIQUE newspaper and was told the experiment was on learning and memory at Yale
University.
LOCATION Yale University
EXPERIMENTER experimenter was a male actor, a high school teacher
wore a gray lab coat
LEARNER The learner was an Irish-American accountant, 47 years old. He was
mild-mannered and likable.

SELECTION OF ROLES They used a hat from which participants selected a slip of paper to decide the
role of the teacher and learners. It was rigged. Both the slips had a teacher on
them. Therefore, the participant always becomes the teacher.

PREPARATION Both learner and participant were then taken into a room where the learner
was trapped into an electric chair and electrodes attached to the wrist. The
participant was told by the experimenter that although the shock will be painful,
it will not cause any long lasting tissue damage. Then the participant was taken
to another room. Just next door, in front was a shock generator machine where
the participant was given a sample of 45V, which was applied to their wrist and
came through a battery which was attached to their shock generator, when the
third switch was pressed.

LEARNING TASK The learner had to memorise a list of paired words. The participant was told to
read the list of paired words to the learner and then read the first word of each
of the pairs and the learner had to pick the correct choice through pressing the
corresponding options in front of them. Which lit up one of the four quadrants
above the shock generator. The participant was then told that if the learner
gives an incorrect answer, you have to shock them using the shock generator
in front of you with increasing shock on each incorrect answer. The participant
also had to announce the amount of voltage before giving it.

PRELIMINARY RUN There were 10 trials in order to practice so that the actual task went smoothly.
Out of the 10 trials in 7 of the trials, the participant went up to maximum 105V.
After the trial round, the participant was handed over a second list for the
regular run.

REGULAR RUN When the participant went up to 300 V to 315 V, then the learner started
protesting by pounding on the wall and after 300 V, the learner stopped
responding via the switch. The participant was told that no response is an
incorrect answer
If the participant refused to continue after the 4 prods, then the study ended
and participants undertook an interview to express their experience and met
the learner to know that he had not been harmed. This part was what milligram
called the dehoaxing, which he believed would mean the participant left the
study in the same state of well-being.
 PRODS If the participant showed on unwillingness to continue for standardised prods
were used by the experiment in the specific order
1.​ Please continue / please go on
2.​ The experiment requires that you continue
3.​ It is absolutely essential that you continue
4.​ You have no other choice, you must go on

SPECIAL PRODS There were two special pros also, when the participant was concerned about
the injury to the learner, the experimenter repeated it again, although the shock
may be painful but does not cause any permanent tissue damage. Whereas if
the participant said the learner does not want to continue, the experiment said
‘whether the learner likes it, or not, you must go on until he has learned the
paired words correctly, so please go on.’
RESULTS QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

26 out of 40 participants Extreme tension was observed such as sweating, lip

were fully obedient and biting, digging nails into their flesh, trembling, and
administered for 450 V sluttering
of shock
14 participants showed signs of nervous laughing
40 and 40 participants and smiling.
went till 300 V till the
time the participant Three participants had full blown seizures
didn’t pound on the wall
All participants who continued till 450 V seemed
under extreme stress
CONCLUSION Milgram commented on the two surprising findings in the study
1.​ The strength of obedience led to participants willing to go against their
own moral and obeying the authority figure, even when it was harming
a person.
2.​ All participants who were ordered to administer an electric shock
caused tension, and emotional strain.

Reason:

Milgram provided these reasons why people might be obedient

1.​ Because of the prestigious location, Yale university
2.​ Authority figure with ordering them, there was a conflict between the
desire, not to harm and a desire to obey authority
3.​ The participants were paid to take part
4.​ A sense of commitment to the experimenter
5.​ They were told there is no permanent harm to the participant
 EVALUATION (ethical issues)

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

The ethical guideline of the debriefing was Debriefing happens after the participants have
met. completed the research. It ensures that participants
leave the research in the same state in which they
entered. So there is no negative impact of the
research on their mental state.

EVIDENCE LINK
The participants met the learners after the Therefore, the participants left with the same
study ended to make sure that they did not psychological state as they entered the study. Their
harm an innocent man state of well-being was the same, and any feelings of
tension were reduced.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

Participant suffered psychological harm The participant had to go against their own morals and
had to deliver an electric shock to an innocent man

EVIDENCE LINK
Three participants had full blown seizures in This means that some participants are likely to have
the study, and most of them showed signs of left the research in a worse psychological state than
stress they entered

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

The ethical guideline of informed consent and The participants were told that the study was on the
deception was not met. effect of punishment on learning and therefore the
informed consent was missing.

EVIDENCE LINK
They were deceived to believe that the shocks Although the participants were debriefed some of them
were real. may have left the study in a state of distress or feeling
guilty thinking they harmed an innocent person.
 EVALUATION (methodological issues)

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

One strength of the study is Reliability. It was a lab experiment and conducted in a highly
controlled environment. High levels of controls
ensure that the procedure is standardized for all
participants.

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, all participants were allocated the High level of standardization meant the study could
role of the teacher, and the stooge the learner, be replicated to check for reliability of results.
through a rigged procedure. The responses of
the learner were controlled and standardized so
that he would start pounding on the wall
indicating extreme pain at 300v. The prods
given by the experimenter were also consistent
throughout. For instance- Please go on or It is
absolutely essential that you go on.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

One strength of the study is validity. The study used false aim and covert observation.

EVIDENCE LINK
The participants were told the study is on the Not knowing the real aim of the study reduced
effects of punishment on memory and were demand characteristics and therefore ensured that
observed through one way mirrors. the response of participants was genuine, improving
the validity of findings.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

Another weakness of the study was Ecological The study was conducted in a lab setting under the
Validity disguise of a study on learning and memory.

EVIDENCE LINK
For instance, shocking a stranger for answering Thus, little resemblance to real life situations makes it
incorrectly on a memory test is not reflective of a lack ecological validity and mundane realism.
real-life task.
 WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION
One weakness of the study is the Sample The sample size was relatively small. There were only
40 males, all from the New Haven Area.

EVIDENCE LINK
Since the sample only consisted of males and Therefore it is not representative of the population and
was taken from a particular region. The study findings cannot be generalised to other males or female
was also conducted in an individualistic country participants or other countries and parts of the US.
and obedience rates might be higher in
collectivist cultures.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

Another strength of the study is Data. The study used both qualitative and quantitative
data. The quantitative data was collected in the form
of maximum voltage administered by the
participants(450V), the number of participants who
were obedient (26/40) and the number of
participants who went up to 300 v(40/40). The
qualitative data was collected by observing the
participants' reaction.

EVIDENCE LINK
For example- participants showed signs of The use of both qualitative and quantitative data
trembling, sweating and lip biting, three allows for comparison as well as gives an in-depth
participants had full-blown seizures. understanding of participants’ reaction therefore
increases the validity of findings.
 NAME OF THE STUDY: Personal Space (Perry et al)

APPROACH social approach

PSYCHOLOGY interpersonal distance (personal space)

BEING The term interpersonal distance refers to distance between two people. People prefer
INVESTIGATED distance from others may vary depending on their relation to the other person, cultural
norms and personal factors. If a person were to enter into this personal space, a
person may feel uncomfortable or threatened. According to Hall, there are four zones
of interpersonal distance, depending on the relation between two people.
1.​ intimate distance for close family members or relationships
2.​ personal distance for everyday interactions with others
3.​ social distance for formal interactions
4.​ public distance for public figures

empathy
Empathy is a trait which plays an important role in social relationships. Empathy refers
to a person’s ability to understand the thoughts, feelings and experiences of another
and comprises two dimensions, cognitive and affective empathy
1.​ Cognitive empathy refers to a person‘s ability to determine another person’s
emotional states
2.​ Effective empathy to their ability to feel the same emotional state
research points towards a person’s level of empathy affecting the way of process
social cues and respond emotionally

social hormones
Oxytocin is a social hormone that acts as the neurotransmitter. The hormone plays a
role in social bonding, childbirth, and breastfeeding and has been seen to promote
pro-social and approach behaviour. However, research also shows that in some
contexts oxytocin can actually lead to envy, risk aversion and feelings of hostility
towards strangers. Scheele et al (2012) found that administering Oxytocin into males
in relationships increases their preferred interpersonal distance from an attractive
female when in presence of a female researcher compared to the controlled condition.
The study focuses on the role of oxytocin and how it affects people's preference for
interpersonal distance, depending on whether they are high or low in trait of empathy

-​ Background
Perry et al were interested in the effects of oxytocin on people's preferred
interpersonal distances, depending on whether they are high or low in trait of empathy

amygdala
place a role in preferred personal distances. lesions (cut) in amygdala leads to a
reduction in the need for interpersonal distance from others. Additionally, the more
discomfort people feel with an interpersonal distance that is to close the higher the
level of amygdala activity. This activity is known to be affected by the hormone
oxytocin.
 AIM To investigate how oxytocin affects preferred interpersonal distance for those scoring
high or low in empathy traits.

METHODOLOGY The participants took part in two experiments. Half of the participants did Experiment
1first and the other half did Experiment 2 first. These experiments took place in a
laboratory setting. where extraneous variables that might have affected preferred
interpersonal distance were controlled. The researchers compared preferred
interpersonal distance between different groups and conditions

EXPERIMENTAL The first independent variable was whether the participants received nasal drops
DESIGN containing oxytocin or a placebo (saline solution). As all participants took part in both
conditions,
This part of the experiment was repeated measures.

VARIABLES IV DV
(Expt 1)
1. Empathy: high or low Preferred interpersonal distance:
2. Treatment: oxytocin or placebo measured using the computerised
3. Condition: stranger, authority, friend or version of the Comfortable Interpersonal
ball Distance (CID paradigm (a scale of 1-100,
where 0 is both figures touching and 100
is the furthest distance)

MEASURE OF High or low empathy was operationalised using a 28-item online questionnaire called
EMPATHY the Interpersonal Reactivity Index
This questionnaire has four seven-item sub-sections, each assessing a different
component of empathy. The people in the high empathy group (n = 20) had scores of
40 and over, while the people in the low empathy group (n= 20) had scores of 33 and
under.

VARIABLES IV DV
(Expt 2)
1.​ Empathy: high or low The 'choosing rooms' task where
2.​ Treatment: oxytocin or placebo participants indicate room layout
3.​ Condition: positioning of chairs preferences for a conversation on a
(experimental condition) versus personal topic:
positioning of table and plant -​ Mean average preferred
(control condition) distance between the two chairs
(in cm)
-​ Mean average preferred angle of
the two chairs (in degrees)

SAMPLE The sample consisted of 54 male undergraduates from the University of Haifa in Israel,
FEATURES aged 19-32 years. They received course credit or payment in exchange for their
participation. Five were left-handed, none had any history of psychiatric or neurological
conditions and all had normal or corrected-to-normal eyesight.
 SAMPLING voluntary sampling
TECHNIQUE
PROCEDURE Oxytocin administration and empathy assessment
(GENERAL) Participants visited the laboratory twice, a week apart, at the same time. On their first
visit, they were randomly given either oxytocin (24 units in 250 ml of saline) or a
placebo (250 ml of saline without oxytocin). Three droplets were self-administered to
each nostril. The following week, they administered the alternative solution. Next,
participants completed the empathy questionnaire, the IRl, as described above.
Participants then had to wait for 45 minutes in a quiet room, alone, with some nature
magazines. This was so that their oxytocin levels would plateau(stabilise] before taking
part in the two different experiments.

PROCEDURE The CID paradigm is a computer animation used to measure preferred interpersonal
(Expt 1) distance. First, the word friend, stranger, authority or ball appears on the
screen for one second. Next, the participant must gaze at a fixation point which
appears on the screen for 0.5 seconds. The next screen then shows a plan of a circular
room with a stick person at the centre representing the participant. Next comes an
animation that lasts up to three seconds: a stick person or circle (the ball) (Perry et al.
call this the protagonist) enters the circle from one of eight doors around the edge,
before approaching the person in the middle. The participant has to press the
spacebar on the computer keyboard when they want the protagonist to stop. There
were 96 trials in total with the four protagonists appearing three times from each of
the eight doors. Interpersonal distance was calculated as the percentage of distance
remaining between the protagonist and the central figure, from 0% to 100%, so a low
score represented close proximity and a high score represented farther proximity.

PROCEDURE Participants were told they would be having a meeting with another participant to
(Expt 2) discuss personal topics and that the room would be laid out according to their
preferences, as measured by a computer program. This was not true. The computer
program showed the participants still colour images of pairs of rooms where the
chairs, table and plant were at slightly different angles and distances from each other.
Eighty-four pairs of rooms were each shown twice, giving a total of 168 pairs. During
the task, participants sat 60cm from the computer screen and were shown each pair
of rooms for two seconds. They had to fixate on a point on a blank screen for 0.5
seconds between each pair.
Participants chose between the left or the right room. The experimental conditions
were the distance between chairs and the angle of the chairs' positions, while the
control conditions were the distance between the table and plant
as well as the angle of the positions of the table and [Link] one of these variables
differed on each trial.
 RESULT Experiment 1-
Oxytocin decreased the preferred mean distance from a protagonist in the high
empathy group (placebo: 26.11 per cent vs oxytocin: 23.29 per cent) and increased it
in the low empathy group (placebo: 26.98 per cent vs oxytocin: 30.20 per cent). This
difference, however, was very small.
In the high empathy group, placebo condition, there were significant differences
between the preferred distances for friend and authority, as well as friend and
stranger, as expected. However, not between the ball and all other conditions. When
oxytocin was administered, participants were willing to be significantly closer to the
ball than the stranger or authority figure

Experiment 2-
Those in the high empathy group chose closer chain distances in the oxytocin
condition compared to the placebo condition (78.07 cm versus 80.58 cm,) while the
opposite effect was found for the low empathy group (80.14 cm in the oxytocin
condition versus 78.33 cm in the placebo condition). The effect of oxytocin on
preferred chair distance was only approaching significance for the high empathy
group.
Oxytocin did not have an effect on preferred chair angle for either the high or the low
empathy groups.

CONCLUSION Oxytocin affects preferred interpersonal distance (personal space), dependent on

empathy levels. Those with high empathy preferred closer interpersonal distances
after oxytocin administration compared to a placebo. In contrast, oxytocin increased
the preferred interpersonal distance for those with low empathy, compared to a
placebo.
The researchers also suggested that oxytocin may only invoke closeness in highly
empathetic people for interactionsofalessthreateningnature,ashteeffectsof oxytocin
were more pronounced for the ball protagonist than the stranger or authority figure.
 EVALUATION - ETHICAL ISSUES

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

An Ethical issues was Deception In experiment, 2, participants were deceived about
choosing your room for a personal meeting.
Participants were told that they would need to discuss
a personal topic with another person in the room at the
end of the experiment, but then only told the following
next week that the meeting would not take place.

EVIDENCE LINK
This may have course participants feeling since the personal topic to be discussed was not
anxious about this future meeting disclosed at that time. Thus there was a risk of
psychological harm

EVALUATION - METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

A strength of the research is reliability as it has Using a computer, allows researchers to control timing,
a high level of standardisation. speed and visuals to ensure they were the same
between participants.

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, experiment 2 with each pair of This means that the procedure can be replicated to
rooms presented for two seconds and all the see if the findings about the effects of oxytocin and
furniture items in the room were kept the same. empathy on interpersonal distances are reliable.
 STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION
A strength of the research is its use of a widely The CID paradigm involving a protagonist approaching
validated paradigm to investigate preferred the participants in a computerised room has been
interpersonal distance tested previously on a variety of different sex and age
groups. In a pen and paper format.

EVIDENCE LINK
It was found to be a valid measure of preference which increases validity of the findings related to the
in the personal distance. effect of oxytocin and empathy on interpersonal
distance.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

The use of double brain procedure in Neither the participant nor the experiment knew which
administering either oxytocin or placebo was solution was being administered in weeks, one and
also a strength. two.

EVIDENCE LINK
This avoided any experiment effect or demand The findings are more valid.
characteristics whereby either the experiment or
the participants, consciously or unconsciously
influence the studies finding as a result of any
prior expectation about the effects of oxytocin

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

A weakness of the design was the participants Participants were required to complete the IRI
were categorised as being on high or low themselves, which may have led some participants to
empathy on the basis of their own self-report, demonstrate socially desirable bias.
which may be biased.
 EVIDENCE LINK
Participants may have preferred to be seen as This rise is validity issues as some people with low
higher in empathy because it is seen as a empathy may have ended up in the high empathy
decidable trait in society and they did not want to category.
be evaluated negatively by the experimenter.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

A strength of the research was use of This allowed the researcher to objectively compare
quantitative data which did not require participants' scores in each of the different conditions
subjective depression from the researcher. in an unbiased way

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, experiment one recorded the which increased the validity of the results and allowed
percentage distance remaining between the for statistical analysis of the findings to be undertaken
door through which the protagonist entered and to determine the strength of any differences.
the participant in the centre.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

validity is a weakness as it cannot be Previous research shows that males and females
generalised beyond the sample. It only uses respond differently to oxytocin.
male participation.

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, oxytocin may induce positive Therefore it is not possible to apply the findings of the
social judgement in females while promoting the study related to oxytocin effect on personal space to
opposite affected males. females

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

validity is a weakness as it cannot be The research is that it used computer based tasks in
generalised to everyday life as it lacks a laboratory setting, which lacks ecological validity.
ecological validity.

EVIDENCE LINK
Asking a participant to respond to computer Therefore, differences between control and oxytocin
animation would not have recreated the feelings conditions may have been minimised due to lack of
of discomfort that a person may feel in a real genuine feelings of discomfort and not reflect real life
world, social situation of someone invading their preference.
personal space.
 NAME OF THE STUDY: Subway Samaritans (Piliavin et al)

APPROACH social approach

PSYCHOLOGY bystander apathy

BEING Bystanders are the people who are physically present in an event or an incident, but do
INVESTIGATED not take an active part in helping the victim. The psychology of Bystanders’ behaviour
was triggered after the murder of Kitty, an American woman. A New York Times Article
about Kitty claimed that 38 people witnessed the crime and yet left the victim there and
did not help. However, there were many controversies. bystander apathy, the term used
to describe the lack of help offered in such situations. Although some evidence
suggests that bystanders may evaluate the character of a victim negatively and
therefore lack compassion, a great deal of work suggests that the reason for people's
inactivity often has more to do with the behaviour of people other than the victim.

diffusion of responsibility
Diffusion of responsibility means as the number of people present in an incident
increases, each person feels less responsible for helping. Therefore if there are more
people during an incident less help is provided. This is because they think they are not
responsible and do not feel guilty for not helping.

AIM To investigate factors affecting helping behaviour in a New York subway train.

FACTORS specifically, they wanted to see how the following factors affected help offered to a
AFFECTING participant who collapsed in a carriage-
HELPING 1.​ type of victim- drunk or ill
2.​ type of race- black or white
3.​ modelled help provided by another passenger
4.​ number of passengers in the carriage (group size)

RESEARCH it was a field experiment which took place in an express train for 7.5 minutes, the
METHOD experimental manipulated the IV and measured the effect on DV

EXPERIMENTAL It was an independent measure design as each scene took place in front of different
DESIGN participants. - It was a covert observation. There were two observers.

VARIABLES IV DV
-​ type of victim (ill or drunk) -​ race, sex of the first helper
-​ race victim (black or white) -​ how many participants left
-​ location of model help (critical or adjacent the critical area after the
area) collapse
-​ how quickly was the help offered -​ time taken to help to arrive
-​ group size (how many) -​ passengers comments
OBSERVER 1 2

recorded the number of participants in the car recorded the race, sex and location
and the race, sex and location of every of participants in the adjacent area
 passenger in the critical area. she also noted as well as the time taken to assist
how many people assisted the victim. the race, after collapse.
sex, location of the person who assisted the
victim.

Both also noted the comments made by Both also noted the comments
passengers and tried to elicit them. made by passengers and tried to
elicit them.

SAMPLE the sample consisted approximately 4,450 men and women with 55% white and 45%
FEATURES black all of them riding 8th Avenue train in New York City during weekdays 11 AM to 3
PM between 15th April to 26 June 1968, The mean of number of passengers in a
carriage was 43 and mean of people in critical area was 8.5. participants.
SAMPLING opportunity sample who did not give informed consent and were unaware they were
TECHNIQUE taking part in the study.

PROCEDURE A team of four students entered the train from separate doors. two female observers
who sat separately, while two males acted as victim and the model health who was
standing. victim to centrally in the critical area and collapsed after 70 seconds when the
train started, fell on the back facing the ceiling until help was offered. If no help was
given, model help came to make the victim stand to its feet when the next station
arrived, the team then re-boarded the train in the opposite direction. This was done 6 to
8 times a day.

VICTIM There was a team of four students. Each victim was aged between 26 years to 35
years. with identical outfit trousers, no tie and jacket and just one victim was black three
victims were white. There were 38 trials of drunk conditions and 65 trials of ill
conditions. The ill victim had a black cane in their hand, whereas the drunk victim had
an alcohol bottle wrapped in a brown bag and they smelt of alcohol. Each student
acting as the victim played both roles during the course of the study.

MODEL all models were white male and aged between 24 to 29. There were four conditions in
which the model helped the victim to a sitting position and stayed with them until the
train stopped. There is also a no model condition. The order of this was randomised.

MODEL There is also a no model condition. The order of this was randomised. The fourth
CONDITIONS conditions were
critical area early, stood in the critical area and gave help after 70 seconds.
critical area later stood in the critical area and gave help after 150 seconds.
adjacent area early, adjacent to the critical area and give help after 70 seconds.
adjacent area late, adjacent to the critical area and gave help after 150 seconds.

RESULTS TYPE OF VICTIM - a person appearing ill is more likely to receive help than the one
appearing drunk 62/65 versus 19/38 trials, the ill received hundred percent help at the
time when there was no model
 RACE OF VICTIM- there was no tendency for the same days, helping until the victim
was drunk. The drunk white victim was hundred percent helped while the drunk black
victim was only 73% of the time helped and more frequently by black helpers and white
only 9% of the trials with a black victim. People left the critical area versus 5% of the
trials with a white victim.

MODELLED HELP- early models were more likely to elicit additional help than late
models 4vs2

GROUP SIZE- there was a positive weak correlation between the group size and
helping behaviour group of seven or more were faster to respond than groups of three.

In addition, males were more likely to help men than females. 90% of the first helpers
with males with 68% of the helpers were white. In 20% of trials, people left the critical
area and a total 34 people left.

FEMALE COMMENTS:
The researcher reported a few interesting finds from bystanders comments, female
comments included it is for men to help, I wish I could help but I’m not strong enough, I
never saw this kind of thing before I don’t know where to look, you feel so bad that you
do not know what to do.

CONCLUSION The research did not support the diffusion of responsibility hypothesis in the real world,
despite the collapse taking place on busy trains. Help was offered frequently and
quickly. proposed that witnessing an emergency situation leads to creation of emotional
arousal status which a person then wishes to read themselves of the strength and
nature that depends on the factor such as level of empathy, a person's feelings for the
victim that distance from the situation. The amount of time passes without intervention.
To reduce this arousal, a person can often help directly fetch help or leave the scene or
decide the victim is deserving of health, people way up their options using cost reward
metrics.
 EVALUATION - Ethical issues

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

participants were unaware they were taking part in a
the ethical issue was informed consent study, so were unable to obtain consent. Therefore,
participants could not give their permission

EVIDENCE LINK
potentially distressing situation of a person Furthermore, this also meant they were not given the
collapsing in a subway carriage which might have opportunity to consent their data to be used in the
caused them psychological harm. Some people's study.
comments were recorded, and published in journal
articles, which might have caused embarrassment

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

he ethical issue was debrief Due to the nature of the subway and a large number
of people leaving the train at their stops, no debrief
could take place.

EVIDENCE LINK
This meant that participants could not have the Unfortunately, lack of debrief ,meant some
aims of the experiment explained to them or have participants may have left the train, feeling shocked
any questions answered to ensure they left the after the collapse of an ill or drunk man or potentially
train in the same psychological state in which they guilty for not offering help
had arrived.

EVALUATION - Methodological issues

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

the study was reliability The researcher controlled several aspects of the
procedure.

EVIDENCE LINK
The victims were always wearing the same This ensured the process could be repeated to test
clothes and collapse always took place when the whether helping behaviour towards ill and drunk
train passed the first station on the same subway would be reliable from trial to trial.
route.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

validity was a weakness as confounding variables A weakness was that only one black victim was used
in all the trials with only one person acting in all the
conditions of the study.

EVIDENCE LINK
It was difficult to conclude that helping behaviour This means the findings about helping behaviour for
towards this individual was due to race or as the independent variable of race may lack validity.
opposed to personal factors or differences in his
acting behaviour.

WEAKNESS (POINT) EXPLANATION

validity was a weakness as there was lack of The location and activity of people in the carriage was
control not controlled.

EVIDENCE LINK
Some people may have been reading a This would have affected the validity of the study
newspaper or distracted in other ways. Not findings as the reason for not helping me not have
seeing the victim collapsed been a conscious choice.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

validity was a strength as qualitative and The qualitative data was also collected in the study,
quantitative data were collected which went further inside into bystanders justification
for lack of helping behaviour.
quantitative data which is also collected, which
allowed the researchers to objectively

EVIDENCE LINK
For example, several female comments were This qualitative data allowed to draw more meaningful
recorded. conclusions about justification made when deciding
not to help the victim example through their cost
reward metrics.
A measure free from researchers' bias and
interpretation allowed for valid comparisons to be
made between the conditions.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

validity was a weakness as there was One strength of the research was the large sample
generalisation beyond the sample size. It was estimated around 4450 men and women
witnessed the victim incidents

EVIDENCE LINK
comprising around 45% black and 55% white It could have been argued that such a large sample
individuals. may be representative of New York in general, but
thus the finance may be applied externally to the city's
population.

STRENGTH (POINT) EXPLANATION

validity was a weakness as there was A strength was it was a field experiment, taking place
generalisation to everyday life on a real subway route.

EVIDENCE LINK
 The passengers witnessed an incident take place This gives the research a high level of ecological
on every day commute and were unaware that validity and allows researchers to draw conclusions
they were being observed and thus demand about real life bystander behaviour in emergency
characteristics would be avoided and participants situations.
show genuine responses to a real life situation.