Ch-1 Water and life

 Root hair: Thin, long outgrowth from a root cell that increases surface area so the plant
can absorb more water and minerals from soil.

 Osmosis: Movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane (like cell
membrane) from a place with more water (dilute solution) to a place with less water
(concentrated solution).

 Xylem vessel: Long, hollow, dead tube in the plant stem and roots that carries water and
dissolved mineral salts upwards from roots to leaves (no end walls, like a pipe).

 Transpiration: Loss of water vapour from the leaves of a plant, mostly through tiny holes
called stomata on the lower side of leaves.

 Transpiration stream / pull: The continuous upward movement of water through the xylem
caused by water evaporating from leaves – it pulls more water up from roots like a straw.

 Turgid: Plant cell full of water – the cell is firm and the plant stands upright.

 Mineral salts: Dissolved substances (like nitrates and magnesium) that plants take from soil
water and use for growth.

 Nephron: Tiny filtering unit inside the kidney (about one million in each kidney) that cleans
blood by removing urea and extra water.

 Urea: Waste poisonous substance made in the body when proteins are broken down –
kidneys remove it from blood.

 Renal artery: Blood vessel that brings dirty blood into the kidney.

 Renal vein: Blood vessel that takes clean blood away from the kidney.

 Ureter: Tube that carries urine from kidney to bladder.

 Bladder: Organ that stores urine until it is released.

 Urethra: Tube through which urine leaves the body.

1. Water enters plant through root hairs by osmosis. Root hairs are many, thin and long so
they can reach between soil particles.

2. Water and minerals travel up through xylem vessels in the stem to the leaves.

3. In leaves, water evaporates (transpiration) through stomata → this creates pull → more
water moves up from roots (transpiration stream).

4. Plants use magnesium (to make chlorophyll) and nitrates (to make proteins). Lack of them
causes yellow leaves and slow growth.

5. In humans: Kidneys clean blood. Blood enters through renal artery → nephrons remove
urea and control water amount → clean blood leaves through renal vein → urine goes to
bladder via ureter → out through urethra.

6. Water is essential for life because it is the solvent that dissolves substances, helps
transport, keeps cells turgid, and is used in all chemical reactions inside living things.
Ch-2 Photosynthesis

 Photosynthesis: Process by which green plants make their own food (glucose) using light
energy from the Sun.

 Chloroplast: Tiny structure inside plant cells (mostly in leaves) that contains chlorophyll
and is the place where photosynthesis happens.

 Chlorophyll: Green pigment in chloroplasts that absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.

 Stomata: Tiny holes mostly on the lower side of leaves that allow carbon dioxide to enter
and oxygen + water vapour to leave.

 Glucose: Sugar made in photosynthesis – used for energy or stored as starch.

 Starch: Stored form of food in plants (tested with iodine – turns blue-black).

 Variegated leaf: Leaf with green and white parts (white parts have no chlorophyll).

 Destarching: Keeping a plant in dark for 24–48 hours so it uses up all stored starch.

Word Equation: Carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen (in the presence of light and
chlorophyll)

Chemical Equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

1. Plants take carbon dioxide from air through stomata, water from soil through roots.

2. Light energy + chlorophyll changes them into glucose and oxygen in chloroplasts.

3. Glucose is used for energy, to make cellulose for cell walls, or stored as starch.

4. Oxygen is released into air – important for all animals to breathe.

5. Rate of photosynthesis increases with more light, more carbon dioxide, higher
temperature (up to a point).

6. At night or in dark, plants do respiration (use oxygen, release carbon dioxide).

Ch-3 Genetics

 Variation: Differences in characteristics between individuals of the same species.

 Continuous variation: Many small differences with no clear groups (example: height, shoe
size).

 Discontinuous variation: Clear separate groups with no in-between (example: blood

 Species: Group of organisms that can breed together and produce fertile offspring.

 Gene: Short section of DNA that controls one characteristic (e.g. height).

 Chromosome: Thread-like structure in the nucleus made of DNA – carries many genes
(humans have 46 in 23 pairs).

 Allele: Different forms of the same gene (e.g. allele for tall or short plant).

 Punnett square: Grid diagram used to predict possible offspring from parents’ alleles.
  Inheritance: Passing of genes from parents to children.

1. Variation comes from genes (genetic) or environment (e.g. good food makes taller).

2. In sexual reproduction, offspring get half genes from mother, half from father → new
combinations.

3. Dominant allele always shows; recessive only if both alleles are recessive.

4. Sex chromosomes: Females XX, males XY (Y from father decides boy).

5. All cells (except sex cells) have full set of chromosomes made by mitosis (identical copies).

Ch-4 Care in fetal development

 Fertilisation: When a sperm joins with an egg to form a zygote (first cell of new baby).

 Zygote: Single cell formed by fertilisation.

 Embryo: Early stage of development (first 8 weeks) when organs start forming.

 Fetus: Later stage (after 8 weeks) when the baby looks human and grows bigger.

 Placenta: Organ that grows in the uterus – allows food and oxygen from mother’s blood to
fetus and takes waste away (mother’s and fetus’s blood never mix).

 Umbilical cord: Tube connecting fetus to placenta – carries blood with food/oxygen in and
waste out.

1. Placenta and umbilical cord develop so fetus gets everything it needs without mixing
blood.

2. Fetus grows for about 9 months (40 weeks).

3. Good care by mother: Eat balanced diet (extra iron, calcium, folic acid), rest, exercise
gently, go for antenatal check-ups.

4. Bad things to avoid: Smoking (baby smaller, early birth), alcohol (fetal alcohol syndrome –
brain damage), drugs, infections.

Ch-5 Environmental change and extinction

 Habitat: Natural home of a living thing where it gets food, water, shelter.

 Adaptation: Special features or behaviour that help an organism survive in its habitat.

 Extinction: When every individual of a species dies and none are left anywhere.

 Biodiversity: Variety of different species living in an area.

 Conservation: Protecting living things and their habitats so they do not become extinct.

1. Environment can change naturally (volcano, ice age) or by humans (cutting forests,
pollution, hunting, new animals introduced).

2. If change is too fast or big, species cannot adapt → they die out (extinction).

3. Examples of human causes: Deforestation (loses habitat), over-hunting, pollution (poisons

5. Conservation methods: National parks, laws against hunting, captive breeding (zoo
programmes), planting trees, reducing pollution.

6. High biodiversity is good – more species means ecosystem is healthier and can recover
from changes.

 Dodo bird: extinct because of hunting and new animals on island.

 Modern examples: tigers, rhinos threatened by habitat loss and hunting.

Ch-6 The Periodic Table

 Element: Pure substance made of only one type of atom (cannot be broken down by
chemical reactions).

 Atom: Smallest particle of an element that has the properties of that element.

 Periodic Table: Chart that arranges all known elements in order of increasing atomic
number, in rows (periods) and columns (groups).

 Atomic number: Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom (also equals number of
electrons in a neutral atom).

 Mass number: Total number of protons + neutrons in the nucleus.

 Period: Horizontal row in the Periodic Table (elements in same period have same number
of electron shells).

 Group: Vertical column in the Periodic Table (elements in same group have similar
properties because same number of outer electrons).

 Alkali metals: Group 1 elements (e.g. lithium, sodium, potassium) – very reactive metals,
soft, low density.

 Halogens: Group 7 elements (e.g. fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine) – reactive non-
metals.

 Noble gases: Group 0 (or 8) elements (e.g. helium, neon, argon) – very unreactive because
full outer electron shell.

1. Groups 1 and 2 are metals; Groups 3–12 transition metals; Groups 13–16 mix; Group 17
halogens; Group 18 noble gases.

2. Reactivity increases down Group 1 (more easily lose outer electron) and decreases down
Group 7 (harder to gain electron).

3. Noble gases have full outer shells (2 or 8 electrons) so stable and unreactive.

4. Periodic Table helps predict properties: e.g. sodium (Group 1) reacts violently with water
like potassium.

Ch-7 Bonds and Structure

 Ionic bond: Bond formed when one atom transfers electron(s) to another, creating positive
and negative ions that attract each other (usually metal + non-metal).
  Covalent bond: Bond formed when atoms share electrons (usually non-metal + non-metal).

 Ion: Charged particle (positive cation or negative anion) formed by losing or gaining
electrons.

 Molecule: Group of two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds.

 Giant covalent structure: Very large network of covalently bonded atoms (e.g. diamond,
graphite, silicon dioxide).

 Metallic bond: Attraction between positive metal ions and delocalised (free-moving)
electrons (explains conductivity and malleability).

1. Ionic compounds: High melting points, brittle, conduct electricity when molten or
dissolved (ions free to move), soluble in water.

2. Covalent molecules: Low melting/boiling points, do not conduct electricity (no free
ions/electrons), often insoluble in water.

3. Giant covalent: Very high melting points (strong bonds throughout), diamond hard
(tetrahedral), graphite soft/layers/slippery/conducts (delocalised electrons).

4. Metallic: Good conductors (delocalised electrons), malleable/ductile (ions slide), high

5. Dot-cross diagrams: Show electron transfer (ionic) or sharing (covalent) – e.g. NaCl, H₂O,
CO₂.

Ch-8 Density

 Density: Mass per unit volume of a substance (how much mass in a given space).

 Formula: Density = mass ÷ volume (ρ = m / V). Units: g/cm³ or kg/m³.

 Floating: Object floats if its density is less than density of fluid (displaces own weight).

 Sinking: Object sinks if its density is greater than fluid.

 Irregular object volume: Measured by displacement (submerge in water, measure rise).

1. Measure mass with balance; volume with measuring cylinder (regular) or displacement
(irregular).

2. Calculate density: e.g. 50 g object, volume 20 cm³ → density 2.5 g/cm³.

3. Compare densities: Iron (7.8 g/cm³) sinks in water (1 g/cm³); wood (0.6 g/cm³) floats.

4. Ships float because overall density (including air inside) < water density.

5. Ice floats on water because ice density (0.92 g/cm³) < water (1 g/cm³) – important for life
in ponds.

Ch-9 Displacement Reactions

 Displacement reaction: Reaction where more reactive element takes place of less reactive
element in compound (e.g. metal + salt solution).
  Reactivity series: List of metals in order of reactivity (most reactive potassium → least
gold).

1. Reactivity series : Potassium, Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, Aluminium, Carbon, Zinc, Iron,
Tin, Lead, Hydrogen, Copper, Silver, Gold.

2. More reactive metal displaces less reactive from solution: e.g. zinc + copper sulfate → zinc
sulfate + copper (zinc more reactive).

3. Metal above hydrogen displaces hydrogen from acid: e.g. magnesium + hydrochloric acid
→ magnesium chloride + hydrogen.

4. No reaction if less reactive metal added to more reactive salt.

Ch-10 Preparing Common Salts

 Salt: Ionic compound from acid + base/metal (positive ion from base, negative from acid).

 Neutralisation: Reaction between acid and base to form salt + water.

 Precipitation: Formation of insoluble salt as solid when solutions mix.

 Titration: Method to find exact volume of acid/base needed for neutralisation (using
indicator).

Important Processes and Facts

1. Soluble salts: React acid with excess metal/metal oxide/carbonate → filter → evaporate →
crystallise.

o e.g. Copper sulfate: Copper oxide + sulfuric acid.

2. Insoluble salts: Mix two solutions → precipitate forms → filter → wash → dry.

o e.g. Silver chloride: Silver nitrate + sodium chloride.

3. Word equation: Acid + base → salt + water.

4. Safety: Wear goggles, add acid slowly to water.

Ch-11 Rates of Reactions

 Rate of reaction: How fast reactants turn into products (measured by change over time).

 Collision theory: Reactions happen when particles collide with enough energy (activation
energy) and right orientation.

Factors Affecting Rate

1. Concentration: Higher → more particles → more collisions → faster rate.

2. Temperature: Higher → particles move faster → more energetic collisions → faster rate.

3. Surface area: Smaller particles (powder) → more surface → more collisions → faster.

4. Catalyst: Provides alternative pathway with lower activation energy.

5. Pressure (gases): Higher → particles closer → more collisions.

 Energy: Ability to do work (measured in joules, J).

 Kinetic energy: Energy of moving objects (KE = ½ mv²).

 Potential energy: Stored energy (gravitational PE = mgh; elastic PE in stretched objects).

 Conservation of energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or

 Renewable energy: Sources that never run out (solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, biomass).

 Non-renewable: Finite sources (fossil fuels: coal, oil, gas; nuclear).

Ch-13 Waves

 Wave: Disturbance that transfers energy without transferring matter.

 Transverse wave: Oscillations perpendicular to direction of travel (e.g. light, water waves).

 Longitudinal wave: Oscillations parallel to direction (e.g. sound).

 Amplitude: Maximum displacement from rest position (loudness for sound, brightness for
light).

 Wavelength: Distance between two identical points on wave (e.g. crest to crest).

 Frequency: Number of waves per second (hertz, Hz).

 Wave speed: Speed = frequency × wavelength (v = fλ).

1. Sound needs medium (cannot travel in vacuum)

2. Light travels in vacuum at 300,000,000 m/s.

3. Reflection: Angle of incidence = angle of reflection.

4. Refraction: Wave bends when changing speed (e.g. light in water slower).

5. Dispersion: White light splits into spectrum (rainbow) because different colours refract
differently.

Ch-14 Electrical Circuits

 Current: Flow of electric charge (amperes, A).

 Voltage: Energy per unit charge (volts, V) – potential difference.

 Resistance: Opposition to current flow (ohms, Ω).

 Ohm’s Law: V = I × R (voltage = current × resistance).

 Series circuit: Components in single path – current same, voltage adds up.

 Parallel circuit: Components in branches – voltage same, current adds up.

1. Ammeter in series, voltmeter in parallel.

2. Resistance increases with length, decreases with thickness; higher temperature (metals).
 3. Circuit symbols: Battery, switch, resistor, bulb, ammeter, voltmeter.

4. Calculate: e.g. 6 V, 3 Ω → current 2 A.

5. Fuses/breakers protect from high current.

Ch-15 Planet Earth

 Crust: Thin outer layer of Earth (continental thicker than oceanic).

 Mantle: Hot, semi-solid layer below crust (convection currents).

 Core: Inner (solid iron) and outer (liquid iron) – very hot.

 Plate tectonics: Earth’s crust divided into plates that move slowly.

 Earthquake: Sudden shaking from plates moving along faults.

 Volcano: Opening where magma erupts (constructive/destructive boundaries).

1. Convection in mantle drives plate movement → continents drift.

2. Boundaries: Divergent (plates apart – new crust), convergent (plates collide – mountains,
subduction), transform (slide past – earthquakes).

3. Rock cycle: Igneous (from magma), sedimentary (layers), metamorphic (heat/pressure).

Ch-16 Cycles on Earth

 Water cycle: Continuous movement of water (evaporation, condensation, precipitation,

 Carbon cycle: Carbon moves between atmosphere, plants, animals, soil, fossil fuels
(photosynthesis, respiration, combustion).

 Nitrogen cycle: Nitrogen fixed by bacteria, used by plants, returned by decay/de-

1. Evaporation: Liquid → gas (from seas/lakes).

2. Transpiration: Plants lose water vapour.

3. Greenhouse effect: CO₂, methane trap heat – natural but enhanced by humans.

4. Deforestation increases CO₂, reduces biodiversity.

Ch-17 Earth in Space

 Solar System: Sun + planets + moons + asteroids + comets.

 Orbit: Path of one body around another (Earth around Sun ~365 days).

 Rotation: Spinning on axis (Earth 24 hours – day/night).

 Moon phases: Change due to position relative to Sun and Earth (new moon to full).

 Eclipse: Solar (Moon blocks Sun), lunar (Earth blocks Sun from Moon).

1. Gravity holds planets in orbit.

3. Year: Earth orbits Sun once.