Mr.

Omwandho

Outline

Definition. Historical development. Scope and goals of contemporary geodesy.

The Earth’s motion in space. Earth models: The physical Earth: Elements of
seismology; earthquake seismic PS and surface waves, time distance curves and
their interpretation, earth’s internal structure. The Sphere, the Geoid, the
Ellipsoid. Reference ellipsoid: Geometry; geodetic coordinates; the Geodetic
Reference System (GRS); Current and previous geodetic reference system
definitions. Curves on the ellipsoid: Meridian arc distance. Geodetic datum.
Classical geodetic positioning. Introduction to positional astronomy. Time & Time
Keeping. The role of time in Geodesy. Earth shape and Size, Earth’s temporal
deformations. Introduction to geodynamics; Horizontal and vertical crustal
movements, plate tectonics.

References

1. An Introduction to Geodesy by Torse, G.

2. Geodesy: The concept by P. Vanicek and E. Krakivosky

3. Heiskanen, W.A. and Moritz, H., (1967). Physical Geodesy, Freeman and Company,
San Francisco.
4. Hofmann-Wellenhof, B.H., Lichtenegger, H. and Collins, J., (1992). “Global
Positioning System, Theory and Practice.” Springer – Verlag, Wien, New York.
5. Internet sources relating to geodetic science
6. Maling, D.H., (1973). Coordinate Systems and Map Projections. Philip, London,
England.
7. Moritz, H., (1980). Advanced Physical Geodesy, Abacus Press, London, England.
8. Rainsford, H.F., (1951). The African Arc of the 30th Meridian. Emperor Survey
Review, No. XI, pp. 159 – 163.
9. Torge, W., (1991). Geodesy, second edition, Walter de Gruyter-Berlin, New York.
 Introduction
Lecture 1
1. INTRODUCTION
The classical definition of Geodesy was given by Friedrich Robert as the “Science
of the measurements and mapping on the Earth’s Surface” in 1880. The term
geodesy dates from the 1560s and comes from the Greek word “geodaisia,”
meaning “division of the earth

According to the international Union of Geodesy and Geophysics in 1993;

Geodesy is the discipline that deals with the measurements and representation
of the earth including its gravity field in a 3D time varying space.

γη = earth and ςαίΨ = I divide

Over time the definition has improved and according to Helmert it’s still
fundamental and includes the determination of the Earth’s gravity field. The
field of geodesy has expanded to include applications in ocean and space
explorations. These are the determination of ocean floors and gravity fields of
other celestial bodies like moon (lunar gravity), and planetary Geodesy.

With the current advancements in space technologies, it’s now possible to make
measurements with a relatively high accuracy (e.g. the Use of Global positioning
System, GLONASS, GALILEO, Laser ranging, VLBI, etc.)

In addition, this aspect has extended the definition to include temporal variations
of the Earth’s surface and its gravity field. This extension makes Geodesy part of
Geosciences and engineering sciences including navigation and Geospatial
technologies.

1.1. Main fields in Geodesy

1. Global geodesy - this includes the determination of the shape and
size of the Earth , its orientation in space, and its external gravity field
2. Geodetic Survey - Referred as to the national surveys. Used for the
determination of earth’s surface and gravity field over a region
spanning a country or a group of countries. The Earth’s curvature and
gravity field must be taken into consideration
3. Plane Surveying – This involves areas of limited extent e.g. 10 by 10
km. Effects due to curvature and gravity may be ignored. (Examples
include: engineering surveys, cadastral surveys, Topo surveys etc.)

1.2. The Geodetic problem

The geodetic problem is the determination of the figure and external gravity
field of the earth and other celestial bodies as a function of time from
observations on or near and exterior to the surfaces of these bodies. This sums
up as the classical problem of Geodesy.

This task incorporates a geometric aspect (earth’s figure) and the physical
(gravity field) formulation. Both are closely related.

The direct geodetic problem is the calculation of geodetic coordinates—the

latitudes and longitudes of several points lying on the geoid—by the coordinates

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of another point and the length and azimuth of the geodetic line connecting
these points. I.e. Given a point (in terms of its coordinates) and the direction
(azimuth) and distance from that point to a second point, determine (the
coordinates of) that second point.

The reverse geodetic problem is the determination of the length and azimuth of
the geodetic line between two points by the geodetic coordinates of these two
points on the geoid. I.e. Given two points, determine the azimuth and length of
the line (straight line, arc or geodesic) that connects them.

Various methods and formulas in geodesy are applicable, depending on the

length of the geodetic line connecting the points under consideration.
Tables are compiled according to the size of the accepted geoid; these tables
facilitate the solution of the geodetic problem and are calculated for the use of a
specific system of formulas.

The geodetic problem in both its aspects arises with the working out of the
triangulation; it also arises in all those cases in which it is necessary to
determine the relative position of two points by the length and bearing of the line
connecting them or to determine the distance and bearing between these points
by their geodetic coordinates. In a number of cases the geodetic problem is
solved in spatial right-angle coordinates by analytic geometric formulas in space.
In these cases, instead of the length and azimuth of the geodetic line connecting
two points, the length and spatial components of the bearing of a straight line
between these points are used.

Relationship between the figure or the earth and Gravity Formulation

The figure of the earth refers to the physical and the mathematical surface of the
earth as well as geodetic reference earth. The physical surface is formed by the
border between the solid and fluid masses and the atmosphere.

The surface of the solid earth is irregular and a simple mathematical (analytical)
function cannot describe it instead, a dense control network of points can
describe it point wise by means of coordinates.

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 1.3. Goals of geodesy
1. Establishing and maintaining of national and global 3 dimensional
geodetic networks, considering the time varying aspects of these
networks
2. Measurement and representation of Geodynamic phenomenon(e.g
Polar motion, determination and presentation of crustal motions and
tides)
3. Determination of gravity fields of the earth including its temporal
variations

1.4. Applications of Geodesy

I. Positioning in geodetic surveying and mapping
II. Satellite orbit determination
III. Military – Targets
IV. Scientific study of the Earth – geologists and geophycists
V. Space studies

1.5. Branches of geodesy

• Geometric geodesy
• Gravimetric (physical) geodesy
• Satellite geodesy
• Geodetic Astronomy

1.5.1. Geometric geodesy

Deals with the shape and size of earth, distance and direction of lines on earth,
reference datums, and coordinate systems

1.5.2. Gravimetric or physical geodesy

Is the science that studies geophysical and geodynamic properties of earth, and
includes earth gravity field and attractions of sun, moon and planets

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 1.5.3. Satellite geodesy
Deals with the study of satellite orbits, motion, perturbations, and satellite based
positioning.

1.5.4. Geodetic Astronomy

Is the application of astronomical methods into networks and technical projects
of geodesy.

Why Should A Surveyor Study Geodesy?

Geodetic control surveys

• Understanding geodetic datums and coordinate systems, e.g.

NAD-83, WGS-84
• Difference between geodetic and astronomic coordinates
• Different between geodetic and astronomic azimuth
• Azimuth change due to convergence of meridians
• Lengths of lines on the datum surface
• Reduction of measured lines to datum surface

Geodetic levelling

• Different datums (geoids), e.g. NGVD29, NAVD88

• Orthometric height and dynamic height
• Effect of gravity on levelling

GPS Surveys

• Satellite datum(s)
• GPS derived coordinates and baselines
• GPS derived orthometric heights (elevations

2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GEODESY

Early ideas about the figure of the Earth held the Earth to be flat and the
heavens a physical dome spanning over it. Two early arguments for a spherical
earth were that lunar eclipses were seen as circular shadows which could only be
caused by a spherical Earth, and that Polaris is seen lower in the sky as one
travels South.

800 B.C: Thales of Miret thought of the earth as a flat surface (disc) encircled
by oceans

(611 – 545) B.C: Alexander of Miletus proposes the earth as a cylindrical with
an axis oriented in E-W direction

(580 – 500) B.C: Pythagoras gives the first hint of a spherical earth. His
proposal was aesthetically appealing

(384 – 322) B.C: Aristotle gives the first hint on the existence of gravity. He
formulates the fist argument about a spherical earth. His arguments were:

a) That all matter was generally drawn to the centre of the earth and this
tended to compress the earth into a sphere

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 b) Moving northwards or southwards once observes new constellation of new
stars indicating that the earth to be curved in a north – south direction
c) During Lunar Eclipse, the shadow of the earth was circular. Only a sphere
can cast a circular shadow; whatever the orientation
d) When a ship is approaching, it seemed to come from a horizon.

(276 – 195) B.C: Eratosthenes of Alexandria Credited as the founder of

modern geodesy. He determined the radius of the earth

He had heard that on the longest day of the summer solstice, the midday sun
shone to the bottom of a well in the town of Syene (Aswan). At the same time, he
observed the sun was not directly overhead at Alexandria; instead, it cast a
shadow with the vertical equal to 1/50th of a circle (7° 12'). To these
observations, Eratosthenes applied certain "known"facts

1. that on the day of the summer solstice, the midday sun was directly over
the Tropic of Cancer;
2. Syene was on this tropic;
3. Alexandria and Syene lay on a direct north-south line.

Legend has it that he had someone walk from Alexandria to Syene to measure
the distance: that came out to be equal to 5000 stadia or (at the usual Hellenic
185 meters per stadion) about 925 kilometers.

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 Figure: ERATOSTHENES' METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE SIZE OF THE EARTH

(135 – 50) B.C: Poseidenius repeated Eratosthenes experiment and achieved

poorer results..

Dark Days of Science: Coincided with the birth of Christ, the only documented
work was about 725 AD, a Chinese scientist attempted to measure the radius of
the earth using arc measurements. Geodesy and other sciences suffered the
Middle Ages theology that people believed that the earth was the centre of the
Universe.

14th Century: There was renewed scientific thinking. There was a shift from
Geocentric (Earth as centre) to heliocentric universe. (Helio = Sun). This period
is attributed to the likes of Kepler, Copernicus and Galileo

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(1580 – 1626) A.D: The telescope was invented during this time. The radius
of the earth was deduced as 6150 Km based on a 127 km arc length with 3.6 %
accuracy. Scientist – Snellius

(1620 – 1682) A.D: in 1670, by means of triangulation and using arc

measurements, Picard determined the radius of the Earth as 6375 Km (+- 0.09%
error)

(1642 – 1727) A.D: Newton used Picard’s theory to verify his laws of
gravitation. He observed using pendulum experiments that gravity increased
towards the poles. He argued that the earth is not a sphere but an Oblate
Spheroid.

The radius towards the pole is shorter than the Equatorial

b
a = Semi Major radius, b = Semi Minor radius
a

(1625 – 1712) A.D: Cassini argued that the earth is a Prolate Spheroid.

The French Academy of Sciences dispatched two expeditions. One expedition

under Pierre Louis Maupertuis (1736-37) was sent to Lapland (as far North as
possible). The second mission under Pierre Bouguer was sent to what is modern-
day Ecuador, near the equator (1735-44).

The measurements conclusively showed that the earth was oblate, with a ratio of
1:210. Thus the next approximation to the true figure of the Earth after the
sphere became the oblong ellipsoid of revolution.

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 Figure: CASSINIS' ELLIPSOID; HUYGEN'S THEORETICAL ELLIPSOID

Conclusion: The Earth is an oblate spheroid; oblate ellipsoid with a radius of

6366.30 Km

Flattening – this refers to the flatness effect as one moves from the equator to
the poles. S

A factor f is computed as

a−b
f= = 1/310.3 at the poles
a

Other theories

 The earth as an bi-axial ellipsoid/oblate spheroid

 Triaxial ellipsoid (with a, b, c)

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3. ORGANIZATIONS IN GEODESY
Problems of Geodesy require international cooperation of institutions involved in
geodetic work.

Geodetic organizations :
o German research Institute DGFI based in Munich
o National geodetic survey
o National Oceanic and Atmospheric administration NOAA
o US geological survey
o Survey of Kenya and other national survey agencies

Gauss expressed the need for international collaboration after he established

triangulation.

In 1867: mittle( europaische gradmessuns (arc Measurement)) is

established in Berlin
1886 : International Earth measurements is established with Helmert as
the director, it was later dissolved in the first world war
In 1919: The international union of Geodesy and geophysics (IUGG) is
formed with a membership of 75 countries.
Later IAG (International Association of geodesy) was formed and 6 other
organizations were formed for geophysics

The IAG has 5 sections each of which deals with Geodesy. These are:

 Positioning
 Advanced space technology
 Determination of the Gravity field
 General Theory and methodology
 Geodynamics

The IAG is an affiliate member of the International Union of Survey and mapping
which has the following sub Disciplines

 International federation of Surveyors

 International Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
 International Cartographic Association

Functions of AIG

 Provides and maintains the GPS service (IGS)

 Maintains the Bureau Gravimetric international (BGI), Toulouse
 Maintains International Geoid Service, Milan
 International Centre for Earth Tides, Brussels
 International Earth rotational service , Frankfurt
 International Laser ranging service
 International VLBI service

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 Earth Models
Lecture 2

4. EARTH MODELS
An earth model is a representation of the reality of the earth’s shape. The
topographical surface is complicated and as such we require surface to serve as
a reference for

 Horizontal positioning
 Vertical positioning

The Geoid is well suited for the determination of heights and Gravity whilst the
Ellipsoid (bi-axial) is suited for the determination of horizontal positioning.

Examples of earth Models

i. The Spheroid – radius =R

ii. The Geoid - the best approximation of the Mean Sea Level (MSL)
iii. The Ellipsoid – a selected figure formed when an ellipse is rotated about its
minor axis. Determined by 2 parameters.
a. Geocentric ellipsoid – an ellipsoid fitted on the Geoid whole surface
of the earth
b. Local Ellipsoid – an ellipsoid to take care of some regions or
countries (Clarke 1880 used in Kenya)

Spherical model
It is the form encountered in elementary discussions. It is quite good for some
approximations. The world is approximately a sphere. The sphere is the shape
that minimizes the potential energy of the gravitational attraction of all the little
mass elements for each other. The direction of gravity is toward the center of the
earth.

Ellipsoidal model
It is a mathematical figure approximating the shape of the Earth, used as a
reference frame for computations in geodesy, astronomy and the geosciences. It
is a better representation of the earth because the earth rotates. This generates
other forces on the mass elements and distorts the shape. The minimum energy
form is now an ellipse rotated about the polar axis. This is called an ellipsoid. The
equatorial radius is longer than the polar axis by about 23 km. The direction of

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gravity does not point to the center of the earth. We still call the direction of a
plumb bob down and use it to define coordinates.
The Goid Model
It is an equipotential surface of the earth, it is a surface to which the force of
gravity is everywhere perpendicular

4.1. Ellipsoidal Parameters

These define the earth as a spheroid. They describe the shape and orientation of
the earth.

a) Flattening

It is the difference in length between the two axes expressed as a fraction or a

decimal. The flattening, f, is derived as follows
f = (a - b) / a

b) Equation of the Ellipse

x 2 y2
+ =1 when a= b then f= 0 and this implies a sphere
a2 b2

When b =0 then f= 1 and thus a circular plane

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 2 2
a −b
c) First Eccentricity e, e 2= 2
a
2 2
a −b
d) Second eccentricity e’, e 2= 2
b

The eccentricity can be interpreted as the fraction of the distance along the
semimajor axis at which the focus lies

Derivations
In the ellipsoidal model the direction of plumb bob can be shown to always be
perpendicular to the ellipsoid. Thus the ellipsoid must be a surface of constant
gravity potential. (Notice that in geodesy, “gravity” means the observed force.
This is the sum of the Newtonian gravity and rotational effects.) Fluids don't flow
along the ellipsoid due to gravity. Gravity only pulls perpendicular to the
ellipsoid. In the real world this will be slightly incorrect.
Difference between Models
The difference between the spherical and ellipsoidal models is a function of the
location and, for lengths, the distance. In general the errors are relative, being
about the flattening of the real earth times the distance. The flattening of the
earth is about 1/300. So if you need an answer more accurate that 1/300 you
probably need to use the ellipsoid model. This is about 3 m per kilometer or 20 ft
per mile.
The difference between the ellipsoidal and real world model is much smaller.
Where the differences between the spherical and ellipsoidal latitudes can be
about 10 arc minutes, the difference between the real world and ellipsoidal
model are on usually 10 arc seconds or less.
Heights
Surveyors cannot really find the ellipsoid. But they can find the sea surface.
Surveying inland from the sea gives height with respect to sea level. In the
process of these surveys the equipment is always set level - that is perpendicular
to the local plumb line. This causes the heights to be measured with respect to
the Geoid.
There are three surfaces that are used in measuring heights. For maps we use
the Geoid. We commonly call this mean sea level heights (msl). These are
formally called orthometric heights. For satellite work, the ellipsoid is used.
Heights measured from the ellipsoid are called ellipsoidal heights. For that
purpose the topography is the reference surface.

4.2. Modern Concepts in Geodesy

4.2.1. Three dimensional Geodesy
The 3-D concept consists of a common treatment of both horizontal and vertical
positioning within the same mathematical model. 3 – D positioning has been
made possible by space technologies the likes of GPS, GLONASS and GALILEO.
The idea was suggested by Bruns in 1878 but could not be immediately put into
practice. The reason was that the trigonometric heights over longer distances
were unreliable. Geoidal heights were also not available.

Satellite methods provided the means of establishing networks on the basis of 3

Dimensions. This was after the Russian satellite; SPUTNIK had been launched into

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space in 1957. Beginning 1990’s the GPS became fully operational and
nowadays dominates all geodetic measurement techniques.

Geodetic Problems of Today

1. To connect the existing classical horizontal and vertical networks to

a global reference systems established by space methods e.g GPS
2. Mapping the Geoid with respect to a global reference ellipsoid

4.2.2. Four Dimensional Geodesy

The earth and gravity fields vary with time. These variations may be due to
tectonic plate movements leading to crustal deformations. It’s the time that
brings the fourth Dimension concept to geodesy. Modern measurements are
capable of detecting these variations so that geodetic measurements can be
freed from their effects. This implies that the earth and its external gravity field
should be considered as time dependent quantities. Today, the variations of the
earth’s rotation and movements are regularly monitored by means of global
geodetic networks and a number of regional networks. Gravity variations with
time are derived from analysis of satellite orbits on the large scale and terrestrial
networks on the small scale.

In future, geodetic measurements will become more accurate and will have
higher resolution in space and time. Longer observations series will allow the
detection of long term changes of the gravity field. Global and regional surveys
will then have to take into account these temporal changes. Thus the 4 D
geodesy will be the ultimate model for presenting geodetic products.

Ellipsoidal Normal – is a line that meets the ellipsoid at right angles (90)

N - Is the difference in height – referred to as Geoidal undulation

h- Is the ellipsoidal height
H – Is the orthometric height
N=h–H

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Page 15 of 43
 Reference Surfaces Used in Geodesy and the Reference Ellipsoid.
Lecture 3 & 4

5. REFERENCE SURFACES USED IN GEODESY

The actual survey measurements are normally carried out on the earth’s
topographical surface. We have seen this surface is irregular and thus unsuitable
as a basis for the computation to describe the position of points. The reference
for the computations may use any of the systems below

5.1. Spherical surface

A sphere may be used to approximate the Geoid. Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z)
with the Y-axis parallel to the rotation axis may be used. Alternatively geocentric
polar coordinates (r, φ, λ) may be used.

5.2. Reference ellipsoid

A reference ellipsoid is a mathematically-defined surface that approximates the
geoid, it is a better fit to the Geoid than a sphere. Geodetic coordinates (υ,λ,h)
may be used to describe positions of points. Geodetic computations usually use
this surface. Cartesian coordinates(x,y,z) can also be derived from the geodetic
coordinates.

The size and orientation of a reference ellipsoid is chosen by mapping the

closeness to the Geoid. Normally the desire is to have an ellipsoid that best fits
the Geoid of the area of interest (local ellipsoid) than one that has a better global
fit than one that has a better global fit (geocentric ellipsoid).

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 5.3. Plane Surface
Normally, rectangular coordinates (x,y) or (N,E) are used. The application of a
plane surface is limited to small areas where the curvature of the earth may be
ignored.

5.4. The Telluroid

This is the surface where height above a geocentric reference ellipsoid is the
same as the height of the terrain above the Geoid. It is not a level surface

5.5. Quasi Geoid

This is a Geoid like surface obtained as the separation of the height anomaly
from the reference ellipsoid. The height anomaly is the difference between the
normal height of a point and its geodetic height. The quasi – Geoid is not a level
surface

5.6. The GEOID

The Geoid is a level (or equipotential) surface that best approximates the mean
seal level. It is a unique surface that acts as a reference for absolute heights

Definition “the Geoid is defined as the equipotential surface which best

approximates the mean sea level over the whole earth.” It plays a key role in
positioning. The topographical surface can be approximated by the Geoid.

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Due to uneven mass distribution within the earth, the Geoid displays some
discontinuities and is not therefore suitable as a reference surface, except for
heights and gravity.

The physical plumb line (or vertical) intersects the surface of the Geoid at Right
angles

5.6.1. Relationship between the Geoid and the

Ellipsoid
With regards to the ellipsoid, a line of force drawn from appoint P on the
ellipsoid , which intersects it at right angles and directed towards the center of
mass of the center of the ellipsoid is referred to as the as the ellipsoidal
normal(or just normal)

The deviation of the plumbline from the ellipsoidal normal is known as the
deflection of the vertical φ

The projection of the point p on the topographical surface on to the ellipsoid can
be done in two ways: directly along the ellipsoidal normal to the ellipsoid
(Helmert’s projection). The projection is done in two steps:

 1st: along the plumbline to the Geoid

 2nd: from the Geoid on to the ellipsoid

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The spatial distance from the surface point P, as measured along the ellipsoidal
normal onto the ellipsoidal surface is referred to as the ellipsoid height, H. The
distance from P as measured along the plumbline on to the Geoid is known as
the Orthometric height, h. The separation distance h-H, is called the Geoidal
undulation and denoted by N, N= H-h

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 Reference Ellipsoid.
Lecture 5 & 6
6. THE REFERENCE ELLIPSOID
6.1. Introduction
The Geoid can be approximated by a rotational ellipsoid. This ellipsoid is oriented
in space such that the minor axis is parallel to the mean rotational axis of the
earth. The ellipsoid has its size and shape specified by any two parameters
(a,b,e,f) – one of which must be linear.

Ellipsoid properties

Mathematically, a reference ellipsoid is usually

an oblate (flattened) spheroid with two different axes: An equatorial radius
(the semi-major axis ), and a polar radius (the semi-minor axis ). More rarely,
a scalene ellipsoid with three axes (triaxial—— ) is used, usually for
modelling the smaller, irregularly shaped moons and asteroids. The polar axis
here is the same as the axis with the great moment of inertia and is
approximately aligned with the rotational axis (not the magnetic nor orbital
pole). The geometric centre of the ellipsoid is placed at the centre of mass of the
body being modelled, and not the barycentre in a multi-body system.

In working with elliptic geometry, several parameters are commonly utilized, all
of which are trigonometric functions of an ellipse's angular eccentricity, :

Due to rotational forces, the equatorial radius is usually larger than the polar
radius. This ellipticity or flattening, , determines how close to a true sphere an
oblate spheroid is, and is defined as

For Earth, is around 1/300, and is very gradually decreasing over geologic time
scales. For comparison, Earth's Moon is even less elliptical, with a flattening of

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less than 1/825, while Jupiter is visibly oblate at about 1/15 and one
of Saturn's triaxial moons, Telesto, is nearly 1/3 to 1/2!

Such flattening is related to the eccentricity, , of the cross-sectional ellipse by

When the ellipsoid of revolution is adopted as the figure of the figure of the
earth, its position in space is determined and thus becomes a reference ellipsoid.
Some of the used reference ellipsoids are:

Semi-Major Semi-Minor 1/Flatte

Name Axis -a Axis -b ning
(Km) (km)
Airy 6377.563 6356.257 299.32
Modified Airy 6377.34 6356.034 299.32
Australian
National 6378.16 6356.775 298.25
Bessel 1841 6377.397 6356.079 299.15
Clarke 1866 6378.206 6356.584 294.98
Clarke 1880 6378.249 6356.516 293.46
Everest 6377.276 6356.075 300.8
Fischer 1960 6378.155 6356.773 298.3
Helmert 1906 6378.2 6356.818 298.3
Indonesian 1974 6378.16 6356.774 298.25
International 6378.388 6356.912 297
Krassovsky 6378.245 6356.863 298.3
South American
1969 6378.16 6356.774 298.25
WGS 72 6378.135 6356.751 298.26
GRS 80 6378.137 6356.752 298.257
WGS 84 6378.137 6356.752 298.257

6.2. Coordinates on the reference ellipsoid

There are two types of coordinate systems that are used to describe position of
points on the reference ellipsoid. These are geodetic and Cartesian systems.

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 6.3. Cartesian Coordinates
6.3.1. Generic Cartesian Coordinates
These are the coordinates that are used in algebra to plot functions. For a two
dimensional system there are two axes, which are perpendicular to each other.
The value of a point is represented by the values of the point projected onto the
axes.

Illustration of a Cartesian coordinate A three dimensional Cartesian coordinate

plane. Four points are marked and labelled system, with origin O and axis lines X, Y
with their coordinates: (2,3) , (−3,1), and Z, oriented as shown by the arrows.
(−1.5,−2.5), and the origin (0,0).

The coordinates of a geodetic point are customarily stated as geodetic latitude

and longitude, i.e., the direction in space of the geodetic normal containing the
point, and the height h of the point over the reference ellipsoid. If these
coordinates, i.e., latitude , longitude and height h, are given, one can
compute the geocentric rectangular coordinates of the point as follows:

The (x,y,z) ECEF cartesian coordinates can be expressed in the ellipsoidal

coordinates (\varphi, \lambda, h), where \varphi and λ are, respectively, the
latitude and longitude from the ellipsoid, and h the height above it. The figure
below illustrates the relation between Cartesian and ellipsoidal coordinates.

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Where

is the radius of
curvature in the prime vertical.

The radius of curvature, R, of a curve at a point is a measure of the radius of the circular
arc which best approximates the curve at that point. It is the inverse of the curvature.

Below are the different Radii

In contrast, extracting , and h from the rectangular coordinates usually

requires iteration:

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 6.3.2. Earth Centered, Earth Fixed (ECEF)
Coordinates
For the earth, the convention is to place the origin of the coordinates at the
center of the earth. This is defined as the center of mass of the earth, and called
the barycenter. This Earth Centered, Earth Fixed ECEF coordinates are the ones
used by most satellites systems to designate an earth position. This is done
because it gives precise values without having to choose a specific ellipsoid. Only
the center of the earth and the orientation of the axis are needed.

Figure: ECEF X, Y, and Z

6.3.3. Terrestrial Reference Frames

At the highest accuracy, geodesy is done in a ECEF coordinate system. Different
organizations have defined a series of these over the last few decades. They are
defined by specifying the locations of a small set of reference bench marks.
These definitions are in ECEF.

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The idealized system is called a reference frame. The points used in practice, are
called “realization” of that frame. An ECEF system is essentially a Cartesian (x-y-
z) system. In order to obtain latitude, longitude and height, an ellipsoid model
must be added. Some reference frames have ellipsoids specified, some do not.

The science community has been working on a series of world reference systems
that are called International Terrestrial Reference Systems or ITRF's. The
earliest ones were ITRF92 and ITRF94, which was quite good. Modest
improvements followed with ITRF97 and ITRF2000. The latter two models were so
accurate that models of the motion of the crustal plates of the earth had to be
included. The updates to WGS84 have brought the WGS84 system into alignment
with these ITRF systems. Currently (2006) the difference between the latest
WGS84 and latest ITRF are only a few cm.

6.4. Geodetic Coordinates (Geographic)

The geodetic coordinate system defines a position in terms of latitude, longitude
and altitude above the ellipsoidal surface of the Earth.

Figure: Cross section of ellipsoid

The ellipsoidal surface is a surface of resolution obtained by rotating an ellipse

around the minor axis. Thus, the geodetic longitude is the same as the
geographic longitude, and only a meridional section must be considered.

The local horizon is defined as the plane that is tangent to the Earth's surface at
a given position. The surface considered is the reference ellipsoid. The local
zenith is the direction away from the point on the Earth's surface perpendicular
to the local horizon. On a sphere, this direction is always directly away from the
Earth's centre, but on an ellipsoid, this is not the case (except on the equator and
at the poles).

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The geodetic latitude, phi is the angle between the local zenith and the
equatorial plane. Except at the poles and the equator, phi differs from the
geocentric latitude phi'.

The point on the Earth surface directly below a given point above the surface is
not on a line joining the given point and the centre of the Earth. It is the point
where the local zenith points to the given point. The geodetic altitude h is the
distance from the point to the surface along the local zenith direction.

Figure: Sub-point and altitude

The reference ellipsoid is defined by two parameters, a, the semi-major axis,

and f, the flattening, defined as:

f = (a - b) / a

where b is the semi-minor axis.

Global ellipsoidal parameters are derived from satellite data. Historically, local,
regional and global best fitting ellipsoids have been considered.

6.4.1. Relationship between Rectangular and

Geodetic Coordinates
The conversion from ellipsoidal coordinates to Cartesian coordinates is given by:

(N + h) cos Ф
X=
cos λ

(N + h) cos Ф
Y=
sin λ

Z =[N(1 - e2) + h]

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 sin Ф
with:

 h: the altitude;

 Ф the latitude;

 λ the longitude;
 e: the first eccentricity e = (a2 - b2)1/2 / a;

 N: the radius of curvature in the prime vertical: N = a [1 - f (2 - f) sin2 Ф]-

1/2

The inverse conversion can be iteratively computed from:

h =(X2 + Y2)1/2 / cos Ф-N

tan Z (X2 + Y2)-1/2 [1 - e2 N /
=
Ф (N + h)]-1

tan
=Y / X
λ

6.5. Radius of the ellipsoid

The radius of the ellipsoid is not constant but varies with latitude and direction.
Consider a normal at a point s on the surface of the ellipsoid; the plane that
contains this normal is perpendicular to the tangent plane and cuts the surface
of the ellipsoid forming a curve called a normal section.
The radius of curvature of a normal section will depend on the line considered. At
each point on the surface of the ellipsoid, curvatures are minimum and

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maximum. These two normal sections are called principle normal on the
ellipsoid:
a) The meridian normal section (ρ) - this is a plane containing the normal at
the given point and passing through the poles
b) The prime vertical normal section (γ) – This is a plane containing the
normal at the point and perpendicular to the meridian normal section

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 Coordinate Systems and Transformations.
Lecture 7 & 8

7. COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATIONS

Definitions
Cartesian coordinate system: coordinate system that gives the positions of
points relative to n mutually perpendicular axes.
Coordinate Conversion: change of coordinates, based on a one-to-one
relationship, from one coordinate system to another based on the same datum.
Example: between geodetic and Cartesian coordinate systems or between
geodetic coordinates and projected coordinates, or change of units such as from
radians to degrees or feet to meters. (A coordinate conversion uses parameters
that have constant values.)
Coordinate Reference System: coordinate system that is related to the real world
by a datum. (For geodetic and vertical datum’s, it will be related to the Earth.)
Coordinate System: set of mathematical rules for specifying how coordinates are
to be assigned to points.
Coordinate Transformation: change of coordinates from one Coordinate
Reference System to another Coordinate Reference System based on a different
datum through a one-to-one relationship. (A coordinate transformation uses
parameters which are derived empirically by a set of points with known
coordinates in both Coordinate Reference Systems.)
Datum: parameter or set of parameters that serve as a reference or basis for the
calculation of other parameters. (A datum defines the position of the origin, the
scale, and the orientation of the coordinate system.)
Geodetic Coordinate System or Ellipsoidal Coordinate System: coordinate
system in which position is specified by geodetic latitude, geodetic longitude and
(in the three dimensional case) ellipsoidal height, associated with one or more
geographic coordinate reference systems.
Ellipsoidal (geodetic) height: distance of a point from the ellipsoid measured
along the perpendicular from the ellipsoid to the point itself, taken as positive
upwards or outside the ellipsoid.
Engineering Datum or Local Datum: datum describing the relationship of a
coordinate system to a local reference. (Engineering datum excludes both
geodetic and vertical datum’s.) Example: a system for identifying relative
positions within a few kilometers of the reference point.
Geoid: level surface which best fits mean sea level either locally or globally.
Gravity related height: height dependent on the earth's gravity field.
Map Projection: coordinate conversion from a geodetic coordinate system to a
plane.
Mean sea level: average level of the surface of the sea over all stages of tide and
seasonal variations.

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Meridian: intersection of an ellipsoid by a plane containing the semi-minor axis of
the ellipsoid.
Prime meridian: meridian from which longitudes of other meridians are
quantified.
Projected Coordinate System: two-dimensional coordinate system resulting from
a map projection.
Reference ellipsoid: ellipsoid used as the best local or global approximation of
the surface of the geoid.
Temporal datum: datum defining the origin of a temporal reference system.
Temporal reference system: reference system against which time is measured.
Time coordinate system: one-dimensional coordinate system containing a time
axis used in temporal reference systems to describe the temporal position of a
point in the specified time units from a specified temporal datum.
Vertical coordinate reference system: one-dimensional coordinate reference
system used for gravity-related height or depth measurements.
Vertical datum: datum describing the relation of gravity-related heights or depths
to the Earth.

7.1. Natural coordinates (Φ,Λ,ω)

The position of a point is defined by its natural coordinates
 Astronomic latitude, φ: The angle between the plane of the earth's equator
and the plumb line (direction of gravity) at a given point on the earth's
surface
 Astronomic longitude, Λ: The angle between the plane of the reference
meridian and the plane of the local celestial meridian
 Orthometric Height, H: The distance along a plumb line from the point to
the geoid

Wp

Earth’s surface

H-orthometric height

h Geoid

Ellipsoid

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 W= wp - wg

H is a function of gravity potential W, W can also be used instead of H.

Φ can also be derived from observations made to the sun or stars

7.2. Conventional Geodetic Coordinate system

It is formed when an ellipsoid is so centered and oriented such that the
coordinate axes are parallel with Ẋi system. The origin O is the center of the
reference ellipsoid and we use the notation ẊẎẒ with corresponding vectors
ḟ1,ḟ2,ḟ3.
This is a Right handed Cartesian system. The Z axis coincides with the semi
minor axis of the ellipsoid (parallel to z axis)
The Ẋ axis lies on the ellipsoidal equator and is directed such that it is parallel to
the Ẋ -axis of Greenwich meridian. The Ẏ axis lies on the equator and completes
the triad in a right handed manner.
The position vector from the origin to a point P has in this system
While the Cartesian coordinate system is very suitable for most global tasks e.g.
space missions and satellite geodesy, the curvilinear from is used for most other
tasks.

7.3. Ellipsoidal Curvilinear

The position of a point is defined by three parameters
 Ellipsoidal latitude, ψ
 Ellipsoidal longitude, λ
 Ellipsoidal height , h
The Ellipsoidal latitude, ψ is defined as the acute angle between the ellipsoidal
normal at the observation point and the ellipsoidal geodetic equator.
It lies -π/2 <= ψ<= π/2
The ellipsoidal longitude is the angle between the – axis and the projection of the
ellipsoidal normal on the ellipsoidal equator. It is positive on the direction of east
(0<= λ<=2 π). The ellipsoidal coordinate’s ψ, λ are also referred to as
geographical latitude and longitude. The 3 rd dimension is the ellipsoidal height
which the distance between point P and the ellipsoidal surface; the distance
being measured along ellipsoidal normal. It is [positive in the direction of eh
zenith

7.4. Local ellipsoidal Coordinate system

This is similar to the local astronomic system except that the local ellipsoid is
oriented with respect to the ellipsoidal normal. It is left handed system whose
origin is at the observation point P o. The coordinates are designated x*y*z* and
the respective base vectors are e*1, e*2, e*3 .
The Z* axis runs in the outer directions of the ellipsoidal normal through P o.
(Geodetic Zenith)
The X* axis is at right angles to the Z* axis and lies in the local geodetic meridian
plane of Po and points in the direction of geodetic north.

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The Y* axis completes the LHS and points in the direction of geodetic east
The position of a point is described relative to Po either through the Cartesian
coordinate X*1 or the spatial polar coordinates.
D is spatial distance ellipsoidal azimuth, α and ellipsoidal zenith distance Zg
(0<= Zg π)
The geodetic azimuth α is measured from the geodetic north on the x*y* plane
Components of the position vector of Q
The plumb line generally does not deviate much from the ellipsoidal normal. The
ellipsoidal model is important for computational purposes since it has the
advantage that the geometrical relationships in are much simpler.

7.5. Global Systems

Latitude, Longitude, Height

 The most commonly used coordinate system today is the latitude,

longitude, and height system.
 The Prime Meridian and the Equator are the reference planes used to
define latitude and longitude.

Figure: Equator and Prime Meridian

 There are several ways to define these terms precisely. From the geodetic
perspective these are:
o The geodetic latitude of a point is the angle between the
equatorial plane and a line normal to the reference ellipsoid.
o The geodetic longitude of a point is the angle between a
reference plane and a plane passing through the point, both planes
being perpendicular to the equatorial plane.
o The geodetic height at a point is the distance from the reference
ellipsoid to the point in a direction normal to the ellipsoid.

7.6. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates define two dimensional,
horizontal, positions.

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 Each UTM zone is identified by a number
o UTM zone numbers designate individual 6 wide longitudinal strips
extending from 80 South latitude to 84 North latitude.

Figure: UTM Zones

Each zone has a central meridian.

o For example, Zone 14 has a central meridian of 99 west longitude.
 The zone extends from 96 to 102 west longitude.

7.7. World Geographic Reference System (GEOREF)

The World Geographic Reference System is used for aircraft navigation. GEOREF
is based on latitude and longitude.
The globe is divided into twelve bands of latitude and twenty-four zones of
longitude, each 15 in extent.

Figure: World Geographic Reference System Index

These 15 areas are further divided into one degree units identified by 15
characters.

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 7.8. Datum Conversions
Datum conversions are accomplished by various methods.
Complete datum conversion is based on seven parameter transformations that
include three translation parameters, three rotation parameters and a scale
parameter.
Simple three parameter conversion between latitude, longitude, and height in
different datums can be accomplished by conversion through Earth-Centered,
Earth Fixed XYZ Cartesian coordinates in one reference datum and three origin
offsets that approximate differences in rotation, translation and scale.

Figure: Conversion from ECEF XYZ to Latitude, Longitude, and Height

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Figure: Conversion from Latitude, Longitude, and Height to ECEF XYZ.

Figure: XYZ Three Parameter Datum Conversion

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The Standard Molodensky formulas can be used to convert latitude, longitude,
and ellipsoid height in one datum to another datum if the Delta XYZ constants for
that conversion are available and ECEF XYZ coordinates are not required.

Figure: Standard Molodensky Datum Conversion

Page 36 of 43
 Global Coordinate Reference Systems.
Lecture 9

7.9. Global Coordinate Reference Systems

7.9.1. Geocentric XYZ (TBSL)
An alternative method of defining a 3D position on the surface of the Earth is by
means of geocentric coordinates (x,y,z), also known as 3D Cartesian coordinates.
The system has its origin at the mass-center of the Earth with the X- and Y-axes
in the plane of the equator. The X-axis passes through the meridian of
Greenwich, and the Z-axis coincides with the Earth's axis of rotation. The three
axes are mutually orthogonal and form a right-handed system. Geocentric
coordinates can be used to define a position on the surface of the Earth (point P
in figure below).

Figure: An illustration of the geocentric coordinate system

It should be noted that the rotational axis of the Earth changes its position over
time (referred to as polar motion). To compensate for this, the mean position of
the pole in the year 1903 (based on observations between 1900 and 1905) has
been used to define the so-called 'Conventional International Origin' (CIO).
Uses and applications
The geocentric coordinate system is used internally as a transient system. It is
used as a framework for calculations as part of several geographic (datum)
transformation methods.

7.9.2. International Terrestrial Reference System

(ITRS)
The International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) describes procedures for
creating reference frames suitable for use with measurements on or near the

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Earth's surface. This is done in much the same way that a physical standard
might be described as a set of procedures for creating a realization of that
standard. The ITRS defines a geocentric system of coordinates using the SI
system of measurement.
An International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) is a realization of the ITRS.
New ITRF solutions are produced every few years, using the latest mathematical
and surveying techniques to attempt to realize the ITRS as precisely as possible.
Due to experimental error, any given ITRF will differ very slightly from any other
realization of the ITRF.
Practical navigation systems are in general referenced to a specific ITRF solution,
or to their own coordinate systems which are then referenced to an ITRF solution.
The ITRS and ITRF solutions are maintained by the International Earth Rotation
and Reference Systems Service (IERS)

7.9.3. World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84)

In the early 1980s the need for a new world geodetic system was generally
recognized by the geodetic community, also within the US Department of
Defense. WGS 72 no longer provided sufficient data, information, geographic
coverage, or product accuracy for all then current and anticipated applications.
The means for producing a new WGS were available in the form of improved
data, increased data coverage, new data types and improved techniques. GRS
80 parameters together with available Doppler, satellite laser ranging and Very
Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) observations constituted significant new
information. An outstanding new source of data had become available from
satellite radar altimetry. Also available was an advanced least squares method
called collocation which allowed for a consistent combination solution from
different types of measurements all relative to the Earth's gravity field, i.e. geoid,
gravity anomalies, deflections, dynamic Doppler, etc.
The new World Geodetic System was called WGS 84. It is currently the reference
system being used by the Global Positioning System. It is geocentric and globally
consistent within ±1 m. Current geodetic realizations of the geocentric reference
system family International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) maintained by
the IERS are geocentric, and internally consistent, at the few-cm level, while still
being metre-level consistent with WGS 84.
The WGS 84 originally used the GRS 80 reference ellipsoid, but has undergone
some minor refinements in later editions since its initial publication. Most of
these refinements are important for high-precision orbital calculations for
satellites but have little practical effect on typical topographical uses. The
following table lists the primary ellipsoid parameters.

The very small difference in the flattening thus results in a—very theoretical—
difference of 105 µm in the semi polar axis. For most purposes, the differing

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polar axes can be merged to 6,356,752.3 m, with the inverse flattening rounded
to 298.257.
Longitudes on WGS 84
WGS 84 uses the IERS Reference Meridian as defined by the Bureau International
de l'Heure, which was defined by compilation of star observations in different
countries. The mean of this data caused a shift of about 100 metres east away
from the Prime Meridian at Greenwich, UK.
The longitude positions on WGS 84 agree with those on the older North American
Datum 1927 at roughly 85° longitude west, in the east-central United States.
Updates and new standards
The latest major revision of WGS 84 is also referred to as "Earth Gravitational
Model 1996" (EGM96), first published in 1996, with revisions as recent as 2004.
This model has the same reference ellipsoid as WGS 84, but has a higher-fidelity
geoid (roughly 100 km resolution versus 200 km for the original WGS 84).
Many of the original authors of WGS 84 contributed to a new higher fidelity
model, called EGM2008. This new model will have a geoid with a resolution
approaching 10 km, requiring over 4.6 million terms in the spherical expansion
(versus 130,317 in EGM96 and 32,757 in WGS 84).

The Earth and Its Motion.

Lecture 11

8. THE EARTH AND ITS MOTION

The earth undergoes the following motions simultaneously.
 Moves with our galaxy with respect to other galaxies.
 Circulates the solar system within our galaxy.
 Rotates (spins) around its instantaneous axis of rotation.
In geodesy, our concern will be limited to the last two motions i.e. the annual and
the diurnal motions. With regard to the annual motion, the earth and other
celestial bodies are treated as point masses.

8.1. The annual motion

The earth’s dimensions are negligible in comparison to those of the solar system.

21st March

PERIGEE
r
SUN

Earth
Direction of motion

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The path of the earth around the sun obeys Kepler’s law:
1) The orbit of any planet is an ellipse with the sun as one of the foci.
2) A planet moves along its orbit with constant a real velocity i.e the area
swept by the radius vector r of the planet is constant for a given time
interval.
3) The square of the orbital period, T of the planets are proportional to the
cube of the length of the semi-major axis a o of their orbits.
T2 …………. ao3 or T2 = constant

a3

The plane of the earth’s orbit is called the ecliptic. The earth completes one
revolution in one sidereal year.

8.2. The Diurnal Motion

It is the spin, precession and notation. In this case we will treat the earth as a
massive body with dimensions and spinning about an axis passing though the
earth.
The diurnal rotation around the earth’s polar axis creates nights and days. It
takes 366.2564 rotations with respect to the stars (sidereal days) for the earth
to complete one revolution around the sun.
With respect to the sun, it takes 365.2564 rotations (or mean solar days) for the
earth to complete one revolution. To a good approximation, the spin axis
(normally called the instantaneous spin axis) coincides with the earth’s principle
axis of maximum moment of inertia that passes through the earth’s centre of
mass. With an external force exerted on the spinning earth, the spin axis
describes a circular cone with its vertex located at the centre of mass of the
earth. This motion is known as precession.
The external forces come from attractions due to celestial bodies like moon, sun,
planets e.t.c.
The earth completes one precession cycle (platonic year) in 26,000 yrs.
 Spin axis is inclined with respect to the ecliptic by approx. 66.5 o with E is
approx. 23.5 o (inclination is called obliquity).
 If it was not for obliquity the earth would spin about an axis perpendicular
to the ecliptic plane. The days and nights would be equal (12hrs) all the
time and at any place on the earth.
The present situation is that the sun shines longer in some areas. There are two
points on the earth’s orbit where the sun shines on both hemispheres for the
same length of time. The dates corresponding to these points are called
equinoxes.
There is the vernal equinox (ϒ) when spring begins in the northern hemisphere.
This point is selected as a reference to serve as the origin for most
measurements on the ecliptic. The Vernal point moves as precession progresses.
The vernal equinox is also referred to as the first pointing Airies. It is also the
intersection of the ecliptic and the equatorial plane.

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The presence of the moon affects the earth’s motion further. The lunar orbit is
inclined at 5o 11’ with respect to the ecliptic intersection of the lunar orbital
plane and elliptical is called the nodal line. The nodal line rotates once in every
18.6 years, thereby introducing a periodic change in the external torque exerted
on the earth. This perturbation results in another motion of the earth’s spin axis
called Nutation.
Nutation one is only 18”.42 (compare with precession 47 o) nutation period is 18.6
yrs.
The position and orientation of the earth is influenced by the above mentioned
motions. They have a direct effect on the satellite observations conducted from
the earth and as such must be accounted for.

8.3. The Earth and Its Deformation in Time

One aim of geodesy is determination of earth’s shape. The Earth’s shape varies
in time both locally and globally.
 Recall also that the earth’s spin varies with time in direction and velocity.
 The earth’s gravity field too varies with time.
 The variations with regard to the earth’s shape are classified as:- secular
(linear, slow, creeping).
 Periodic (periods range from functions of seconds to several years)
 Episodic (suddenly accelerating or decelerating).
NB. Studies towards variation of earth’s shape with time are recent so that it is
not fully clear which variations are linear or long periodic; consider the following
2 cases:-
1) If the earth was a fluid; its response to deforming forces would be similar
to the way the oceans behave.
2) If it was a rigid body; - there would be no deformations. The real earth is
considered, somewhere between these two extreme cases. The effects
that lead to earth’s deformations are:-
 Aidal effects
 Crustal loading
 Tectonic movements
 Other effects

8.4. Tidal Phenomena

Tidal refers to the deformation phenomena caused by a variation in the
gravitational force exerted by celestial bodies like the moon, planets, sun. The
corresponding force is called tidal force. The moon has the greatest tidal effect,
called the lunar tidal acceleration.
The effect of the tidal force is to deform the equipotential surfaces of the
earth’s gravity field so that their shape prolates in the direction of the celestial
body. The effect of the sun’s mass gives rise to the solar potential.
Relative contribution to tidal potential from different celestial bodies

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Body Tidal Potential
Moon 1
Sun 0.4618
Venus 0.000 054
Jupiter 0.000 0059
Mars 0.000 0010

A permanent tidal uplift (a tide with zero frequently) is responsible for an

increment in the permanent flattening of the earth’s equipotential surfaces.
The effect is a decrement in f- by about 0.006. The tidal changes of the earth’s
body also cause the earth’s surface to deform. Thus the distances on the surface
of the earth expand or contract; the angles of intersecting lines undergo changes
too. The relative changes are usually small, in the order of 10-8 and are usually
undetectable by routine geodetic operations.

8.5. Crustal Loading Deformations

The earth is composed of plates of lighter, solidified material of an average …. =
2.67g/cm3 flooding on a denser material ….3.27gm-3. The crust, generally refer
to the first top 10-30cm and the solid plates are referred to as lithosphere.
Lithospheric plates vary in depth to roughly 10-80km.

Loads are subjected on the plates rising from different phenomena that take
place on the earth. These loads produce regional vertical displacements. To
maintain the balance of the earth, the depression is accompanied by an uplift in
peripheral regions.

Some existing sources of load include ice covering the Antarctic (a total of = 2.7
x 1019kg), Greenland (ice) = 3 x 108kg.

About 6,000 – 10,000yrs ago ice melted from various parts e.g Canada, Siberia,
Himalayas, the Alps e.t.c causing an estimated depressing of 500m at the centre
of the northern hemisphere. This ice melt water would have caused the oceans
to rise 80m

Other sources

1) Deposits of solid particles by large rivers. Mississippi deposits 2 x 10”kg

annually causing a subsidence of = 10cm.

2) Tidal water: Compare a wave of 5m height over an area of 10 4 km2

represents a load of 5 1013kg.

3) Large water reservoirs e.g Lake Kariba stores = 1.5 x 10 14kg over an
area of 6650km2. Reported depression = 13cm after the lake filled.

4) Lava from volcanic eruptions.

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 8.6. Plate Tectonic Deformations
Lithosphere is broken into plates floating on the upper mantle idea of lithospheric
plates is a recent phenomenon (Wegner 1929). The boundaries of major plates
are well known.

Relative motions of plates have been computed form GPS VLBI (Very Long
Baseline Interferometry), Laser ranging range of movements: - 0-1.1cm cm/yr
(S.w Atlantic) to 14.5sm/yr around New Guinea.

8.7. Man-Made and Other Deformation

Ground compaction gives rise to deformation, results when fluids are withdrawn
from the ground compaction gives rise to deformation. This results when fluids
are withdrawn from the ground. Generally cities around the world have
experienced subsidence e.g Mexico City upto 1.5 between 1952-1957.

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