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Chapter 1: Introduction
By: Bikash Shrestha
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Introduction
• A computer network is a collection of computers and other
devices (nodes) that are connected to share information,
resources, and services.
• These devices communicate using a common network
protocol over a network medium such as cables, fiber optics,
or wireless signals.
• Enables data sharing (files, applications, internet access).
• Facilitates resource sharing (printers, storage, servers).
• Supports communication services (email, messaging, VoIP).
• Can be wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).
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Uses of Computer Networks

• Business Applications
• Home Applications
• Mobile Users
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Business Applications of Networks

• The data are stored on powerful computers called servers.
• The employees have simpler machines, called clients
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Business Applications of Networks

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Home Network Applications

• Access to remote information
• Person-to-person communication
• Interactive entertainment
• Electronic commerce
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Home Network Applications

• In peer-to-peer system there are no fixed clients and servers.

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Types of Network
• Local Area Networks
• Metropolitan Area Networks
• Wide Area Networks
• Wireless Networks
• Internetworks
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Local Area Networks

• Local area networks, generally called LANs, are
privately-owned networks within a single building
or campus of up to a few kilometers in size.

Two broadcast LANs – bus and ring.

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Local Area Networks

• In a bus network, at any instant at most one machine is
the master and is allowed to transmit. All other
machines are required to refrain from sending.
• In a ring, each bit propagates around on its own, not
waiting for the rest of the packet to which it belongs.
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Metropolitan Area Networks

A metropolitan area network based on cable TV.
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Wide Area Networks

Relation between hosts on LANs and the subnet.
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Wide Area Networks (2)

A stream of packets from sender to receiver.
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Wireless Networks
Categories of wireless networks:
• System interconnection - interconnecting the
components of a computer using short-range radio.
System interconnection use the master-slave
paradigm. The system unit is normally the master,
talking to the mouse, keyboard, etc., as slaves.
• Wireless LANs - These are systems in which every
computer has a radio modem and antenna with
which it can communicate with other systems.
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Wireless Networks (2)

(a) Bluetooth configuration

(b) Wireless LAN
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Internetworks
• An internetwork is formed when distinct
networks are interconnected.
• Connecting a LAN and a WAN or connecting two
LANs forms an internetwork.
• A common form of internet is a collection of LANs
connected by a WAN where the label ''subnet'‘ is
replaced by ''WAN'‘.
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Types of Network
• According to transmission technology
▫ Broadcast networks :
A single communication channel is shared by all the machines on the
network. Messages sent by any machines are received by all the others.
▫ Point-to-point networks :
Many connections between individual pairs of machines. Routing
algorithms play an important role in point-to-point networks. A packet
on this type of network may have to first visit one or more intermediate
machines.
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Networking Model
• Client Server
• P2P
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Client Server
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Client Server
• This whole arrangement is called the client-server model.
• It is widely used and forms the basis of much network usage.
• It is applicable when the client and server are both in the
same building (e.g., belong to the same company), but also
when they are far apart.
• For example, when a person at home accesses a page on the
World Wide Web, the same model is employed, with the
remote Web server being the server and the user's personal
computer being the client.
• Under most conditions, one server can handle a large
number of clients.
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Client Server
• If we look at the client-server model in detail, we see that
two processes are involved, one on the client machine and
one on the server machine.
• Communication takes the form of the client process sending
a message over the network to the server process.
• The client process then waits for a reply message.
• When the server process gets the request, it performs the
requested work or looks up the requested data and sends
back a reply.
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Common network services

• File services
• Print services
• Message services( e.g. email)
• Application services
• Database services
Peer-to-Peer Networks

Both devices are considered equal in the communication.

The roles of client and server are set on a per request basis.
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Peer-to-peer
Peer-to-Peer Applications
Client and server in the same communication.

Both can initiate a communication and are considered equal

in the communication process.
Common P2P Applications
 With P2P applications, each computer in the network running the
application can act as a client or a server for the other computers in the
network running the application.
 Common P2P applications include:
 eDonkey
 eMule
 Shareaza
 BitTorrent
 Bitcoin
 LionShare
 Some P2P applications are based on the Gnutella protocol which enables
people to share files on their hard disks with others
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Protocols and Standards

• Network Protocols
• Protocol suites are collections of protocols that enable network
communication between hosts.
• A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules and conventions that
govern a particular aspect of how devices on a network communicate.
Protocols determine the format, timing, sequencing, and error control in
data communication.
• Without protocols, the computer cannot make or rebuild the stream of
incoming bits from another computer into the original format.
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Protocols and Standards

• Protocols control all aspects of data communication, which include the
following:
▫ How the physical network is built
▫ How computers connect to the network
▫ How the data is formatted for transmission
▫ How that data is sent
▫ How to deal with errors
• These network rules are created and maintained by many different
organizations and committees. Included in these groups are
▫ Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE),
▫ American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
▫ Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA),
▫ Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) and the
▫ International Telecommunications Union (ITU).
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REFERENCE MODEL
• There are basically two reference model.
▫ OSI reference model
▫ TCP/IP reference model
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Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

Reference Model
• The OSI reference model is a framework that is used to understand how
information travels throughout a network.
• The OSI reference model explains how packets travel through the various
layers to another device on a network, even if the sender and destination
have different types of network media.
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OSI Reference Model

• In the OSI reference model, there are seven numbered layers, each of
which illustrates a particular network function. Dividing the network into
seven layers provides the following advantages:
▫ It breaks network communication into smaller, more manageable parts.
▫ It standardizes network components to allow multiple vendor
development and support.
▫ It allows different types of network hardware and software to
communicate with each other.
▫ It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers.
▫ It divides network communication into smaller parts to make learning it
easier to understand.
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OSI Reference Model

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The Physical Layer (Layer 1)

• Concerned with data transmission:
▫ Handles the transmission of raw bits over the physical medium.
• Wires and their specifications:
▫ Defines the types of cables (UTP, STP, coaxial, fiber) and their physical
properties.
• Connectors for system connection:
▫ Specifies connectors such as RJ45, fiber connectors, and other physical
interfaces.
• Voltage levels:
▫ Determines the voltage or signal levels used to represent binary data (0s and
1s).
• Data rate:
▫ Defines the rate at which bits are transmitted over the medium (bits per
second).
• Protocol Data Unit (PDU): Bit
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The Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

• Direct Link Control: Manages the communication link between two
directly connected nodes.
• Reliable Data Transfer: Ensures data is transmitted across the physical link
without errors or loss.
• Physical Addressing: Uses Hardware/MAC addresses to uniquely identify
devices on a local network segment.
• Network Topology: Defines how devices are logically organized and how
they access the shared medium.
• Error Notification: Detects and handles damaged or lost frames (typically
via CRC/Checksum).
• Flow Control: Prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver.
• Protocol Data Unit (PDU): Frames.
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The Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

• Sublayers
▫ Logical Link Control (LLC): Handles error checking and synchronization.
▫ Media Access Control (MAC): Manages protocol access to the physical
transmission medium.
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The Network Layer (Layer 3)

• Network Addressing (Logical) – Uses IP Addresses (IPv4/IPv6) to identify
devices across different subnets and the global internet.
• Best Path Determination (Routing) – Utilizes routing protocols (like OSPF
or BGP) to calculate the most efficient path for data to travel.
• Inter-Subnet Data Transmission – Manages the movement of data
between different networks and subnets, crossing multiple physical links
if necessary.
• Fragmentation and Reassembly – (Added Point) Breaks large packets into
smaller pieces if the underlying link has a smaller MTU (Maximum
Transmission Unit).
• PDU: Packet / Datagram – Data from the upper layers is encapsulated into
packets for end-to-end delivery.
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Transport Layer (Layer 4)

• End-to-End Connectivity: Ensures seamless data communication between
the source and destination.
• Process-to-Process Addressing: Uses port numbers to ensure data reaches
the correct application/service.
• Connection Management: Responsible for establishing, maintaining, and
terminating logical connections between hosts.
• Reliable Data Transfer: Guarantees that data is delivered accurately and in
the correct sequence.
• Error Detection & Recovery: Identifies corrupted data and requests
retransmission when necessary.
• Flow & Congestion Control: Manages data transmission speeds to prevent
overwhelming the receiver or the network.
• Protocol Data Unit (PDU): Segment.
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Session Layer (Layer 5)

• Maintain user’s session
• Token management
• Track all the event through the use
• Establish and terminate session
• Handles the exchange of information to initiate dialogs, keep them active,
and to restart sessions
• Protocol Data Unit (PDU): Data
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Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

• Data representation
• Ensure the data is readable by the application
• Format of data
• Data structure selection
• Helps applications to interpret the meaning of data – encryption,
compression etc.
• Data transfer syntax and semantics
• eg. ASCII, UNICODE etc
• Protocol Data Unit (PDU): Data
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Application Layer (Layer 7)

• Network application programs generate data streams on the network.
• Applications don’t need to control core devices.
• Provide different network services to the user
• Email, www, ftp, http, smtp etc.
• Protocol Data Unit (PDU): Data
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Addressing at different layers

• Data Link Layer Addressing
▫ MAC Address
▫ Also called physical address or hardware address
▫ Format: 48-bit address (e.g., AA:BB:CC:11:22:33)
▫ Used for: communication within the same local network (LAN)
▫ Purpose: Identifies a device’s network interface card (NIC)
• Network Layer Addressing – IP Address
▫ Also called logical address
▫ Types: IPv4 (32-bit), IPv6 (128-bit)
▫ Used for: communication between networks
▫ Purpose: Helps routers deliver packets from source to destination across
networks
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Addressing at different layers

• Transport Layer Addressing – Port Numbers
▫ Used by TCP and UDP
▫ Example:
 Port 80 → HTTP
 Port 53 → DNS
 Port 25 → SMTP
▫ Purpose: Identifies applications/services running on a device
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Header and Trailer Addition

 Header and Trailer Addition
• Payload : The actual message being carried. Also called Service Data Unit (SDU).

• Header : Added to payload contains information that helps the network to deliver the
payload. Examples of header fields : Source IP address, destination IP address etc …
• Packet : Payload encapsulated by header (and possibly trailer) Also called Protocol Data
Unit (PDU). Packet traverses through the network.

• Compare the above with the postal system

Write address
Payload Packet Header

Sorting office

Receiver
Routing
Underlying protocols
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TCP/IP Model
• The The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the TCP/IP reference
model, because it wanted to design a network that could survive any
conditions, including a nuclear war.
• In a world connected by different types of communication media such as
copper wires, microwaves, optical fibers and satellite links, the DoD wanted
transmission of packets every time and under any conditions.
• This very difficult design problem brought about the creation of the TCP/IP
model.
• TCP/IP was developed as an open standard. This meant that anyone was free
to use TCP/IP. This helped speed up the development of TCP/IP as a standard.
• The TCP/IP model has the following four layers:
▫ Application layer
▫ Transport layer
▫ Internet layer
▫ Network access layer /Host-to-network layer
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TCP/IP Model
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Network Access/ Host to Network(Layer1)

• Position: First layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model.
• Function: Defines how data is physically transmitted across the network.
▫ Controls how bits are electrically or optically signaled.
▫ Interfaces with network media: coaxial cable, optical fiber, twisted-pair
copper.
• Key Protocols: Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25, Frame Relay.
• Ethernet (Most Popular LAN):
▫ Uses CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection) as its
access method.
▫ Determines how a host places data onto the network medium.
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The Network Layer (Layer 2)

• Network Addressing: Assigns unique addresses to devices for
identification.
• Best Path Determination: Selects the most efficient route for data to
travel across the network.
• Data Transmission Between Subnets: Ensures communication between
different network segments.
• Protocol Data Unit (PDU): Datagram / Packet – the unit of data handled at
this layer.
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Transport Layer (Layer 3)

• Purpose: Provides end-to-end communication between processes on
different hosts.
• Standard Transport Protocols:
▫ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):
 Connection-oriented.
 Provides reliable, ordered, and error-checked data delivery.
▫ UDP (User Datagram Protocol):
▫ Connectionless.
▫ Provides unreliable, fast data delivery with minimal overhead.
• Process Addressing: Uses port numbers to identify processes on host
machines.
• Protocol Data Unit (PDU): Segment
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Connection Oriented
▫ Connection-Oriented means that when devices communicate, they
perform handshaking to set up an end-to-end connection.
▫ The handshaking process may be as simple as synchronization such as
in the transport layer protocol TCP, or as complex as negotiating
communications parameters as with a modem.
▫ Connection-Oriented systems can only work in bi-directional
communications environments. To negotiate a connection, both sides
must be able to communicate with each other. This will not work in a
unidirectional environment.
▫ Since a connection needs to be established, the service also becomes
reliable one.
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Connectionless Service
• UDP uses a simple connectionless transmission model with a minimum of
protocol mechanism. It has no handshaking dialogues, and thus exposes
the user's program to any unreliability of the underlying network protocol.
• There is no guarantee of delivery, ordering, or duplicate protection, which
makes it suitable for real-time applications such as VOIP, online gaming
and many more streaming protocols.
• UDP provides checksums for data integrity, and port numbers for
addressing different functions at the source and destination of the
datagram.
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Application Layer (Layer 4)

• Purpose: Provides network services directly to users and
applications.
• Key Protocols:
▫ DNS – Domain Name System
▫ HTTP / HTTPS – Web communication
▫ FTP / TFTP – File transfer
▫ Telnet / RDP / X Windows – Remote access
▫ SMTP – Email delivery
▫ SNMP – Network management
▫ DHCP – Dynamic IP addressing
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Application Layer (Layer 4)

• Features:
▫ Generates data streams for network transmission
▫ Applications do not control core network devices
▫ Provides a variety of network services to users
• Protocol Data Unit (PDU): Data
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Networking Devices
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Repeater
• A repeater is a simple electronic networking device
• It receives a signal on one side and retransmits it on the
other
• It regenerates and amplifies weak or distorted signals
• It extends the network beyond cable length limitations
• It works with bits, not frames or packets
• It operates at the Physical Layer (Layer 1) of the OSI
model
• It does not filter traffic or make forwarding decisions
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Repeater
• Ethernet Segment
▫ A network section where devices share the same transmission medium
▫ Devices within the same Ethernet segment share the same collision domain
▫ Repeaters connect multiple Ethernet segments into a single larger segment
▫ All devices in the combined segment compete for bandwidth

• Optical Fiber Repeaters

▫ Used in fiber optic communication
▫ Regenerate optical signals for long-distance transmission
▫ Help maintain signal strength over long fiber links

• WiFi Repeaters (Wireless Range Extenders)

▫ Extend the coverage area of a wireless network
▫ Receive and retransmit wireless signals to increase range
▫ Improve WiFi coverage in homes and offices
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Repeater
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Hub
• A central point of a star topology and allows the multiple
connections of devices.
• Hubs are used to build a LAN by connecting different computers in
a star/hierarchal network topology, the most common type on
LANs now a day.
• A hub is a very simple (or dumb) device, once it gets bits of data
sent from computer A to B, it does not check the destination,
instead, it forwards that signal to all other computers (B, C, D…)
within the network. B will then pick it up while other nodes discard
it.
• all nodes connected to hub can collide with one another
• no frame buffering
• no CSMA/CD at hub: host NICs detect collisions
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Hub Contd…
• There are mainly two types of hubs:
▫ Passive: The signal is forwarded as it is (so it doesn’t need
power supply)
▫ Active: The signal is amplified, so they work as repeaters. In
fact they have been called multiport repeaters. (use power
supply)
• Hubs can be connected to other hubs using an uplink
port to extend the network
• Hubs operate at the physical layer (Layer 1). That’s the
reason they can’t deal with addressing or data filtering.
Poor Performance of Hub-based LANs
Poor Performance of Hub-based LANs
Poor Performance of Hub-based LANs
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Bridge
• As more nodes are added to an Ethernet segment,
use of the media increases.
• Ethernet is a shared media, which means only one
node, can transmit data at a time.
• The addition of more nodes increases the demands
on the available bandwidth and places additional
loads on the media.
• This also increases the probability of collisions, which
results in more retransmissions.
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Bridge Contd..
• A solution to the problem is to break the large
segment into parts and separate it into isolated
collision domains.
• Collision domains are the connected physical
network segments where collisions can occur.
• To accomplish this bridge keeps a table of MAC
addresses and the associated ports. The bridge then
forwards or discards frames based on the table
entries.
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Bridge Contd..
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Bridge Contd..
• Bridge operate at the Data link Layer of OSI
Reference model.
• Bridge doesn’t examine the network layer header
and can copy IP, IPX and other OSI layer packets
equally well.
• In a comparison with switches, they are slower
because they use software to perform switching.
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Collision Domains
• A group of Ethernet/Fast/Gigabit Ethernet devices
connected by repeaters in a CSMA/CD LAN
• All devices compete for access to the same network
medium
• Only one device can transmit at a time within the
collision domain
• Other devices listen to avoid data collisions
• A collision domain is also called an Ethernet segment
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Collision Domains
• A hub forms a single collision domain
• It forwards every bit received on one interface to all
other interfaces
• A bridge has two interfaces and creates two collision
domains
• It forwards traffic only to the interface where the
destination Layer 2 device is connected
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Collision Domains
• It makes forwarding decisions based on the
destination MAC address
• A bridge is considered an “intelligent hub”
• A switch is a multi-interface device
• Each switch interface represents a separate collision
domain
• A 24-port switch creates 24 collision domains (if all
ports are connected)
• VLANs do not affect collision domains (VLANs are
Layer 2, collision domains are Layer 1 concept)
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Switch
• Multiport Bridge
• A switch is essentially a fast, multi-port bridge that
can contain dozens of ports.
• A switch dynamically builds and maintains a MAC
table, which holds all of the necessary MAC
information for each port.
• The switch then forwards or discards frames based
on the table entries
• Table entries called Content Addressable Memory
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Switch Contd..
• hosts have dedicated, direct connection to switch
• switches buffer packets
• Ethernet protocol used on each incoming link, but no
collisions; full duplex
▫ each link is its own collision domain
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Switch Contd..
• Switches operate at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of
the OSI model
• Switches process data in the form of frames
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Switch Contd..
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Switch: allows multiple simultaneous Data Link Layer

transmissions
A

• switching: A-to-A’ and B-to-B’ C’ B

simultaneously, without
collisions 1 2
▫ not possible with dumb hub 6 3
5 4

B’ A’

switch with six interfaces

(1,2,3,4,5,6)
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Source: A
Switch: self-learning Data Link Layer

Dest: A’

A A A’

• switch learns which hosts can C’ B

be reached through which
interfaces 1 2
6 3
▫ when frame received, switch
5 4
“learns” location of sender:
incoming LAN segment
C
▫ records sender/location pair in
switch table
B’ A’

MAC addr interface TTL

A 1 60 Switch table
(initially empty)
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Data Link Layer Source: A

Self-learning, forwarding: example Dest: A’

A A A’

C’ B

• frame destination 1 2
unknown: flood A6A’ 3
5 4
 destination A
location known: C
A’ A
selective send
B’ A’

MAC addr interface TTL

A 1 60 Switch table
A’ 4 60 (initially empty)
Improved Performance Using Switches
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Broadcast Domain
• A switch creates a single broadcast domain (if only
one VLAN is configured)
• Broadcast traffic is a Layer 2 concept (based on MAC
address)
• All devices within the same VLAN receive broadcast
frames
• Routers do not forward Layer 2 broadcast traffic
• Routers separate broadcast domains
• Each router interface represents a different
broadcast domain
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Router
• A router is a specialized type of computer
• It has similar basic components as a standard
desktop PC
▫ It includes a CPU (Central Processing Unit)
▫ It has memory (RAM, ROM, Flash)
▫ It contains a system bus for internal communication
▫ It has various input and output interfaces for network
connectivity
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Router
• Routers are designed to perform specific networking
functions
• These functions are not typically performed by
desktop computers
• Routers connect multiple networks together
• They enable communication between different
networks
• Routers determine the best path for data to travel
across connected networks
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Router Components: RAM

RAM has the following characteristics and functions:
• Stores routing tables
• Holds ARP cache
• Holds fast-switching cache
• Performs packet buffering as shared RAM
• Maintains packet-hold queues
• Provides temporary memory for the configuration file of a
router while the router is powered on
• Loses content when a router is powered down or restarted
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Router Components: NVRAM

NVRAM has the following characteristics and
functions:
• Provides storage for the startup configuration file
• Retains content when a router is powered down or
restarted
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Router Components: Flash memory

Flash memory has the following characteristics and
functions:
• Holds the IOS image
• Allows software to be updated without removing
and replacing chips on the processor
• Retains content when a router is powered down or
restarted
• Can store multiple versions of IOS software
• Is a type of electrically erasable programmable read-
only memory (EEPROM)
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Router Components: ROM

ROM has the following characteristics and functions:
• Maintains instructions for power-on self test (POST)
diagnostics
• Stores bootstrap program and basic operating
system software
• Requires replacing pluggable chips on the
motherboard for software upgrades
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Router Components: Interfaces

Interfaces have the following characteristics and
functions:
• Connect routers to a network for packet entry and
exit
• Can be on the motherboard or on a separate module
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Router
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Router
• Router operate at the Network Layer of OSI
Reference model
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Network Interface Card(NIC)

• A NIC (Network Interface Card) is a printed circuit board
installed in a computer’s expansion slot
• It connects the computer to a network
• It can also be available as an external peripheral device
• NICs are also called network adapters
• Each NIC has a unique Media Access Control (MAC)
address
• The MAC address is used to identify the device on the
network
• It controls data communication for the host within the
network
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Network Interface Card(NIC)

• As the name implies, the NIC controls host access to
the network.
• NIC operate at the Data link layer of OSI Reference
model
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Gateway
• A gateway is a network device that connects two
different networks and allows communication
between them.
• Typically used to connect a LAN (Local Area Network)
to a WAN (Wide Area Network) or the Internet.
• Common gateway devices: Routers, Firewalls,
Modems.
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Gateway
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By: Bikash Shrestha

Questions ?
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Thank you