Module 7 – Other Sensory Systems and Attention
AUDITION (Hearing)
Sound waves are vibrations that travel through air (or water) and reach the eardrum. When
these vibrations are converted into nerve impulses and reach the brain, we perceive them
as sound.
- Amplitude – how strong or intense a sound wave is; determines loudness.
- Frequency (Hz) – number of sound vibrations per second; determines pitch.
- Pitch – how high or low a sound is.
- Loudness – how intense or soft a sound feels.
Humans usually hear sounds between 15–20,000 Hz. Children hear higher frequencies
better than adults.
Structures of the Ear
Outer Ear
- Pinna – collects sound and helps locate its direction.
- External Auditory Canal – carries sound to the eardrum.
- Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum) – vibrates when hit by sound waves.
Middle Ear
- Ossicles (Malleus, Incus, Stapes) – tiny bones that amplify vibrations from the eardrum to
the inner ear.
- Eustachian Tube – connects the middle ear to the throat; balances pressure.
Inner Ear
- Cochlea – spiral, fluid-filled structure that converts sound waves into nerve signals.
- Basilar Membrane – inside the cochlea; moves with sound vibrations and activates hair
cells.
- Hair Cells – sensory receptors that convert vibrations into electrical signals.
- Semicircular Canals – help maintain balance.
Summary of Hearing Process:
Sound waves → eardrum → ossicles → cochlea → auditory nerve → brain (interprets sound).
Pitch Perception
- Frequency Theory: the entire basilar membrane vibrates with the sound; neurons fire at
the same rate as the frequency.
- Place Theory: different parts of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies
(like piano strings).
- Volley Principle: for high frequencies, groups of neurons fire in turns so together they
match the sound’s frequency.
High frequencies activate hair cells near the base of the cochlea.
Low frequencies activate hair cells near the apex (tip).
Pitch and the Brain
Sound information crosses over in the midbrain, so each hemisphere processes sound
mainly from the opposite ear.
The primary auditory cortex (temporal lobe) creates a tonotopic map – specific areas
respond to specific frequencies.
Damage may not cause total deafness but can affect recognizing speech or music.
Hearing Loss
- Conductive Deafness: problems in the middle ear (e.g., damaged bones or infections); can
be fixed with surgery or hearing aids.
- Nerve Deafness: damage to the cochlea or auditory nerve; often permanent. Causes include
genetics, infections, oxygen loss at birth, loud noise exposure, or diseases. Often leads to
tinnitus (ringing in ears).
Sound Localization
We locate sound by comparing input between our two ears:
- Sound Shadow: sound is louder in the nearer ear.
- Phase Difference: timing difference between ears helps locate low-frequency sounds.
Vestibular Sensation (Balance)
Detects head movement and position.
- Otolith Organs (saccule and utricle): respond to tilt and acceleration.
- Semicircular Canals: detect rotational movement.
Signals go through the 8th cranial nerve to the brainstem and cerebellum.
Somatosensation (Body Sensation)
Includes touch, pressure, temperature, pain, and body position.
Receptors:
- Free nerve endings – pain, warmth, cold.
- Hair-follicle receptors – hair movement.
- Meissner’s corpuscles – light touch, low vibration.
- Pacinian corpuscles – deep pressure, high vibration.
- Merkel’s disks – steady pressure.
- Ruffini endings – skin stretch.
Somatosensory Cortex acts as a map of the body.
Pain
Pain warns us of danger and involves different neurotransmitters and brain areas.
- Neurotransmitters: Glutamate and Substance P.
- Opioid Mechanism: Brain releases endorphins (natural morphine) to reduce pain.
- Gate Theory: Other sensations or brain signals can “close the gate” and block pain signals
in the spinal cord.
- Capsaicin: from chili; triggers pain receptors but can deplete Substance P and reduce pain
temporarily.
- Pain and Emotion: activates sensory and emotional brain areas.
- Placebo Effect: belief in treatment can reduce pain through endorphin release.
- Pain Control: Morphine blocks pain signals but works best on slow (unmyelinated) fibers
and can cause addiction.
Itch
Caused by histamine release in the skin. Pain reduces itch, while opiates (painkillers)
increase itch.
Coding Principles
- Labeled-Line Principle: each receptor sends a specific signal for one type of stimulus.
- Across-Fiber Pattern Principle: the brain interprets patterns of activity across many
receptors.
Taste
Taste comes from taste buds on papillae (mostly along the sides of the tongue).
Main Tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami (savory).
Receptors:
- Salty: detects sodium directly.
- Sour: acids block potassium channels → depolarization.
- Sweet, Bitter, Umami: work through metabotropic receptors.
Taste Pathway: Tongue → cranial nerves (VII, IX, X) → Nucleus of the Tractus Solitarius →
pons → hypothalamus → amygdala → thalamus → insula (taste cortex).
Supertasters: more papillae; very sensitive to taste.
Olfaction (Smell)
Detects airborne chemicals using olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity.
Each receptor responds to certain chemicals and connects to the olfactory bulb → olfactory
cortex → emotion and behavior areas.
Vomeronasal Organ (VNO): detects pheromones; small and mostly inactive in humans.
Attention
Attention is focusing mental resources on specific stimuli. It can be automatic or controlled.
- Spatial Neglect: ignoring one side (usually left) after right-brain damage.
- Sensory Neglect: not due to sensory loss but failure to attend to certain stimuli.
ADHD: Characterized by inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity that interfere with daily
functioning.
Inattention – difficulty focusing, following instructions, organizing, remembering, and
completing tasks.
Hyperactivity/Impulsivity – fidgeting, restlessness, excessive talking, interrupting, and
acting without thinking.