UNIT1: Part 2

OSI and TCP/IP models, Networking Devices

OSI MODEL
• The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that
explains how different computer systems communicate over a
network.
• OSI Model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO).
• The OSI Model consists of 7 layers and each layer has specific functions
and responsibilities.
• This layered approach makes it easier for different devices and
technologies to work together.

Why OSI Model is Needed

• Breaks complex network communication into simple layers
• Helps in standardization of networking technologies
• Makes troubleshooting easier (identify problem layer-wise)
• Enables interoperability between different vendors
 Brief Overview of 7 Layers
Layer No. Layer Name Key Purpose

7 Application User interaction

6 Presentation Data format & security

5 Session Session management

4 Transport End-to-end delivery

3 Network Routing & logical addressing

2 Data Link Physical addressing

1 Physical Bit transmission

 Layer 1: Physical Layer
• The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer.
• It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
• The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
How it works?
• Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one
node to the next.
• When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it
into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the
frame back together.
• Physical layer devices : Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.

Functions of the Physical Layer

• Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of
the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver
thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
• Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e.
the number of bits sent per second.
• Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus topology, star topology,
or mesh topology.
• Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes
possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full duplex.
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer (DLL)
• The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message.
• The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free
from one node to another, over the physical layer.
• When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to
transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
• Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
• Devics in DLL Layer: Switches and Bridges
• The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size of the NIC (Network Interface Card).
• DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the
header.
• The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address
Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking, "Who has that IP
address?" and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

Sublayers of Data Link Layer

• Logical Link Control (LLC)
• Media Access Control (MAC)
1. LLC (Logical Link Control) – Upper Sub-layer
• LLC provides logical control of the data link and acts as an interface
between the Network Layer and MAC layer.
Functions of LLC
• Protocol identification
o Identifies which Network Layer protocol is being used (IP, IPX, etc.)
• Flow control
o Controls data flow between sender and receiver
• Error control
 o Detects and may request retransmission of lost frames
• Multiplexing
Allows multiple network protocols to use the same MAC layer
Why LLC is Used?
• Makes Data Link Layer independent of physical media
• Provides a standard interface to the Network Layer
• Helps multiple protocols share the same network
Example
When a frame reaches Layer 2, LLC checks:
“Is this data for IPv4, IPv6, or some other protocol?”

2. MAC (Media Access Control) – Lower Sub-layer

MAC controls how devices access the shared transmission medium and
handles physical addressing.

Functions of MAC
• MAC addressing (Source & Destination MAC)
• Frame encapsulation
• Media access control
o Decides who can transmit and when
• Error detection using CRC
• Collision handling (e.g., CSMA/CD in Ethernet)
Why MAC is Used?
• Ensures orderly transmission on shared media
• Provides unique identification of devices
• Prevents or manages data collisions
Example
 MAC decides: “Can I send data now, or is the channel busy?”

Functions of the Data Link Layer

• Framing:
• Framing is a function of the data link layer.
• It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are
meaningful to the receiver.
• This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the
beginning and end of the frame.
• Physical Addressing:
• After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses
(MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each
frame.
• Error Control:
• The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which
it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control:
• The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can
be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
• Access Control:
• When a single communication channel is shared by multiple
devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine
which device has control over the channel at a given time.
 Layer 3: Network Layer
• The Network Layer works for the transmission of data from one host to
the other located in different networks.
• It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
• The sender and receiver's IP address are placed in the header by the
network layer.
• Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.
• Network layer devices: Routers and Switches

Functions of the Network Layer

• Routing:
• The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination.
• This function of the network layer is known as routing.
• Logical Addressing:
• To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer
defines an addressing scheme.
• The sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by
the network layer.
• Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
 Layer 4: Transport Layer
• The Transport Layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer.
• The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
• It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message.
• The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful
data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
• Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.
• At the sender's side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from
the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and
error control to ensure proper data transmission.
• It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and
forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
• Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or
manually.
• Example: when a web application requests a web server, it typically uses
port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web
applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.
• At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its
header and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective
application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the
segmented data.
Functions of the Transport Layer
• Segmentation and Reassembly:
• This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer and breaks
the message into smaller units.
• Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it.
• The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.
 • Service Point Addressing:
• To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port
address.
• Thus, by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that
the message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
• Connection-Oriented Service
• Connectionless Service

Layer 5: Session Layer

• Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of
connections, management of connections, terminations of sessions
between two devices.
• It also provides authentication and security.
• Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.
Functions of the Session Layer
• Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination:
• The layer allows the two processes to establish, use, and terminate a
connection.
• Synchronization:
• This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data.
• These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the
data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not
cut prematurely, and data loss is avoided.
• Dialog Controller:
• The session layer allows two systems to start communication with
each other in half-duplex or full duplex.
 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
• The Presentation Layer is also called the Translation layer.
• The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as
per the required format to transmit over the network.
• Protocols used in the Presentation Layer: TLS/SSL (Transport Layer
Security / Secure Sockets Layer).
• JPEG, MPEG, and GIF are standards or formats used for encoding data,
which is part of the presentation layer’s role.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another
form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext, and the
decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting
as well as decrypting data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on
the network.

Layer 7: Application Layer

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find
the Application Layer which is implemented by the network applications.
These applications produce the data to be transferred over the network.
• This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access
the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
• Protocols used in the Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.

Application Layer
Functions of the Application Layer
• Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote
host.
• File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows
a user to access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and
manage or control files from a remote computer.
• Mail Services: Provide email service.
• Directory Services: This application provides distributed database
sources and access for global information about various objects and
services.

How Data Flows in the OSI Model?

• When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels
through 7 layers of OSI model.
• First data travels down through 7 layers from the sender's end and then
climbs back 7 layers on the receiver's end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
• Application Layer: Applications create the data.
• Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
• Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
• Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
• Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
• Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
• Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.
Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination
correctly, and these steps are reversed upon arrival.
EXAMPLE
We can understand how data flows through OSI Model with the help of an
example mentioned below. Let us suppose, Person A sends an e-mail to his friend
Person B.
• Step 1: Person A interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc.
Writes his email to send. (This happens at Application Layer).
• Step 2: At Presentation Layer, Mail application prepares for data
transmission like encrypting data and formatting it for transmission.
• Step 3: At Session Layer, there is a connection established between the
sender and receiver on the internet.
• Step 4: At Transport Layer, Email data is broken into smaller segments.
It adds sequence number and error-checking information to maintain the
reliability of the information.
• Step 5: At Network Layer, addressing of packets is done in order to find
the best route for transfer.
• Step 6: At Data Link Layer, data packets are encapsulated into frames,
then MAC address is added for local devices and then it checks for error
using error detection.
• Step 7: At Physical Layer, Frames are transmitted in the form of
electrical/ optical signals over a physical network medium like ethernet
cable or WiFi.
After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Person B, the process will reverse and
decrypt the e-mail content. At last, the email will be shown on Person B email
client.
 TCP/IP Model
(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)
• The TCP/IP model is a layered network architecture developed by
DARPA (USA) for reliable communication over interconnected networks.
• It is the foundation of the Internet and defines how data is transmitted
from a source host to a destination host.
• Unlike the OSI model (theoretical), the TCP/IP model is practical and
implementation-based.

Layers of TCP/IP Model (4 Layers)

1. Application Layer
Purpose
• Provides network services directly to end-user applications
• Handles data representation, session management, and communication
• Combines Application, Presentation, and Session layers of the OSI
model
Main Functions
• Data formatting and encoding
• User authentication
• Establishing and terminating communication sessions
• File transfer and email services
Protocols Used
• HTTP / HTTPS – Web browsing
• FTP – File transfer
• SMTP – Sending emails
• POP3 / IMAP – Receiving emails
• DNS – Domain name to IP address translation
• Telnet / SSH – Remote login
Example
When you type [Link] in a browser:
• HTTP requests the webpage
• DNS converts the domain name into an IP address

2. Transport Layer
Purpose
• Provides end-to-end communication between sender and receiver
• Ensures data is delivered correctly and in sequence
Main Functions
• Segmentation and reassembly of data
• Flow control
• Error detection and recovery
• Port addressing (process-to-process delivery)
Protocols Used
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): TCP is used when data must be error-
free, complete, and in order. Examples: loading websites, downloading files,
sending emails.
• Connection-oriented
• Reliable and ordered delivery
• Error checking and retransmission
• Used where accuracy is important
Example: File transfer, email, web pages
UDP (User Datagram Protocol: UDP is used when speed is more important than
perfect accuracy. Examples: live streaming, online gaming, VoIP calls. It's
features are:
• Connectionless
• Faster but unreliable
• No retransmission or ordering
Example: Video streaming, online games, VoIP

3. Internet Layer
Purpose
• Responsible for logical addressing and routing
• Transfers packets from source network to destination network
Main Functions
• Packet forwarding
• Logical (IP) addressing
• Routing between networks
• Fragmentation and reassembly of packets
Protocols Used
 • IP (IPv4 / IPv6) – Logical addressing
• ICMP – Error reporting and diagnostics
• ARP – IP address to MAC address mapping
• RARP – MAC address to IP address mapping
Example
• Router uses IP addresses to decide the best path for data
• ping command uses ICMP

4. Network Access Layer

Purpose
• Responsible for the physical transmission of data
• Interfaces with the actual network hardware
Main Functions
• Framing
• Physical addressing (MAC address)
• Error detection at frame level
• Media access control
Technologies Used
• Ethernet
• Wi-Fi
• LAN, WAN
• MAC addresses
• Network Interface Cards (NIC)
Example
Sending data over Ethernet cable or Wi-Fi router
Data Flow in TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer creates data
2. Transport Layer divides data into segments
3. Internet Layer adds IP address and routes packets
4. Network Access Layer sends bits over physical medium
At receiver side, the process is reversed.
 Comparison: TCP/IP vs OSI Model
Feature TCP/IP Model OSI Model

Number of layers 4 7

Nature Practical Theoretical

Developed by DARPA ISO

Usage Internet Education

Flexibility High Low

Advantages of TCP/IP Model

• Standard protocol of the Internet
• Highly scalable
• Platform independent
• Supports both reliable (TCP) and fast (UDP) communication

Disadvantages
• No clear separation of services, interfaces, and protocols
• Session and Presentation layers not defined separately
• Less secure by default
 NETWORKING DEVICES
• Network devices are hardware components that help computers and other
devices communicate over a network by forwarding, regenerating, or
routing data.
• They operate at different layers of the OSI model depending on their
function

Layer 1 – Physical Layer Devices

1) Hub
A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple computers in a LAN
and sends data to all connected devices.
• Function:
Provides a common connection point for network devices.
How it Works:
Receives data from one port and broadcasts it to all ports without checking the
destination.
Key Points:
• Works at the Physical layer
• No intelligence
• Causes collisions
• Obsolete device
Example:
In an old computer lab, 10 computers are connected using a hub. When one
computer sends data, all computers receive it.
Real-life Analogy:
Teacher announcing something loudly in a classroom.

2) Repeater
A repeater is a networking device used to regenerate and strengthen weak signals
in a network.
 A repeater installed on a link receives the signal before it becomes too
weak or corrupted, regenerates the original pattern, and puts the refreshed
copy back on the link.
Function:
Extends the physical length of a network.
How it Works:
Receives weak signals, regenerates and retransmits them to their original
strength.

Key Points:
• Physical layer device
• Solves signal attenuation
• No data filtering
Example:
A repeater is placed between two distant buildings to boost network signals.
Real-life Analogy:
A loudspeaker that amplifies sound for distant listeners.

3) Modem (Modulator–Demodulator)
A modem is a device that converts digital data into analog signals and vice versa
for Internet communication.
Function:
Connects a computer or network to an Internet Service Provider (ISP).
How it Works:
• Modulation: Digital → Analog
• Demodulation: Analog → Digital
Key Points:
• Required for Internet access
• Works at Physical layer
Example:
A home DSL modem connects your laptop to the Internet.
Real-life Analogy:
A language translator converting one language to another.
 Layer 2 – Data Link Layer Devices
4) Bridge
A bridge is a device that connects two LAN segments and filters traffic using
MAC addresses.
• Function:
Reduces network traffic by dividing a LAN into segments.
How it Works:
Checks MAC addresses and forwards frames only when necessary.

Key Points:
• Works at Data Link layer
• Reduces collisions
• Largely replaced by switches
Example:
Two departments in an office have separate LAN segments connected using a
bridge.
Real-life Analogy:
A security guard controlling movement between two buildings.

5) Switch
A switch is an intelligent networking device that connects multiple devices
within a LAN.
Function:
Efficiently forwards data to the correct destination device.

How it Works:
Uses a MAC address table to send data only to the intended port.
Key Points:
• Data Link layer device
• Faster and more secure than hub
 • Reduces collisions
Example:
In a modern office, 20 computers are connected through a switch.
Real-life Analogy:
A postman delivering letters to specific houses.

Layer 3 – Network Layer Device

6) Router
A router is a networking device that connects different networks and routes
data packets between them.
• Function:
Selects the best path for data transmission.
How it Works:
• Uses IP addresses and routing tables to forward packets.
Key Points:
• Works at Network layer
• Connects LAN to Internet
• Prevents broadcast storms
Example:
A Wi-Fi router connects your home network to the Internet.

Real-life Analogy:
• A traffic police officer directing vehicles to different roads.
 Higher Layer Device (Layer 4–7)

7) Gateway
A gateway is a device that connects networks using different communication
protocols.
Function:
Translates data between incompatible networks.
How it Works:
Converts data formats and protocols for communication.
Key Points:
• Can operate at multiple OSI layers
• Acts as protocol converter
Example:
An email gateway allows communication between internal mail systems and the
Internet.
Real-life Analogy:
An international airport connecting flights between different countries.
 COMPARISON: NETWORKING DEVICES
Device OSI Layer Main Function / Key Difference
Hub Layer 1 (Physical) Broadcasts data to all devices; no intelligence

Repeater Layer 1 (Physical) Regenerates and amplifies weak signals

Modem Layer 1 (Physical) Converts digital ↔ analog signals for

Internet
Bridge Layer 2 (Data Link) Filters traffic using MAC addresses
Switch Layer 2 (Data Link) Forwards data only to the destination device
Router Layer 3 (Network) Routes data between networks using IP
addresses
Gateway Layer 4–7 Converts data between different protocols
(Multiple)