Module 2 Notes

OPERATORS AND EXPRESSIONS

INTRODUCTION
Operators are symbols that perform operations on data (variables/constants).
Expressions combine operands and operators to produce a result.
Example expression:
a+b*c
Here:
 operands → a, b, c
 operators → +, *
Key point
 Expressions are evaluated using precedence and associativity rules.
Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a = 10, b = 5;
int result = a + b * 2; // multiplication happens first
printf("Result = %d", result);
return 0;
}

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER OF OPERANDS

Types
1. Unary operator → operates on 1 operand
2. Binary operator → operates on 2 operands
3. Ternary operator → operates on 3 operands

Unary Operators
Examples
 ++a (pre-increment)
 a++ (post-increment)
 --a (pre-decrement)
 -a (negation)
Syntax
operator operand
or
operand operator
Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int x = 5;
printf("%d\n", ++x); // 6
printf("%d\n", x--); // prints 6, then x becomes 5
return 0;
}

Binary Operators
Examples
 Arithmetic → + - * / %
 Relational → < > <= >= == !=
 Logical → && ||
 Assignment → = += -=
Syntax
operand1 operator operand2
Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a = 7, b = 3;
 printf("Sum = %d\n", a + b);
printf("Product = %d\n", a * b);
return 0;
}

Ternary Operator
Syntax
condition ? expression1 : expression2
Meaning
 If condition is true → expression1 executes
 Else → expression2 executes
Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int n = 10;
(n % 2 == 0) ? printf("Even") : printf("Odd");
return 0;
}
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TYPE OF OPERATION

Arithmetic Operators
Operators
Operator Meaning

+ Addition

- Subtraction

* Multiplication

/ Division

% Modulus (remainder)
Important Rules
 / between two integers → integer division
 % allowed only for integers
 % gives remainder

Syntax
result = operand1 operator operand2;

Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a = 10, b = 3;
printf("a + b = %d\n", a + b);
printf("a - b = %d\n", a - b);
printf("a * b = %d\n", a * b);
printf("a / b = %d\n", a / b);
printf("a %% b = %d\n", a % b);
return 0;
}

Conversion of Expressions
When an expression uses multiple data types, C converts lower-rank types into higher-rank
types automatically.
Type hierarchy
char → int → float → double
Example
int + float → float
float + double → double

Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a = 5;
float b = 2.5;
float c = a + b; // a converted to float
printf("c = %.2f", c);
return 0;
}

Type Conversion
Two Types
1. Implicit conversion → automatic
2. Explicit conversion (type casting) → forced by programmer

1. Implicit Conversion
Automatically converts lower→higher type.
Example
int a = 10;
float b = a + 2.5; // a becomes 10.0

2. Explicit Conversion (Type Casting)

Syntax
(type) expression
Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a = 7, b = 2;
float c = (float)a / b; // prevents integer division
printf("%.2f", c);
return 0;
}

Need for Explicit Type Conversion

Why Needed?
 Prevents loss of accuracy
 Avoid unwanted integer division
 Ensures correct result
Example
Without casting:
7/2=3
With casting:
(float)7 / 2 = 3.5

Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int x = 7, y = 2;

float wrong = x / y;
float correct = (float)x / y;
 printf("Wrong = %.2f\n", wrong);
printf("Correct = %.2f\n", correct);

return 0;
}

Modes of Arithmetic Expressions

1. Integer Arithmetic
Both operands are integers → result is integer.
Example
5+2=7
5/2=2

2. Real Arithmetic
If at least one operand is float → result float.
Example
5 + 2.0 = 7.0

3. Mixed Arithmetic
C converts integer → float.

Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a = 5;
float b = 2.0;
float c = a + b; // mixed arithmetic
printf("%f", c);
return 0;
}
Precedence of Arithmetic Operators
Order (Highest → Lowest)
1. ()
2. ++ --
3. * / %
4. + -

Example
a+b*c
Multiplication happens first.

Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a = 2, b = 3, c = 4;
int result = a + b * c;
printf("%d", result); // 14
return 0;
}

Associativity of Operators
When operators have the same precedence, associativity decides the order.
Examples
Operators Associativity

+ - * / % Left → Right

= += -= Right → Left

Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
 int a = 10;
int b = 20;
int c = 30;

int result = a + b + c; // left to right

printf("%d", result);
return 0;
}
RELATIONAL OPERATORS

Relational operators compare two [Link] result is always 1 (true) or 0 (false).

List of Relational Operators
Operator Meaning

< Less than

> Greater than

<= Less than or equal to

>= Greater than or equal to

== Equal to

!= Not equal to

Syntax
expression1 operator expression2

Example
a>b
x == y
marks >= 35
Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a = 10, b = 20;

printf("a < b = %d\n", a < b);

printf("a > b = %d\n", a > b);
printf("a == b = %d\n", a == b);
printf("a != b = %d\n", a != b);

return 0;
}
LOGICAL OPERATORS
Logical operators combine multiple conditions.
Logical Operators
Operator Meaning

&& Logical AND

! Logical NOT

🔹 Logical AND (&&)

True only when both conditions are true.
Example
(age > 18) && (marks >= 35)

🔹 Logical OR (||)
True if any one condition is true.
Example
(temp > 40) || (rain == 1)
🔹 Logical NOT (!)
Reverses truth value.
Example
! (a == b)

Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int age = 20;
int marks = 30;
printf("AND = %d\n", (age > 18 && marks >= 35));
printf("OR = %d\n", (age > 18 || marks >= 35));
printf("NOT = %d\n", !(marks >= 35));

return 0;
}

ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS
Assignment operators assign values to variables.
List of Assignment Operators
Operator Meaning

= Simple assignment

+= Add and assign

-= Subtract and assign

*= Multiply and assign

/= Divide and assign

%= Modulus and assign

Syntax
variable operator value;
Examples:
a += 5; // same as a = a + 5;
b *= 3; // same as b = b * 3;
Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a = 10;
a += 5; // now a = 15
a -= 3; // now a = 12
a *= 2; // now a = 24
a /= 4; // now a = 6
printf("Final Value of a = %d", a);
return 0;
}

DECISION MAKING AND BRANCHING

INTRODUCTION
Decision-making statements allow a program to choose different paths based on conditions.
These statements check conditions using relational and logical operators.
Example decisions:
 Is the number positive or negative?
 Which number is largest?
 Should a menu option run?
C supports the following decision statements:
1. if
2. if-else
3. nested if
 4. else-if ladder
5. switch

SELECTION / BRANCHING STATEMENTS

Select one block of code among many based on conditions.
List:
1. if statement
2. if-else statement
3. nested if
4. else-if ladder
5. switch statement

THE IF STATEMENT (One-way selection)

IDENTIFY EVEN AND ODD NUMBER

if executes a block ONLY WHEN the condition is true.

Condition to check even:
n % 2 == 0

Syntax
if (condition) {
statements;
}
Example Program – Even/Odd
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int n;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
 if (n % 2 == 0) {
printf("Even");
}
return 0;
}
If number is odd → no output (one-way selection).

PROGRAM TO FIND MAXIMUM OF TWO NUMBERS

Condition:
if (a > b)

Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a, b;
printf("Enter two numbers: ");
scanf("%d %d", &a, &b);

if (a > b) {
printf("Largest = %d", a);
}
return 0;
}

FIND LARGEST OF 3 NUMBERS

Using nested if.

Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
 int a, b, c;
printf("Enter 3 numbers: ");
scanf("%d %d %d", &a, &b, &c);

if (a > b) {
if (a > c)
printf("Largest = %d", a);
else
printf("Largest = %d", c);
}
else {
if (b > c)
printf("Largest = %d", b);
else
printf("Largest = %d", c);
}
return 0;
}
CHECK WHETHER NUMBER IS POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE
Condition:
n>0

Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int n;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &n);

if (n > 0)
 printf("Positive");
return 0;
}
Zero gives no message (one-way selection).

THE IF-ELSE STATEMENT (Two-way selection)

If condition is true → if block executes
Else → else block executes

Syntax
if (condition) {
statements;
}
else {
statements;
}

PROGRAM 1 – Check Even/Odd using if-else

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int n;
scanf("%d", &n);

if (n % 2 == 0)
printf("Even");
else
printf("Odd");
return 0;
}
PROGRAM 2 – Find Larger of Two Numbers
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a, b;
scanf("%d %d", &a, &b);

if (a > b)
printf("Larger = %d", a);
else
printf("Larger = %d", b);

return 0;
}

PROGRAM 3 – Leap Year Check

Leap year logic:
(year % 400 == 0)
OR (year % 4 == 0 AND year % 100 != 0)
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int year;
scanf("%d", &year);

if ((year % 400 == 0) || (year % 4 == 0 && year % 100 != 0))

printf("Leap year");
else
printf("Not leap year");

return 0;
}

NESTED IF STATEMENT
Explanation
if inside another if
Used for multi-level decisions.

Syntax
if (condition1) {
if (condition2) {
statements;
}
}
Example – Find largest of 3 numbers (nested if)

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

Advantages
 Accurate multi-layer checking
 Useful for hierarchical decisions
Disadvantages
 Code readability decreases
 Hard to maintain

ELSE-IF LADDER
Explanation
Used when multiple conditions must be checked.

Syntax
if (condition1)
statements;
else if (condition2)
statements;
else if (condition3)
 statements;
else
default statements;
Example – Grade Based on Marks
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int marks;
scanf("%d", &marks);

if (marks >= 90)

printf("Grade A");
else if (marks >= 80)
printf("Grade B");
else if (marks >= 70)
printf("Grade C");
else
printf("Fail");

return 0;
}

FIND ROOTS OF A QUADRATIC EQUATION

Quadratic:
ax² + bx + c
Discriminant:
D = b*b - 4*a*c
Cases:
 D > 0 → Real & distinct
 D = 0 → Real & equal
 D < 0 → Imaginary
Program
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

int main() {
float a, b, c, D, r1, r2;

scanf("%f %f %f", &a, &b, &c);

D = b*b - 4*a*c;

if (D > 0) {
r1 = (-b + sqrt(D)) / (2*a);
r2 = (-b - sqrt(D)) / (2*a);
printf("Real and distinct roots: %.2f, %.2f", r1, r2);
}
else if (D == 0) {
r1 = r2 = -b / (2*a);
printf("Real and equal roots: %.2f", r1);
}
else {
printf("Imaginary roots");
}

return 0;
}

SIMPLE CALCULATOR USING IF-ELSE LADDER

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int choice, a, b;
scanf("%d %d %d", &choice, &a, &b);

if (choice == 1)
printf("%d", a + b);
else if (choice == 2)
printf("%d", a - b);
else if (choice == 3)
printf("%d", a * b);
else if (choice == 4)
printf("%d", a / b);
else
printf("Invalid choice");

return 0;
}
CHECK TRIANGLE TYPE
Conditions:
 Equilateral → a == b == c
 Isosceles → any two sides equal
 Scalene → all sides different

Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a, b, c;
scanf("%d %d %d", &a, &b, &c);

if (a == b && b == c)
 printf("Equilateral");
else if (a == b || b == c || a == c)
printf("Isosceles");
else
printf("Scalene");

return 0;
}

SWITCH STATEMENT

Used when decision depends on a single expression value.

Syntax
switch (expression) {
case value1: statements; break;
case value2: statements; break;
...
default: statements;
}

Rules
 Only int/char allowed
 break prevents fall-through
 default is optional

Example – Simple Calculator (Switch)

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int choice, a, b;
scanf("%d%d%d", &choice, &a, &b);

switch(choice) {
case 1: printf("%d", a + b); break;
case 2: printf("%d", a - b); break;
case 3: printf("%d", a * b); break;
case 4: printf("%d", a / b); break;
default: printf("Invalid choice");
}

return 0;
}

UNCONDITIONAL BRANCHING STATEMENTS

THE GOTO STATEMENT

Jumps to a labeled statement.
Not recommended (makes code confusing)

Syntax
goto label;
...
label:
statements;

Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int i = 1;

start:
printf("%d ", i);
i++;

if (i <= 5)
goto start;

return 0;
}

BREAK STATEMENT
Explanation
Used to exit:
 Loop
 Switch

Example
for (i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
if (i == 5)
break;
}
CONTINUE STATEMENT
Explanation
Skips the remaining statements in loop and goes to next iteration.

Example
for (i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
 if (i == 3)
continue;
printf("%d ", i);
}

RETURN STATEMENT
Used to exit a function and optionally return a value.

Syntax
return value;

Example
int add(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}

PROGRAMMING STYLE GUIDELINES

 Use meaningful names
 Proper indentation
 Comments for clarity
 Avoid too many nested structures
 Keep code modular

REPETITION (LOOPING)
Loops allow executing a block of code multiple times.
C provides:
1. while
2. for
3. do-while

CONCEPT OF A LOOP

A loop repeats a set of statements until a condition becomes false.

Types of loops:
1. Entry-controlled loops
 Condition tested before executing loop body
 while
 for
2. Exit-controlled loop
 Condition tested after executing loop body
 do-while (runs at least once)

General Syntax (All loops)

initialization;
while(condition) {
statements;
increment/decrement;
}

THE WHILE STATEMENT

Explanation
 Entry-controlled loop
 Executes only when condition is true
Syntax
while (condition) {
 statements;
}

SUM OF NATURAL NUMBERS

Program
Sum of 1 to n.
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int n, i = 1, sum = 0;
scanf("%d", &n);

while(i <= n) {
sum += i;
i++;
}

printf("Sum = %d", sum);

return 0;
}
SUM OF SERIES 1 + x + x² + x³ + … + xⁿ
Logic
Use loop to calculate powers of x.
Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int x, n, i;
float sum = 1, term = 1;

scanf("%d %d", &x, &n);

 for(i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
term = term * x;
sum += term;
}

printf("Sum = %.2f", sum);

return 0;
}
SUM OF INTEGERS READ FROM KEYBOARD
Continue reading until user enters 0.
Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int n, sum = 0;

printf("Enter numbers (0 to stop):\n");

scanf("%d", &n);
while(n != 0) {
sum += n;
scanf("%d", &n);
}

printf("Sum = %d", sum);

return 0;
}

PRINT NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 100

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int i = 1;

while(i <= 100) {

printf("%d ", i);
i++;
}

return 0;
}
REVERSE A GIVEN NUMBER
Logic:
 Extract digit using % 10
 Build reversed number
Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int n, rev = 0, digit;
scanf("%d", &n);
while(n > 0) {
digit = n % 10;
rev = rev * 10 + digit;
n /= 10;
}

printf("Reversed = %d", rev);

return 0;
}
CHECK FOR PALINDROME (INTEGER)
Palindrome: number == reversed number.
Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int n, temp, rev = 0, digit;
scanf("%d", &n);

temp = n;

while(temp > 0) {
digit = temp % 10;
rev = rev * 10 + digit;
temp /= 10;
}

if(n == rev)
printf("Palindrome");
else
printf("Not Palindrome");

return 0;
}

SUM OF DIGITS OF A NUMBER

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int n, sum = 0, digit;
scanf("%d", &n);

while(n > 0) {
digit = n % 10;
 sum += digit;
n /= 10;
}

printf("Sum of digits = %d", sum);

return 0;
}

BINARY TO DECIMAL CONVERSION

Logic:
Binary digits processed from right to left.
Program
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

int main() {
int bin, dec = 0, i = 0, digit;
scanf("%d", &bin);

while(bin > 0) {
digit = bin % 10;
dec += digit * pow(2, i);
i++;
bin /= 10;
}

printf("Decimal = %d", dec);

return 0;
}
DECIMAL TO BINARY CONVERSION
Logic:
Repeated division by 2 and store remainder.

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int n, bin = 0, place = 1, rem;
scanf("%d", &n);

while(n > 0) {
rem = n % 2;
bin += rem * place;
place *= 2;
n /= 2;
}

printf("Binary = %d", bin);

return 0;
}
GCD AND LCM (Euclid’s Algorithm)
GCD Logic:
while (b != 0)
r=a%b
a=b
b=r

Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a, b, x, y, r;
scanf("%d %d", &a, &b);
 x = a; y = b;

while(b != 0) {
r = a % b;
a = b;
b = r;
}

int gcd = a;
int lcm = (x * y) / gcd;

printf("GCD = %d\nLCM = %d", gcd, lcm);

return 0;
}

THE FOR STATEMENT

Explanation
Used when number of iterations is known.
Syntax
for(initialization; condition; increment) {
statements;
}

DISPLAY NUMBERS FROM 1 TO n

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int n, i;
scanf("%d", &n);

for(i = 1; i <= n; i++) {

printf("%d ", i);
}

return 0;
}
DISPLAY ODD NUMBERS WITHIN n
for(i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
if(i % 2 != 0)
printf("%d ", i);
}

DISPLAY EVEN NUMBERS WITHIN n

for(i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
if(i % 2 == 0)
printf("%d ", i);
}

DISPLAY ODD AND EVEN NUMBERS SIDE BY SIDE

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int n, i;

scanf("%d", &n);
 printf("Odd\tEven\n");

for(i = 1; i <= n; i++) {

printf("%d\t%d\n", i, i + 1);
i++;
}

return 0;
}
DISPLAY NUMBERS FROM n DOWN TO 1
for(i = n; i >= 1; i--) {
printf("%d ", i);
}
COMPARISON OF WHILE LOOP AND FOR LOOP
while →
 Condition before loop
 Used when number of iterations unknown
for →
 All 3 parts (init, condition, increment) in one line
 Best when iterations are fixed

7.3.7 SUM OF FIRST NATURAL NUMBERS

sum = n * (n + 1) / 2;
OR using loop:
sum += i;

SUM OF SQUARES OF FIRST n NATURAL NUMBERS

sum += i * i;

SUM EVEN AND ODD NUMBERS USING TWO LOOPS

Program
int even = 0, odd = 0;

for(i = 1; i <= n; i++)

if(i % 2 == 0)
even += i;

for(i = 1; i <= n; i++)

if(i % 2 != 0)
odd += i;

SUM EVEN & ODD USING A SINGLE LOOP

for(i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
if(i % 2 == 0)
even += i;
else
odd += i;
}

FACTORIAL OF A NUMBER
Program
int fact = 1;
for(i = 1; i <= n; i++)
fact *= i;

VARIATIONS IN FOR LOOP

C allows:
 missing initialization
 missing condition (infinite loop)
 missing increment part
Example
for( ; ; ) // infinite loop

SUM OF INTEGERS BETWEEN n1 AND n2 DIVISIBLE BY 5

for(i = n1; i <= n2; i++)
if(i % 5 == 0)
sum += i;

FIND SQUARE ROOT OF A NUMBER

Using Newton–Raphson method or sqrt().
printf("%.2f", sqrt(n));

PRINT N FIBONACCI NUMBERS

int a = 0, b = 1, next;

for(i = 1; i <= n; i++) {

printf("%d ", a);
next = a + b;
a = b;
b = next;
}

NESTED LOOPS
Used for:
 Patterns
 Multiplication tables
 Matrix operations
Example
for(i = 1; i <= 3; i++) {
for(j = 1; j <= 3; j++) {
 printf("%d ", j);
}
printf("\n");
}

DO-WHILE LOOP
Syntax
do {
statements;
} while(condition);
Always executes at least once.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WHILE AND DO-WHILE

while do-while

condition checked first body runs first

may run 0 times runs minimum once

SUM OF NATURAL NUMBERS USING DO-WHILE

do {
sum += i;
i++;
} while(i <= n);

Module 3 Notes
ARRAYS

CONCEPT OF ARRAYS (Why Arrays?)

An array is a collection of multiple values of the same data type stored in contiguous
memory locations, accessed using an index.
Why arrays?
Without arrays:
 You would create individual variables: marks1, marks2, marks3, …
 Hard to manage with loops
 Harder for large data (100, 1000 values)
With arrays:
int marks[100];
 Easy to store large datasets
 Easy to loop
 Memory is continuous
 Index begins at 0
Memory Diagram (Example)
int a[5] = {10,20,30,40,50};

Index: 0 1 2 3 4
Value: 10 20 30 40 50
Address:100 102 104 106 108 (example)

Why arrays make life easier

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a[5], i;

printf("Enter 5 numbers: ");

for(i = 0; i < 5; i++)
scanf("%d", &a[i]);
 printf("You entered: ");
for(i = 0; i < 5; i++)
printf("%d ", a[i]);

return 0;
}

CLASSIFICATION OF ARRAYS
There are two types:
1️⃣ Single-dimensional arrays
2️⃣ Two-dimensional arrays (Chapter continues later)
SINGLE-DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS

A linear arrangement of elements.

General Syntax
data_type array_name[size];
Example:
int marks[50];
float prices[10];
char letters[100];
Accessing elements
array_name[index]

Program (Input + Output array)

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a[5], i;

for(i = 0; i < 5; i++)

scanf("%d", &a[i]);
 for(i = 0; i < 5; i++)
printf("%d ", a[i]);

return 0;
}

DECLARATION OF SINGLE-DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS

Syntax:
data_type array_name[size];
Examples:
int age[10];
float sal[20];
char name[30];
Rules:
 Size must be positive integer
 Index range: 0 to size-1

Program – Declaring and accessing

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int age[3] = {20, 25, 30};

printf("%d", age[1]); // 25
return 0;
}

STORING VALUES IN ARRAYS

Values stored by:
 Direct assignment
 Using loops
 Using initialization lists
Direct assignment
a[0] = 10;
a[1] = 20;
Using loop
for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
scanf("%d", &a[i]);

INITIALIZATION OF SINGLE-DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS

Syntax:
data_type array_name[size] = {v1, v2, ... };
Example:
int a[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
If fewer values are provided:
int a[5] = {1, 2}; // remaining become 0
Without specifying size:
int a[] = {1,2,3,4};

Program – Array initialization + display

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a[] = {5, 10, 15, 20, 25};
int i;

for(i = 0; i < 5; i++)

printf("%d ", a[i]);
 return 0;
}
INITIALIZING ALL SPECIFIED MEMORY LOCATIONS
int a[5] = {0};
Meaning:
a = {0, 0, 0, 0, 0}
PARTIAL ARRAY INITIALIZATION
int a[5] = {1, 2};
Result:
a = {1, 2, 0, 0, 0}

INITIALIZATION WITHOUT SIZE

int a[] = {10, 20, 30};
Compiler calculates size = 3.

ARRAY INITIALIZATION WITH A STRING

char name[] = "ANU";
Stored as:
'A' 'N' 'U' '\0'
ASSIGNING VALUES TO ARRAYS
Arrays cannot be assigned directly:
❌ Not allowed:
a = b;
✔ Allowed:
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
a[i] = b[i];

READING AND WRITING SINGLE-DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS

Reading:
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
scanf("%d", &a[i]);
Writing:
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
printf("%d", a[i]);

ARRAYS AND FUNCTIONS

Two ways:
Passing individual elements:
function(a[i]);
Passing whole array:
function(a, size);

Program – Passing whole array

#include <stdio.h>

void display(int a[], int n){

for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
printf("%d ", a[i]);
}

int main(){
int a[] = {1,2,3,4,5};
display(a,5);
}

PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES

Addition of N elements
int sum = 0;
for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
sum += a[i];

Sum of positive & negative numbers

Use if-condition.

Largest of N numbers
Use a loop to track max.

Fibonacci numbers using arrays

f[0] = 0; f[1] = 1;
f[i] = f[i-1] + f[i-2];

SEARCHING
Two methods.

LINEAR SEARCH (Sequential)

Check each element one-by-one.

Program
for(i=0;i<n;i++){
if(a[i] == key){
found = 1;
break;
}
}

BINARY SEARCH
Works only on sorted arrays.
Algorithm:
1. mid = (low + high)/2
2. If key == a[mid] → found
3. If key < a[mid] → search left
4. Else → search right

BUBBLE SORT
Repeatedly compare adjacent values and swap.

EVALUATE POLYNOMIAL (Horner’s Method)

value = (((a0)x + a1)x + a2)x + …

TWO-DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS
Matrix form.
Syntax:
int a[3][3];

DECLARATION OF 2-D ARRAYS

data_type array_name[row][col];

INITIALIZATION OF 2-D ARRAYS

int a[2][2] = {{1,2},{3,4}};

ADDITION OF TWO MATRICES

Element-wise addition:
c[i][j] = a[i][j] + b[i][j];

PRODUCT OF TWO MATRICES

Use nested loops:
c[i][j] += a[i][k] * b[k][j];

STRING CONCEPTS
What is a string?
A sequence of characters terminated by '\0'.
Example:
char name[] = "ANU";
Stored as:
'A' 'N' 'U' '\0'
Why strings?
 To store text
 Used for names, addresses, messages
Key Points:
 String length does not include '\0'
 String size must include space for '\0'

DECLARING A STRING VARIABLE

Syntax:
char string_name[size];
Examples:
char name[20];
char city[50];
char ch[5] = {'H','e','l','l','o'}; // ❌ no '\0' → NOT a proper string
char ch2[6] = {'H','e','l','l','o','\0'}; // ✔ correct

Initializing Strings
Method 1: Using double quotes (recommended)
char name[] = "Anu";
Compiler automatically adds '\0'.
Method 2: Using character array
char name[4] = {'A','n','u','\0'};
Method 3: Empty initialization
char s[50] = "";

STRING INPUT/OUTPUT FUNCTIONS

Formatted input: scanf()

Syntax:
scanf("%s", string_var);
Limitation:
 Stops at space
Example:
Input: Anu Girish
Stored: "Anu"

Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char name[20];
scanf("%s", name);
printf("Name = %s", name);
return 0;
}

String conversion code %s

Used in:
printf("%s", str);
scanf("%s", str);
fprintf(file,"%s",str);

Edit set conversion code

To accept strings with spaces:
scanf("%[^\n]", str);
Meaning: read until newline.
Example:
Enter sentence: I love coding
Stored: "I love coding"

INPUT/OUTPUT FUNCTIONS FOR STRINGS

Token-Oriented I/O: scanf(), printf()

 Input until space
 Output entire string

10.4.2 Line-Oriented I/O: gets() and puts()

⚠️gets() is unsafe
Modern C uses fgets().
Syntax:
gets(str);
puts(str);
Example:
char msg[50];
gets(msg);
puts(msg);

10.4.3 getchar() and putchar()

Reads or prints a single character.
char c = getchar();
putchar(c);

10.4.4 getch(), getche(), putch()

Used in older compilers (Turbo C).

10.4.5 Testing the type of character

Functions:
isdigit(c)
isalpha(c)
islower(c)
isupper(c)
isspace(c)

10.4.6 Arrays of strings

A 2D character array:
char names[5][20];
Stores 5 strings, each max 19 chars + '\0'.

⭐ 10.5 STRING HANDLING FUNCTIONS (From <string.h>)

10.5.1 strlen() – String length

Counts characters until '\0'.
Syntax:
strlen(str);
Example:
strlen("ANU") → 3
Program:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main() {
char s[] = "ANU";
printf("Length = %d", strlen(s));
}

10.5.2 strcpy() – Copy String

Copies source → destination.
Syntax:
strcpy(dest, src);
Program:
char a[20], b[20] = "Hello";
strcpy(a, b); // a = "Hello"

10.5.3 strlen() vs sizeof()

strlen("ABC") → 3
sizeof("ABC") → 4 (includes '\0')

10.5.4 strncpy() – Copy specified characters

Syntax:
strncpy(dest, src, n);

10.5.5 strcat() – Concatenate

strcat(dest, src);
Example:
"Hello" + "World" → "HelloWorld"

10.5.6 strncat() – Concatenate n characters

strncat(dest, src, n);
10.5.7 strcmp() – Compare strings
Syntax:
strcmp(s1, s2);
Return:
 0 → equal
 positive → s1 > s2
 negative → s1 < s2

10.5.8 strncmp() – Compare first n characters

strncmp(s1, s2, n);

⭐ 10.6 PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES

10.6.1 Reverse a string – strrev()

Manual logic:
swap characters from ends until middle.

Program:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

int main() {
char s[50];
gets(s);

strrev(s);
printf("%s", s);
return 0;
}
10.6.2 Palindrome string
"madam" → palindrome
Program:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

int main() {
char s[50];
gets(s);

char temp[50];
strcpy(temp, s);
strrev(temp);

if(strcmp(s, temp) == 0)
printf("Palindrome");
else
printf("Not Palindrome");
}

10.6.3 Read line and return length

gets(str);
printf("%d", strlen(str));

10.6.5 Remove all occurrences of a character

Logic:
Copy only characters != target.

10.6.7 Count number of 1’s in integer

Convert integer to string, count '1'.
10.6.8 Count vowels & consonants
Check using:
if(str[i] == 'a' || str[i] == 'e' ...)

10.6.9 Convert uppercase <-> lowercase

Using:
toupper()
tolower()

10.6.10 Count digits, spaces, others

Use isdigit(), isspace(), isalpha()

10.6.11 ASCII to integer

Use:
atoi(str);

10.6.12 Integer to ASCII

Use:
itoa(n, str, 10);

⭐ 10.7 USER-DEFINED STRING FUNCTIONS

(Functions written by programmer)

10.7.1 countchar(c, str)

Count occurrences of a character.

10.7.2 findchar(c, str)

Return position of character.

10.7.3 insertend(c, str)

Append character at end.

10.7.4 split string

Divide based on given position.

10.7.5 Search in array of strings

Loop compare string-by-string.

10.7.6 Function to return value of type char*

Return pointer to string.

10.7.7 atof() – ASCII to float

float x = atof("12.34");

🎉 CHAPTER 10 COMPLETED (Full Coverage)

⭐ If you want:
✔ A PDF of Chapter 9 & 10
✔ A combined textbook PDF (Chapter 4, 6, 7, 9, 10)
✔ Summary notes
✔ Flowcharts
✔ Question bank
✔ Programs-only booklet
Tell me what you want next.
You said:
programming examples for 10.6 and 10.7 nd for all subtopics
ChatGPT said:
Thought for 5s
Good — below are practical, ready-to-compile C programs covering every subtopic in
10.6 and 10.7 from your book.
Each item includes a short explanation, then a complete program you can paste into a C
compiler (gcc). I avoided unsafe gets() and non-standard strrev()/itoa() by implementing
equivalents.

10.6 — Programming examples (detailed programs)

10.6.1 — String reverse (implementing strrev)
Explanation: swap characters from ends until the middle.
/* reverse_string.c */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

void reverse_str(char s[]) {

int i = 0, j = strlen(s) - 1;
while (i < j) {
char t = s[i];
s[i] = s[j];
s[j] = t;
i++; j--;
}
}

int main() {
char s[200];
printf("Enter a string: ");
if (!fgets(s, sizeof s, stdin)) return 0;
s[strcspn(s, "\n")] = '\0'; // remove newline
reverse_str(s);
printf("Reversed: %s\n", s);
return 0;
}

10.6.2 — Palindrome (string)

Explanation: reverse the string and compare.
/* palindrome_string.c */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <ctype.h>

void normalize(char *s) {

// optional: remove spaces and tolower for phrase palindrome
int i=0, j=0;
while (s[i]) {
if (!isspace((unsigned char)s[i])) s[j++] = tolower((unsigned char)s[i]);
i++;
}
s[j] = '\0';
}

void reverse_str(char s[]) {

int i=0, j=strlen(s)-1;
while(i<j){ char t=s[i]; s[i++]=s[j]; s[j--]=t; }
}

int main() {
char s[300], tmp[300];
printf("Enter string: ");
if(!fgets(s,sizeof s,stdin)) return 0;
s[strcspn(s,"\n")] = '\0';
strcpy(tmp, s);
normalize(tmp); // optional normalization
char rev[300];
strcpy(rev, tmp);
 reverse_str(rev);
if(strcmp(tmp, rev) == 0) printf("Palindrome\n");
else printf("Not a palindrome\n");
return 0;
}

10.6.3 — Read a line and return the length (getline equivalent)

Explanation: use fgets and strlen.
/* getline_length.c */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

int main() {
char line[1024];
printf("Enter a line: ");
if (!fgets(line, sizeof line, stdin)) return 0;
size_t len = strcspn(line, "\n"); // length without newline
printf("You entered (%zu chars): %.*s\n", len, (int)len, line);
return 0;
}

10.6.4 — Read set of text lines and print the longest

Explanation: read lines until EOF (Ctrl+D on Unix), track longest.
/* longest_line.c */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

int main() {
char line[1024], longest[1024];
longest[0] = '\0';
 printf("Enter lines (Ctrl+D to end):\n");
while(fgets(line, sizeof line, stdin)) {
if (strlen(line) > strlen(longest)) strcpy(longest, line);
}
if (longest[0]) {
longest[strcspn(longest, "\n")] = '\0';
printf("Longest line: %s\nLength: %zu\n", longest, strlen(longest));
} else {
printf("No input\n");
}
return 0;
}

10.6.5 — Remove all occurrences of a character: squeeze(s, c)

Explanation: copy only chars not equal to c.
/* squeeze.c */
#include <stdio.h>

void squeeze(char *s, char c) {

char *dst = s;
for (char *src = s; *src; ++src) {
if (*src != c) *dst++ = *src;
}
*dst = '\0';
}

int main() {
char s[200];
printf("Enter string: ");
if(!fgets(s,sizeof s,stdin)) return 0;
 s[strcspn(s,"\n")] = '\0';
char ch;
printf("Character to remove: ");
if(scanf(" %c",&ch)!=1) return 0;
squeeze(s, ch);
printf("Result: %s\n", s);
return 0;
}

10.6.6 — Remove trailing blanks, tabs and newline: trim(s)

Explanation: remove leading/trailing whitespace (here implement trailing and leading).
/* trim.c */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
#include <string.h>

void trim(char *s) {

// remove leading
char *start = s;
while(isspace((unsigned char)*start)) start++;
// shift left
if (start != s) memmove(s, start, strlen(start)+1);
// remove trailing
int i = strlen(s) - 1;
while(i >= 0 && isspace((unsigned char)s[i])) s[i--] = '\0';
}

int main() {
char s[300];
printf("Enter string with spaces/tabs: ");
 if(!fgets(s,sizeof s,stdin)) return 0;
s[strcspn(s,"\n")] = '\0';
trim(s);
printf("Trimmed: '%s'\n", s);
return 0;
}

10.6.7 — Count number of 1's in integer

Explanation: count digit '1' in decimal representation.
/* count_ones.c */
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
long long n;
printf("Enter integer: ");
if (scanf("%lld",&n)!=1) return 0;
if(n<0) n = -n;
int count = 0;
if(n==0) { printf("Number of '1's: 0\n"); return 0; }
while(n>0) {
if(n%10 == 1) count++;
n /= 10;
}
printf("Number of '1' digits: %d\n", count);
return 0;
}

10.6.8 — Count vowels and consonants

Explanation: traverse string, use isalpha.
/* vowels_consonants.c */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>

int main() {
char s[500];
printf("Enter text: ");
if(!fgets(s,sizeof s,stdin)) return 0;
int vowels=0, cons=0;
for (int i=0; s[i]; i++) {
char c = tolower((unsigned char)s[i]);
if (isalpha((unsigned char)c)) {
if (c=='a'||c=='e'||c=='i'||c=='o'||c=='u') vowels++;
else cons++;
}
}
printf("Vowels: %d, Consonants: %d\n", vowels, cons);
return 0;
}

10.6.9 — Upper case to lower case and vice versa

Explanation: use toupper/tolower.
/* case_convert.c */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>

int main() {
char s[300];
printf("Enter text: ");
if(!fgets(s,sizeof s,stdin)) return 0;
for(int i=0; s[i]; ++i) {
 if (islower((unsigned char)s[i])) s[i] = toupper((unsigned char)s[i]);
else if (isupper((unsigned char)s[i])) s[i] = tolower((unsigned char)s[i]);
}
printf("Converted: %s", s);
return 0;
}

10.6.10 — Count digits, white spaces and other characters

Explanation: use isdigit, isspace, isalpha.
/* count_types.c */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>

int main() {
char s[500];
printf("Enter text: ");
if(!fgets(s,sizeof s,stdin)) return 0;
int digits=0, spaces=0, others=0;
for(int i=0; s[i]; ++i) {
if (isdigit((unsigned char)s[i])) digits++;
else if (isspace((unsigned char)s[i])) spaces++;
else if (isalpha((unsigned char)s[i])) ; // ignore letter
else others++;
}
printf("Digits: %d, Spaces: %d, Others(punct): %d\n", digits, spaces, others);
return 0;
}

10.6.11 — Convert from ASCII to integer (atoi)

Explanation: use atoi (from <stdlib.h>) or implement own.
/* ascii_to_int.c */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

int main() {
char s[100];
printf("Enter number as string: ");
if(!fgets(s,sizeof s,stdin)) return 0;
s[strcspn(s,"\n")] = '\0';
int val = atoi(s); // note: atoi doesn't detect errors robustly
printf("Integer value = %d\n", val);
return 0;
}
If you want robust conversion, use strtol.

10.6.12 — Convert integer to ASCII string (itoa)

Explanation: itoa is non-standard; implement manual version.
/* int_to_ascii.c */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

void my_itoa(int n, char s[]) {

int i = 0, sign = n;
if (n < 0) n = -n;
do {
s[i++] = (n % 10) + '0';
n /= 10;
} while (n > 0);
if (sign < 0) s[i++] = '-';
s[i] = '\0';
 // reverse s
for (int j = 0, k = i - 1; j < k; j++, k--) {
char t = s[j]; s[j] = s[k]; s[k] = t;
}
}

int main() {
int num;
char s[50];
printf("Enter integer: ");
if(scanf("%d",&num)!=1) return 0;
my_itoa(num, s);
printf("String: %s\n", s);
return 0;
}

10.7 — User-defined string functions (each with example)

10.7.1 — Frequency of character in string: countchar(c, str)
/* countchar.c */
#include <stdio.h>

int countchar(const char *s, char c) {

int count = 0;
while (*s) { if (*s++ == c) count++; }
return count;
}

int main() {
char s[200], ch;
printf("Enter string: ");
 if(!fgets(s,sizeof s,stdin)) return 0;
s[strcspn(s,"\n")] = '\0';
printf("Enter char to count: ");
if(scanf(" %c",&ch)!=1) return 0;
printf("Count = %d\n", countchar(s, ch));
return 0;
}

10.7.2 — Position of character findchar(c, str) (first occurrence)

Return index or -1.
/* findchar.c */
#include <stdio.h>

int findchar(const char *s, char c) {

for (int i = 0; s[i]; ++i)
if (s[i] == c) return i;
return -1;
}

int main() {
char s[200], ch;
printf("Enter string: ");
if(!fgets(s,sizeof s,stdin)) return 0;
s[strcspn(s,"\n")] = '\0';
printf("Char to find: ");
if(scanf(" %c",&ch)!=1) return 0;
int pos = findchar(s, ch);
if (pos >= 0) printf("Found at index %d (0-based)\n", pos);
else printf("Not found\n");
return 0;
}

10.7.3 — Insert a character at the end: insertend(c, str)

Append char and null-terminate.
/* insertend.c */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

void insertend(char *s, char c, size_t maxlen) {

size_t len = strlen(s);
if (len + 1 < maxlen) {
s[len] = c;
s[len+1] = '\0';
}
}

int main() {
char s[200];
printf("Enter string: ");
if(!fgets(s,sizeof s,stdin)) return 0;
s[strcspn(s,"\n")] = '\0';
char ch;
printf("Char to append: ");
if(scanf(" %c",&ch)!=1) return 0;
insertend(s, ch, sizeof s);
printf("After append: %s\n", s);
return 0;
}

10.7.4 — Split the string into two parts: split(s, pos)

Split at given index.
/* split_string.c */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

void split_at(char *s, int pos, char **part1, char **part2) {

int n = strlen(s);
if (pos < 0) pos = 0;
if (pos > n) pos = n;
*part1 = malloc(pos+1);
*part2 = malloc(n - pos + 1);
memcpy(*part1, s, pos);
(*part1)[pos] = '\0';
strcpy(*part2, s + pos);
}

int main() {
char s[300];
printf("Enter string: ");
if(!fgets(s,sizeof s,stdin)) return 0;
s[strcspn(s,"\n")] = '\0';
int pos; printf("Position to split at (0-based): "); if(scanf("%d",&pos)!=1) return 0;
char *a,*b;
split_at(s,pos,&a,&b);
printf("Part1: '%s'\nPart2: '%s'\n", a, b);
free(a); free(b);
return 0;
}
10.7.5 — Search for a string in an array of strings
Return index of match or -1.
/* search_string_array.c */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

int find_in_array(char arr[][30], int n, const char *key) {

for (int i=0;i<n;i++) if (strcmp(arr[i], key)==0) return i;
return -1;
}

int main() {
char arr[5][30] = {"apple","banana","cat","dog","elephant"};
char key[30];
printf("Enter key to search: ");
if(!fgets(key, sizeof key, stdin)) return 0;
key[strcspn(key,"\n")] = '\0';
int idx = find_in_array(arr, 5, key);
if (idx >=0) printf("Found at index %d\n", idx);
else printf("Not found\n");
return 0;
}

10.7.6 — Function that returns value of type char *

Example: return a pointer to a dynamically created string.
/* make_greeting.c */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
char *make_greeting(const char *name) {
size_t n = strlen(name);
char *res = malloc(n + 10);
if (!res) return NULL;
sprintf(res, "Hello, %s", name);
return res; // caller must free
}

int main() {
char name[100];
printf("Enter name: ");
if(!fgets(name,sizeof name,stdin)) return 0;
name[strcspn(name,"\n")] = '\0';
char *g = make_greeting(name);
if (g) {
printf("%s\n", g);
free(g);
}
return 0;
}

10.7.7 — ASCII to float (atof)

Example using atof from <stdlib.h> (or strtod for robustness).
/* ascii_to_float.c */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

int main() {
char s[100];
printf("Enter float as string: ");
 if (!fgets(s, sizeof s, stdin)) return 0;
s[strcspn(s,"\n")] = '\0';
double x = atof(s); // weak error checking
printf("Value = %f\n", x);
return 0;
}