ENERGY- to move; to start something

ATP(Adenosine Triphosphate) - is an organic compound that provides energy to drive many

processes in living cells
-​ Found in all known forms of life
-​ STRUCTURE: Sugar Ribose (DNA), Nitrogen base adenine, and a chain of 3-phosphate
groups
-​ Mediates most energy coupling in cells (ATP Hydrolysis)
-​ Powers cellular work (i.e. ACTIVE TRANSPORT)

PHOSPHATE- phosphorus molecule surrounded by oxygen molecule

FUNCTIONS:
-​ Chemical work: synthesis of polymers from monomers (pushing of endergonic
reactions)
-​ Transport work: pumping of substances across membranes (against the direction of
spontaneous movement) ACTIVE TRANSPORT
-​ Mechanical work: beating of cilia, contraction of muscles
-​ Also used to make RNA (since ATP is used as one of the nucleoside triphosphate)

Basic unit of muscle: SARCOMERE

ATP HYDROLYSIS
-​ Process of breaking down bonds between the phosphate groups
-​ Water molecule breaks the terminal phosphate bond
-​ Form of dephosphorylation
-​ Catabolic reaction (exergonic - releases energy)
-​ Forms Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) -inorganic phosphate (Pi) -Free energy is released
-​ 1) Alpha Phosphate Group, 2) Gamma phosphate group, 3) Beta phosphate group
Last bond will break; Gamma Phosphate group and Beta phosphate group will break.
-​ Hydrolysis releases so much energy because of the negative charges of the phosphate
groups
-​ They break up bonds because negatives charges repel each other
-​ ATPs are unstable enough to produce energy (?)
-​ Hydrolysis of ATP leads to change in the shape of protein and in its ability to bind to
another molecule.

PHOSPHORYLATION (add phosphate) ADP → ATP

DEPHOSPHORYLATION (release phosphate) ATP → ADP
They promote crucial protein shape changes during important cellular process

THE REGENERATION OF ATP

-​ ATP is renewable – add phosphate to ADP
Combination of free energy phosphate to ADP in mitochondria
-​ Catabolism (exergonic) provides the free energy to phosphorylate ADP
-​ ATP is not spontaneous because it needs to use free energy for the process to work
-​ ATP cycle is the shuttling of inorganic phosphate and energy
ADP is the shuttle

Green → phosphorylation (added free energy

phosphate to ADP to become ATP)
Red → dephosphorylation (released phosphate from
ATP, which then became ADP)

ENERGY COUPLING is the pairing of two biological reactions where one generates energy as
in its process while another consumes energy to continue its process
-​ Energy generated from one reaction is used to drive the second reaction
-​ All activated by ATP
-​ Energy does this by Energy Coupling

Free energy (from catabolism/ATP hydrolysis) is used

in synthesis of ATP from ADP + Pi (endergonic)
The water molecule (H2O) breaks the terminal
phosphate bond of the ATP, releasing energy during
the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP + Pi
ATP hydrolysis (ATP+H2O → ADP+Pi) is an exergonic
reaction, therefore it releases energy (free energy is
released in ATP hydrolysis)
ATP synthesis (ADP+Pi → ATP) is an endergonic
reaction, therefore it requires energy (it uses the free
energy from catabolism) to form ATP
ATP Hydrolysis as an Energy Coupling reaction is a type of EXERGONIC REACTION

MAJOR TYPES OF REACTIONS (UNDER ENERGY COUPLING)

Exergonic Reactions - energy-releasing reactions (energetically-favorable)
Endergonic Reactions - energy-demanding reactions (energetically-unfavorable)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN -GONIC AND -THERMIC
-GONIC → refer to free energy changes (/\G), which also results in entropy (/\S).
-THERMIC → refer to the changes in internal energy of molecules, measured as heat given off
or taken up (/\H) take or absorb heat

Gibbs free energy (G) - quantity that is used to measure the maximum amount of work done in a
thermodynamic system
Entropy (S) - the measurement of a system’s thermal energy per unit temperature
-​ Total energy; released in the environment (energy lost)
Enthalpy - under endo and exothermic
Gibbs free energy and Entropy is inversely proportional

REACTION COUPLING- energetically-favorable reaction (like ATP hydrolysis) that is directly

linked with an energetically-unfavorable (endergonic) reaction through a shared intermediate,
where a product of one reaction is “picked up” and used as a reactant in the second reaction.

UNCOUPLED REACTION:
Glucose and Fructose were paired, which results to Sucrose.
COUPLED REACTION:
1st reaction: Glucose were paired with ATP, which results to a
shared-intermediate, Glucose-P (1 phosphate from ATP was
attached to glucose, so ATP became ADP)
2nd reaction: Glucose-P is the product of the first reaction,
therefore it will be used for the 2nd reaction. It was paired with
fructose, so, it resulted to sucrose and an inorganic phosphate.
​
UPDATE: VVV difference is the presence of shared-intermediate
The difference between Energy Coupling and Reaction Coupling
is the reactant used in the first (?) and second reaction.
ENERGY COUPLING - uses energy
REACTION COUPLING - uses the product from the 1st reaction
Energy Coupling plays an important role in balancing the two types of metabolism; Anabolism
and catabolism

ANABOLIC REACTION- requires energy to happen (endergonic)

CATABOLIC REACTION- produces energy when it happens(exergonic)

LESSON 2: PIGMENTS​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
(From exercise)
Pigments are substances that absorb visible light; different pigment absorb light of different
wavelengths
Chlorophyll is the greenish pigment found in the thylakoid membrane inside the chloroplast of
a plant cell.

CHROMATOGRAPHY- is a separation technique used to identify various components of

mixtures based on the differences in their structure and/or composition.

Leaves are made up of different pigments

PIGMENTS- are substances that gives things their distinct color.
-​ Are substances that absorb visible light (that’s why they have colors)
-​ Different pigments absorb light of different wavelengths
-​ Pigments are the means by which plants capture sun’s energy to be used in
photosynthesis
-​ Absorbs only a narrow range of wavelength
-​ Pigments are still chemicals
-​ Has molecular structure
Chlorophyll harvests mosts of the sun’s energy

TYPES OF PIGMENTS found in plants

CAROTENOID- carotene; orange, red, yellow colors.
-​ These compounds are insoluble in water and are attached to the membranes of the cell
bodies.
FLAVONOIDS- found in citrus; yellow colored pigments
ANTHOCYANINS- are a type of flavonoid pigments found naturally in all the tissues of the
higher group of plants.
-​ Provides color to the stem, leaves, roots, fruits, and flowers
-​ Red, blue, purple, and other dark colors
CHLOROPHYLL- the most significant and essential pigments
-​ Plays a vital role in the biological process of photosynthesis
-​ Greenish pigment found in the thylakoid membrane inside the chloroplast
-​ Chlorophyll absorbs blue and red light; it does not absorb green, but rather reflects
green light. This is why leaves appear green
LESSON 3: PHOTOSYNTHESIS (Light Reactions)​ ​ ​ ​
(From exercise)
In photosynthesis, oxygen is reduced to water. TRUE
In photosynthesis, water is oxidized and oxygen is released. TRUE
In the leaf, the most abundant cite where chlorophyll is found is the bottom of leaf. FALSE

AUTOTROPH- primary producer; can produce its own food using light, water, CO2 and
other chemicals

Autotrophic organisms use chlorophyll to harvest solar energy to produce the stored energy as
chemical bonds of ATP and carbohydrates.
Chlorophyll is associated with thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast

Photosynthesis in eukaryotes
-​ Energy absorption from sunlight via pigments during light-dependent reaction
-​ Reactivation of reaction center
-​ Carbohydrates production by carbon fixation during dark reaction

DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
-​ Energy from sunlight is harvested and used to drive the synthesis of glucose from CO2
and H2O. (used to create ATP and NADPH)
-​ By converting the energy of sunlight to a usable form of potential chemical energy,
photosynthesis is the ultimate source of metabolic energy for all biological systems.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS is the ultimate source of metabolic energy for all biological systems since
plants are producers; they produce(?) chemical energy
-​ Through photosynthesis, they are able to provide metabolic energy - carbohydrates to
different organisms
Metabolic energy is important in the production; in the flow of metabolic energy throughout the biological
systems
Produced chemical energy could be used by all organisms
-​ They start the life on Earth

Photosynthesis takes place in two distinct stages:

-​ LIGHT REACTION -
energy from sunlight drives the
synthesis of ATP and NADPH,
coupled to the formation of O2
from H2O
-​ DARK REACTION -
do not require sunlight; the ATP
and NADPH produced by the light
reactions drive glucose synthesis.
LIGHT REACTION
-​ Light dependent
-​ Catabolic (since they are the ones releasing ATP)
-​ Undergo electron transfer chain
-​ Takes place in thylakoid space/membrane
DARK REACTION/CALVIN CYCLE
-​ Light independent
-​ Anabolic (since they take-in energy)
-​ Uses energy from the catabolic reaction/light
reaction (ATP and NADPH produced from Light reaction)
-​ Takes place in Stroma
LIGHT REACTION EVENTS:

MEMORIZE ATA ITO

(yung parts)

Tapos intindihin na
lang ata flow n’ya
aywan

Sundan na lang yung

numbers sa figure and
yung desciptions nila
sa baba

Piru kau bahala hehe

1.)​ Light enters a pigment molecule then passed onto other nearby pigment molecules in
photosystem II until it makes it to the reaction center where it is absorbed by the P680
special pair of chlorophyll a.
2.)​ Electron in P680 is raised to an excited state (excited electron) and is transferred to
the primary acceptor.
3.)​ Positively charged molecules attracts electrons from a water molecule, resulting to the
splitting up of H2O into two electrons, two hydrogen ions (H+), and an oxygen atom. The
oxygen atom combines with another oxygen atom to form O2, which is then released
outside the leaf through the stomata.
4.)​ Excited electrons are passed on from primary acceptor to the electron carrier
molecules through the electron transport chain until they reach photosystem 1. The
 electron carrier molecules; plastoquinone (Pq), a cytochrome complex, and
plastocyanin (Pc).
5.)​ At each transfer, electrons release small amounts
of energy and these are used to pump hydrogen ions
across the membrane. The splitting up of water
molecules results to an uneven distribution of hydrogen
ions in the stroma (4H+) and the lumen (4H+ and another 2H+
from H2O so it becomes 6H+). A membrane protein called ATP
synthase equalize the distributions of H+ by moving it
from the lumen to the stroma. This process is called
chemiosmosis; movement of hydrogen ions through the
ATP synthase triggers the synthesis of ATP from ADP.

6.)​ The same thing also happens in photosystem I. Photon is absorbed and energy is
passed on from one pigment molecule to another until it reaches the reaction center
and absorbed by the P700 special pair. Energy in here excites the electron present in
the pair of P700. The excited electron is then transferred to a primary acceptor.
7.)​ The excited electron from the primary acceptor (Photosystem I) enters another electron
transfer chain, passing the electron to an iron-containing protein called ferredoxin (Fd).
8.)​ An enzyme, the NADP+ reductase, then transfers the electron to NADP+ and stabilizes
it by adding a proton (H+) to form NADPH. NADPH is then released to the stroma and
becomes part of the Calvin Cycle.

PRODUCTS:
O2 is released

NADPH and ATP are

produced and are then used
in the Calvin cycle.

CHLOROPHYLL MOLECULE (found in thylakoid membrane)

Porphyrin ring - absorbing solar energy; head; mg atom at center

Hydrocarbon tail - used to anchor chlorophyl in thylakoid

membrane
LESSON 4: PHOTOSYNTHESIS (Dark Reactions/Calvin Cycle)​
From exercise
Water is reduced to a carbohydrate. FALSE
Chloroplasts has enzyme-catalyzed reactions within its semi-fluid interior. TRUE

Photo-excited electrons may take a

short-circuited route which utilizes
Photosystem I but not Photosystem II. The
ferredoxin goes back to the cycle and
passes the electron to the cytochrome
complex and to the plastocyanin until it
reaches P700 chlorophyll instead of
transferring the electron to NADP+
reductase. Due to this event, no NADPH is
produced but ATP is still synthesized.

CALVIN CYCLE- also referred to as light-independent reactions or “dark reactions”

-​ Takes place in the stroma of the choloroplast
-​ Second stage of photosynthesis that is involved in the formation of sugar from CO2
using chemical energy stored in ATP and NADPH, the products of light reactions.

IMPORTANT POINTS TO KNOW:

-​ The sugar that is produced in the Calvin Cycle is not the six-carbon glucose that we are
familiar with. This is formed later on. What is produced in the Calvin Cycle is a
three-carbon sugar known as G3P or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
-​ The Calvin Cycle needs to ‘spin’ three times to make one molecule of G3P

THREE PHASES OF CALVIN CYCLE:

CARBON FIXATION- is a process of incorporating an inorganic carbon molecule, CO2, into an
organic material.
-​ The CO2 molecules is attached to a five-carbon sugar molecule named ribulose
bisphosphate (RuBP) aided by an enzyme called rubisco or RuBP carboxylase.
Rubisco is believed to be the most abundant protein in the chloroplast and maybe on
Earth.
-​ The resulting product, a six-carbon sugar, is extremely unstable and immediately splits in
half forming two molecules of a 3-phosphoglycerate (3-carbon).

REDUCTION- a phosphate group (from ATP) is then attached to each 3-phosphoglycerate by

an enzyme, forming 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.
-​ NADPH swoops in and reduces 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to G3P.
-​ For every six G3Ps produced by the Calvin Cycle, five are recycled to regenerate three
molecules of RuBP. Only one G3P leaves the cycle to be packaged for use by the cell.
-​ It will take two molecules of G3P to make one molecule of glucose.
-​ The ADP and NADP+ that is formed during the Calvin Cycle will be transported back to
the thylakoid membrane and will enter the light reactions. Here, they will be ‘recharged’
with energy and become ATP and NADPH.

REGENERATION OF RuBP- Five molecules of G3P undergo a series of complex enzymatic

reactions to form three molecules of RuBP. This costs the cell another three molecules of ATP,
but also provides another set of RuBP to continue the cycle.

THE COST OF MAKING CARBOHYDRATE:

To make one molecule of G3P, the chloroplast needs:
-​ 3 molecules of CO2; 9 molecules of ATP (6 ATP in reduction phase(3-phosphoglycerate to
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate) and 3 ATP in regeneration of RuBP (G3P to RuBP)); 6 molecules of NADPH
Note: ATP and NADPH are from Light reactions

WHAT HAPPENS TO G3P AFTER ITS RELEASE FROM THE CYCLE?

-​ 2 G3Ps can combine together to form either glucose or fructose which are both
six-carbon sugar.
-​ Glucose and fructose can be combined to form sucrose.
-​ Glucose can be connected in chains to form starch.
-​ G3Ps can also be used in lipid and protein synthesis.

PRODUCTS (?)
-​ Glucose; Starch; Cellulose; G3P
LESSON 5: CELLULAR RESPIRATION (GLYCOLYSIS)​ ​ ​
From exercise
Ultimately, most of the energy that is utilized by the living organisms of every ecosystem comes
from sun. TRUE
Glycolysis can work without the presence of oxygen. TRUE

CELLULAR RESPIRATION- the process by which organisms combine oxygen with foodstuff
molecules, diverting the chemical energy in these substances into life-sustaining activities and
discarding, as waste products, carbon dioxide and water.
-​ Organisms that do not depend on oxygen degrade foodstuffs in a process called
fermentation.
-​ The process of taking in oxygen and releasing CO2; exchange of gases in respiratory
system
STAGES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION:
-​ Glycolysis (takes place in cytoplasm or cytosol/doesn’t require O2)
-​ Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle (inside the mitochondria /requires O2)
-​ Electron Transport Chain/Oxidative Phosphorylation (inside the mitochondria and chloroplast
(?)/requires O2(ata))

GLYCOLYSIS- It is a sequence of 10 chemical reactions taking place in most cells that breaks
down a glucose molecule into two pyruvate (pyruvic acid) molecules.
-​ Requires 2 ATPs(in Investment phase)
-​ Generates 4 ATPs(in Pay-off phase)
-​ It is an Anaerobic process
-​ Is a source of ATP and NADH
-​ It is important because it is the metabolic pathway through which glucose respiration
converts(?) into (?) cellular energy.
-​ It is the first stage of cellular respiration
-​ If an oxygen is present, aerobic respiration will occur (glycolysis → krebs cycle → ETC)
-​ If an oxygen is not present, anaerobic respiration will occur (glycolysis → fermentation)
 -​ It takes place in cytosol; matrix of cytoplasm
PRODUCTS
-​ 2 ATP
-​ 2 NADH
-​ 2 Pyruvate

TWO STAGES OF GLYCOLYSIS

1.)​ Investment / Energy-requiring Phase
-​ Step 1-5
-​ Consumes energy
-​ 2 ATP molecules gets used up

enzymes:
1.)​ Hexokinase

2.)​ Phosphoglucose isomerase

3.)​ Phosphofructose kinase
4.)​ Fructose Biphosphateadolace / Adolase
5.)​ Triose phosphate isomerase

2.)​ Pay-off / Energy-releasing Phase

-​ Step 1-6
-​ Produces energy
-​ Makes 4 ATP and 2 NADP
-​ Will happen twice since we
have 2 G3P

Enzymes:
6.) Triose phosphate dehydrogenase / G3P Dehydrogenase
7.) Phosphoglycerate Kinase
8.) Phosphoglycerate Mutase
9.) Enulase
10.) Pyruvate Kinase
Glucose → Glucose 6-phosphate → Fructose 6-phosphate → Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate → dehydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)
→ G3P → 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate → 3-phosphoglycerate → 2-phosphoglycerate → phosphoenol-pyruvate (PEP) → Pyruvate

STEP 1 - ATP → ADP STEP 3 - ATP → ADP STEP 6 - 2NAD+ → 2NADH + 2H+ STEP 7 - 2ADP → 2ATP
STEP 10 - 2ADP → 2ATP
AEROBIC RESPIRATION- glycolysis → (pyruvic acid molecules enters mitochondria) → Krebs Cycle → ETC
-​ This process requires oxygen
-​ During this process, the glucose molecule is broken down and the carbon atoms
released from glucose are combined with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide.

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION- glycolysis (pyruvic acid is converted to-) → Fermentation (-Lactic acid/Ethanol)
-​ This process does not require oxygen
-​ There is a production of two ATP molecules for each glucose molecule.

LESSON 6: CELLULAR RESPIRATION (Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid

Cycle/ TCA)​ ​ ​
TCA- Tricarboxylic Acid
From exercise
Upon entering mitochondrion, the two pyruvate molecules will be approached by Acetyl CoA
before they undergo Krebs Cycle. FALSE
How much is the resulting ATPs in the Krebs Cycle? 2 ATPs

PYRUVATE OXIDATION- a process that links glycolysis and Krebs Cycle by processing the
pyruvate molecules into Acetyl Coenzyme A.
-​ It starts upon entry of the pyruvate molecules
into the mitochondrion by the Transport
protein.
Pyruvate → Acetyl CoA
Add: There are 2 pyruvates produced from glycolysis, so this process will
occur twice, and therefore, 2 NADH is produced. (?)

KREBS CYCLE- a sequence of reactions in the living

organism in which oxidation of acetic acid or aceyl equivalent provides energy for storage in
phosphate bonds (as in ATP).

RESULTING PRODUCTS:
-​ 2 ATP
-​ 2 FADH2
-​ 6 NADH
-​ 4 CO2 (?)

-​ Plus 2 NADH from Pyruvate Oxidation

-​ Plus the products of Glycolysis (2 NADH, 2
ATP)
There are 8 reactions in this cycle
This cycle needs to spin twice (since there are 2 pyruvate(?))
Base sa activity-4a, NADH, FADH2, GTP and GDP, CO2, and ATP ang mga sinagot. Hindi yung kung ano
tawag dun sa compound(?)
LESSON 7: CELLULAR RESPIRATION (Oxidative
Phosphorylation/Electron Transport Chain)​ ​ ​ ​ ​
From exercise
The NADH molecules used in Oxidative Phosphorylation only came from the Kreb’s Cycle.
FALSE There are NADH molecules used in Oxidative Phosphorylation that came from Glycolysis and Pyruvate Oxidation

2 from Glycolysis, 2 from pyruvic oxidation, 6 from Krebs cycle = 10 NADH

Chemiosmosis is facilitated by a single enzyme, which is ATP SYNTHASE

TYPES OF PHOSPHORYLATION
SUBSTRATE-LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION- a phosphoryl group is transferred from an
energy-rich donor (e.g., 1,3-diphosphoglycerate) to ADP to yield a molecule of ATP.
-​ Uses NAD to break down certain chemicals (?)
-​ Used to bond phosphate groups
-​ Form a chemical reaction then goes to phosphorylation
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION- Formation of ATP via the transfer of electrons.
-​ Also known as respiratory chain phosphorylation
-​ Diffusion of (?)
-​ Process of ATP formation
-​ Electron Transport Chain (ETC) + Chemiosmosis
-​ Developing an electromagnetic gradient
-​ Takes place in inner mitochondrial membrane

OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION- is the metabolic pathway which electrons are transferred

from electron donors to electron acceptors in redox reactions; this series of reactions releases
energy which is used to form ATP.
-​ There are 4 integral proteins found in electron transport chain
4 protein complexes:
NADH Dehydrogenase (I) - Succinate Dehydrogenase (II) - Cytochrome Reductase (III) - Cytochrome Oxidase (IV)
Organic molecules:
-​ Flavin Mononucleotide (FMD)
-​ Iron-sulfur protein
-​ Ubiquinone (Coenzyme Q) (found outside complexes; accepts electrons from complex 1 and 2)
-​ Cytochromes

RED ARROWS ^ - shows the pumping of protons (H+), which

create an H+ gradient across the membrane
NADH (electrons) will pass through complex 1 since it only has
1 hydrogen; (I) → Ubiquinone(Q) → (III) → Cyt C → (IV)
NADH → NAD+
FADH2 (electrons) will pass through complex 2 since it has 2
hydrogens; (II) → Ubiquinone(Q) → (III) → Cyt C → (IV)
FADH2 → FAD
 (?) electrons passes through complex IV to meet with O2 and H+ (?)
½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e- (originally from NADH or FADH2) = H2O

CHEMIOSMOSIS- a process in which energy stored in the

form of a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane is
used to drive cellular work such as the synthesis of ATP.
-​ Facilitated by a single enzyme called ATP
SYNTHASE

OVERALL END PRODUCTS (ETC + CHEMIOSMOSIS)

-​ NAD+ and FAD
-​ Water (H2O)
-​ Electromagnetic gradient (Proton = H+)
-​ ATP (32 ATP)

LESSON 8: FERMENTATION​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
FERMENTATION- is a way of harvesting chemical energy without using either oxygen or any
electron transport chain – in other words, without cellular respiration.
-​ Simplest way to produce ATP
-​ Glucose is partially oxidized
TWO TYPES OF FERMENTATION
ALCOHOL FERMENTATION
-​ Pyruvate is converted to ethanol (ethyl alcohol) in two
steps:
1)​ Release CO2 from the pyruvate → acetaldehyde
(2 carbon compound)
2)​ Acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH → Ethanol
-​ This regenerates the supply of NAD+ needed for the
continuation of glycolysis
-​ Yeast carries out alcohol fermentation (used in brewing,
winemaking, and baking)
 -​ CO2 bubbles generated by baker’s yeast during alcohol fermentation allow bread to rise.

LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION

-​ Pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form
lactate as an end product, with no release of
CO2.
-​ Lactate is the ionized form of lactic acid
-​ Used in dairy industry to make cheese and
yogurt

PRODUCTS:
Alcohol: Ethanol and CO2
Lactic Acid: Lactate

Idk if this is relevant

but :v

About propionic acid

pathway, each
arrows has different
paths but could still
produce propionic
acid. (Nasa PPT yung
diagram)

FROM THE SITE SIR ARIEL POGI SENT

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
-​ A molecule other than oxygen is used as the terminal electron acceptor in the ETC
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS (as electron acceptors)
-​ Sulfate​​ - Nitrate​ - Ferric iron​ ​ - Sulfur
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
-​ Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) → Dimethyl sulfide (DMS)​
-​ Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) → Trimethylamine (TMA)
-​ Fumarate → succinate
-​ These molecules have a lower reduction potential than oxygen; less energy is formed
per molecule of glucose in anaerobic vs aerobic conditions
-​ Ferric iron (Fe3+) is a widespread anaerobic terminal electron acceptor used by both
autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms
-​ Sulfate reduction uses sulfate (SO2−4) as the electron acceptor, producing hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) as a metabolic end product.
ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate (3 phosphate groups)
ADP - Adenosine Diphosphate (2 phosphate groups)
Pi - Inorganic phosphate / Phosphate molecule / Phosphate group
ETC - Electron Transport Chain (present in Mitochondria[C.R] and Chloroplast[Light Reaction])
NADPH - Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (w/ hydrogen)
NADP+
NADH - Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (w/ hydrogen)
NAD+
RuBP - Ribulose (1,5-)bisphosphate
FADH2 - Flavin adenine dinucleotide
Rubisco- Ribulose (1,5-)bisphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase

PHOSPHORYLATION (add phosphate) ADP → ATP

DEPHOSPHORYLATION (release phosphate) ATP → ADP
ANABOLIC REACTION- requires energy to happen (endergonic)
CATABOLIC REACTION- produces energy when it happens(exergonic)
ATP HYDROLYSIS
-​ Process of breaking down bonds between the phosphate groups
-​ They break up bonds because negatives charges repel each other
-​ Forms ADP, Pi, and free energy is released
PIGMENTS- are substances that gives things their distinct color.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS is the ultimate source of metabolic energy
LIGHT REACTION
-​ Takes place in thylakoid space/membrane
-​ Produces ATP, NADPH, and O2
-​ Input: H2O Output: O2
DARK REACTION/CALVIN CYCLE
-​ Uses energy from the catabolic reaction/light reaction (ATP and NADPH produced from Light
reaction)
-​ Takes place in Stroma
-​ Produces 9 ADP, 6 Pi, and 6 NADP+
-​ Input: 3 CO2 Output: 1 G3P
-​ 3 phases: Carbon fixation, Reduction, and Regeneration of RuBP
-​ Spins 3 times
GLUCOSE- 6 carbon molecule RuBP- 5 carbon molecule
G3P- 3 carbon molecule (2 G3P molecule will create glucose)
PYRUVATE- 3 carbon molecule
ACETYL CoA- 2 carbon molecule
ACETALDEHYDE- 2 carbon molecule
AEROBIC RESPIRATION- glycolysis → Krebs Cycle → ETC
-​ This process requires oxygen
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION- glycolysis → Fermentation
 -​ This process does not require oxygen
PRODUCTS:
Light Reaction: ATP, NADPH, O2
Calvin Cycle: 9 ADP, 6 Pi, 6 NADP+ (<<byproducts<<<) G3P, Glucose, Cellulose, Starch
Glycolysis: 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate
Pyruvate oxidation: 2 NADH, Acetyl CoA, 2 CO2
Krebs Cycle: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH, 4 CO2
Oxidative Phosphorylation: NAD+ and FAD, H2O, H+, ATP
Fermentation: 2 Ethanol, 2 CO2 (alcohol fermentation)
​ ​ 2 Lactate (lactic acid fermentation)

ENZYMES:
Light Reaction: NADP+ reductase
Oxidative phosphorylation (specifically in chemiosmosis): ATP synthase
Calvin Cycle: Rubisco

LOCATIONS:
Light Reaction: Thylakoid membrane
Calvin Cycle: Stroma
Glycolysis: Cytosol; matrix of cytoplasm
Fermentation: Cytosol; matrix of cytoplasm
Pyruvate oxidation: Mitochondria
Krebs Cycle: Mitochondria
Oxidative Phosphorylation: Inner mitochondrial membrane
Electron transport chain: Mitochondria and Chloroplast (ETC is included in Oxidative phosphorylation)

CALVIN CYCLE SUMMARY:

1 CO2 per cycle → attach to 1 RuBP → RuBP will split into → (2) 3-phosphoglycerate →
phosphorylated by ATP → (2) 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate → reduced by NADPH → (2) G3P

2 G3P will be produced per cycle – 2 G3P x 3 Spins = 6 G3P

Only 1 molecule of G3P will be released — organic compounds (Glucose, starch, cellulose)
and the 5 G3Ps will be used for phase 3 (Regeneration of RuBP)

GOOD LUCK PO SA ATING LAHAT <3

Kapag may naguluhan or may misleading na info pasabi sa akin baka kasi magkamali
kayo bukas tapos kasalanan q huhu