KOVILPALAYAM, COIMBATORE-641107.

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University)

Name :

Class :

Roll No :

Dept :

REGISTER No.

Certified that this is the bonafide record of work done by him/her in the
EE3611 - Power System Laboratory during the year 202 – 202 .

Lab-in-Charge Head of the Department

Submitted for the Practical Examination held on

Internal Examiner External Examiner

[Link]: COMPUTATION OF TRANSMISSION LINES

DATE:

AIM

To calculate the inductance and capacitance of a given single circuit configuration of a given transmission line
through Mi – Power software package.

THEORY

(a). Calculation of Inductance and Capacitance

1). Inductance of 3 phase single circuit symmetrical configuration
If the three conductors A, B, C are placed symmetrically at the corners of an equivalent triangle of side d,
then d1 = d2 = d3 =d. Under such condition the flux linkage with conductor A become

weber – turns/m

Inductance of conductor A H/m

H/m

2) Capacitance of 3 phase single circuit symmetrical spacing configuration

 The overall potential difference between conductor A and infinite neutral plane is

Assume balanced supply QA = QB = QC = 0

QB + QC = - QA

Capacitance of a conductor A with respect to neutral

F/m

DATA:
(i) Symmetrical Spacing
1. Diameter of the conductor = 0.125 m

2. Spacing between conductor = 2 m

3. GMR (Inductance) = 0.00486 m

4. GMR (Capacitance) = 0.00625 m

 (ii) Asymmetrical Spacing
1. Diameter of the conductor = 1.5 cm

2. GMR = 0.00386 cm

(iii) Bundled Conductor

1. Diameter of the conductor = 1.427
inch

2. Spacing between conductor = 18 inch

3. GMR = 0.564 inch

RESULT
[Link] MODELLING OF TRANSMISSION LINES.
DATE:

AIM:
To determine the voltage and current of receiving end of a given transmission line through Mi – Power software
package.
THEORY:

The line models are classified by their length. These classifications are

• Short line approximation for lines that are less than 80 km long.

• Medium line approximation for lines whose lengths are between 80 km to 250 km.

• Long line model for lines that are longer than 250 km.

These models will be discussed in this chapter. However before that let us introduce the ABCD parameters
that are used for relating the sending end voltage and current to the receiving end voltage and currents.
Consider the power system shown in Fig. 2.1. In this the sending and receiving end voltages are denoted by

respectively. Also the currents and are

entering and leaving the network respectively.

+ (1)

+ (2)

From (2) we see that where

(3)

This implies that A is the ratio of sending end voltage to the open circuit receiving end voltage. This quantity
is dimension less. Similarly,

ohm (4)
 i.e., B, given in Ohm, is the ratio of sending end voltage and short circuit receiving end current. In a similar
way we can also define

mho (5)

(6)

The parameter D is dimension less.

Nominal-π Representation

Fig. 1 Short transmission line representation.

In this representation the lumped series impedance is placed in the middle while the shunt admittance is
divided into two equal parts and placed at the two ends. The nominal-π representation is shown in Fig. 1. This
representation is used for load flow studies, as we shall see later. Also a long transmission line can be modeled as
an equivalent π-network for load flow studies.
Let us define three currents I1, I2 and I3 as indicated in Fig. Applying KCL at nodes M and N we get
IS = I1 + I2 = I1+ I3 +IR

+ IR (7)

Again

VS = Z I2 + VR

+ VR
 + ZIR (8) Substituting (7) in
(8) we get

IS

(9)

Therefore from (8) and (9) we get the following ABCD parameters of the nominal-π representation

A =D=

B = Z ohm

C = mho

The constants A, B, C and D are generally complex numbers.

The constants A and D are dimensionless where as the dimensions of B and C are ohm and mho respectively.
For a given transmission line

A=D

For a given transmission line

AD – BC = 1 DATA:
Transmission line length = 100 Km
Resistance of transmission line = 0.124 Ω/Km
Inductance of transmission line = 0.497 Ω/Km

Suspectance = 3.3 x 10-6 mho/Km

Transmission line length = 220 KV

Real power load/ demand = 40 MW

Reactive power demand = 19.37 MVAR
RESULT
[Link]: FORMATION OF BUS ADMITTANCE MATRICES
DATE:

AIM

To form the Bus Admittance matrix (Y bus) using Inspection Method.

THEORY

In Power Engineering, Y Matrix or Ybus is an (n x n) symmetric matrix describing a power system with
n buses . It represents the nodal admittance of the buses in a power system. In realistic systems which contain
thousands of buses, the Y matrix is quite sparse. Each bus in a real power system is usually connected to only
a few other buses through the transmission lines. The Y Matrix is also one of the data requirements needed to
formulate a Power flow study . The admittances Y11, Y22,... Ynn are called the self-admittances at the nodes,
and each equals the sum of all the admittances terminating on the node identified by the repeated subscripts.
The other admittances are the mutual admittances of the nodes, and each equals the negative of the sum of all
admittances connected directly between the nodes. For small transmission systems of about less than 10 nodes
or buses, Y matrix can be calculated manually. But for a realistic system with relatively large number of nodes
or buses, say 1000 nodes, a computer program for computing Ybus is more practical to use.

Bus admittance is often used in power system studies. In most of the power system studies it is required to
form y- bus matrix of the system by considering certain power system parameters depending upon the type of
analysis.Y-bus may be formed by inspection method only if there is no mutual coupling between the lines. Every
transmission line should be represented by p- equivalent. Shunt impedances are added to diagonal element
corresponding to the buses at which these are connected. The off diagonal elements are unaffected. The equivalent
circuit of Tap changing transformers is included while forming Y- bus matrix.
Algorithm

Step 1: Start the program.

Step 2: Get the number of buses.

Step 3: Get the admittance value connecting the buses and the line charging admittance if
present.

Step 4: Determine the diagonal elements and the half diagonal elements of the Y-Bus
Diagonal Elements:
Yii=∑yij (j= 1,2,3....... n)

Were n = number of buses

Off-Diagonal elements:
Yij = - yij & Yij = -Yji
Step 5: If the half-line charging admittance present then add it to the corresponding bus.

Step 6: Display the Bus Admittance matrix

Step 7: Stop.
THEORY: COMPUTATION OF PARAMETERS
Transmission lines are normally operated with a balanced three-phase load; the analysis can therefore
be proceeded on a per phase basis. A transmission line on a per phase basis can be regarded as a two-port
network, wherein the sending-end voltage Vs and current Is are related to receiving-end voltage VR and current
IR through ABCD constants as

VS A B VR
IS C D IR

Also the following identity holds for ABCD constants:

AD-BC=1

These constants can be determined easily for short and medium-length lines by suitable approximations
 lumping the line impedance and shunt admittance. For long lines exact analysis has to be carried out by
considering the distribution of resistance, inductance and capacitance parameters and the ABCD constants of
the line are determined there from.

SHORT TRANSMISSION LINE:

For short lines of length 100 km or less,the total 50hz shunt admittance(j Cl) is small enough to be
neglected resulting in the simple equivalent circuit as follows,

Equivalent Circuit of a short line

The relationship between sending-end receiving-end voltages and currents can be written as,

VS 1 Z VR
IS 0 1 IR
From the above matrix it can be found
that, VS= Vr+(z*l)
IS=IR
=cos( VS- IS)
P=VS*jIS

Where VR,VS is the receiving and sending-end voltage.

IR,IS is the receiving and sending end currents. P
is power and is power factor.
MEDIUM TRANSMISSION LINE:

For lines more than 100 km long, charging currents due to shunt admittance cannot be neglected. For
lines in range 100 km to250 km lengths. The Medium Transmission line can be analyzed using both Nominal
Pi and Nominal T methods.
If all the shunt capacitance is lumped at the middle of the line,it leads to the nominal T circuit.
In the nominal Pi method, the total line capacitance is divided into two equal parts which are lumped at
the sending-end and receiving-end resulting in nominal representation.

NOMINAL Pi REPRESENTATION:
The equivalent circuit for an medium transmission line using nominal Pi method is,

From the above circuit,we have,

VS=AVR+BIR
IS=CVR+DIR
=cos( VS-
IS) P=VS*jIS
Where,A=1+((y*l)(z*l)/2)
D=A
B=z*l
C=y*l(1+((y*l)(z*l)/4)
Where VR,VS is the receiving and sending-end voltage.
IR,IS is the receiving and sending end currents. P
is power and is power factor.
Thus we obtain the modeling of transmission lines.
FLOWCHART

Start

Enter the receiving end

voltage,current, power and power
factor.

Calculate the sending end voltage,

current, power and power factor
using their corresponding formulas

Print the results.

Stop
ALGORITHM:

1. Start the program.

2. Read all the variables.

3. Compute the following terms.

I1=P1/(v1*pf)
Ir=I1*Fi

Vs= ((Vr*1000) + (Ir*Z))

4. Compute magnitude of sending end voltage.

5. Compute the Losses and sending end power using the given equation.
Power loss = I2R.
Sending end power = Pr + Power losses

6. Compute Percentage of efficiency and Percentage of Regulation.

7. Print all the results.

8. Stop the program.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

(i) Determine the YBUS and ZBUS of the network shown in figure.

(ii) Check the results obtained in using MATLAB or C.

ONE LINE DIAGRAM:

LINE DATA:

Bus Code Line Impedance Charging Admittance

1-2 0.2 + j 0.8 j 0.02

2–3 0.3 + j 0.9 j 0.03

2–4 0.25 + j 1.0 j 0.04

3–4 0.2 + j 0.8 j 0.02

1–3 0.1 + j 0.4 j 0.01

Half Line Charging = (Line Charging) / 2

Y11 = Y12 + Y13 + Y10 = . .

+ . .
+ 0.01 + 0.005 = 0.882 − 3.514

Y21=Y12 = . .
= - 0.294 + j1.176

Y31 =Y13 = . .
= −0.588 + 2.353

Y41 =Y14 = 0

Y22= Y21+Y24+Y23+Y20= . .
+ . .
+ . .
+ 0.01 + 0.02 + 0.015 = 0.862 − 3.072

Y32=Y23 = . .
= −0.333 + 1.0

Y42= Y24= .
= −0.235 + 0.941

Y33= Y31+Y34+Y32+Y30= . .
+ . .
+ . .
+ 0.005 + 0.015 + 0.01 = 1.215 − 4.499

Y34 =Y43 = . .
= −0.294 + 1.176

Y44= Y42+Y43+Y40 = = .
+ . .
+ 0.02 + 0.01 = 0.5294 − 2.088

Ybus =
0.882 − 3.514 −0.294 + 1.176 −0.588 + 2.353 0
−0.294 + 1.176 0.862 − 3.072 −0.333 + 1 −0.235 + 0.941
−0.588 + 2.353 −0.333 + 1 1.215 − 4.499 0.529 − 2.088
 0 −0.235 + 0.941 −0.294 + 1.176 0.529 − 2.088

Ybus – Mipower Simulation – Input Data

Report : Y Bus Formation

Number of Buses : 4
Number of Transformers : 0
Number of Series Elements : 5
Number of shunt Impedence Elements : 0
Number of shunt Admittance Elements : 0

Transmission Line/ Series Element Data Data

Status From Bus To Bus Resistance Reactance BBy2

1 1 2 0.200 0.800 0.010

1 2 3 0.300 0.900 0.015
1 2 4 0.250 1.000 0.020
1 3 4 0.200 0.800 0.010
1 1 3 0.100 0.400 0.005

Y Bus Matrix
( 0.882,(+j) -3.514) ( -0.294,(+j) 1.176) ( -0.588,(+j) 2.353) ( 0.000,(+j) 0.000)
( -0.294,(+j) 1.176) ( 0.863,(+j) -3.073) ( -0.333,(+j) 1.000) ( -0.235,(+j) 0.941)
( -0.588,(+j) 2.353) ( -0.333,(+j) 1.000) ( 1.216,(+j) -4.499) ( -0.294,(+j) 1.176)
( 0.000,(+j) 0.000) ( -0.235,(+j) 0.941) ( -0.294,(+j) 1.176) ( 0.529,(+j) -2.088)
RESULT:
[Link]: FORMATION OF BUS IMPEDANCE MATRICES.
DATE:

AIM
To form the impedance matrix using bus building algorithm.

THEORY

In bus impedance matrix the elements on the main diagonal are called driving point impedance and the off-
diagonal elements are called the transfer impedance of the buses or nodes. The bus impedance matrix are very
useful in fault analysis. The bus impedance matrix can be determined by two methods. In one method we can
form the bus admittance matrix and than taking its inverse to get the bus impedance matrix. In another method
the bus impedance matrix can be directly formed from the reactance diagram and this method requires the
knowledge of the modifications of existing bus impedance matrix.
✓ Zbus is symmetric whenYbus is symmetric.
✓ Zbus is a full matrix.
✓ In Ybus some of the elements are zeros in [Link] elements of Ybus becomes non zero elements.

✓ The matrix inversion of large power system with large machine is not feasible.

✓ A computationally attractive and efficient method for finding Zbus matrix is building or assembling the
impedance matrix by adding one network element at a time. This is an indirect method (or) bus
building algorithm instead of inversion of Ybus.
✓ By using L-U factorization of Ybus the inverse can be found easily.

✓ This is also called triangular factorization method (or) repeate solution method.
ALGORITHM

Step 1: Start the program.

Step 2 : Get the number of buses and branches connected in the given system. Step
3 : Check the nodes for each branch.
Step 4 : If the branch is connected between reference node and new node, Then it
is type1.

Step 5: If the branch is connected between old and new node, Then
it is type2.

Step 6: If the branch is connected between old node and reference node,
 Then it is type3.

Step 7: If the bus is connected between two old buses, then it is the type4.

Step 8: Repeat above procedures until to connect all buses. Step

9 :Display the bus impedance matrix.
Step 10: Stop the program.
Flow Chart
Problem Statement

Find the Bus impedance Matrix of the given power system using the Bus building algorithm method. The
power circuit diagram is given below.

MANUAL CALCULATIONS:

Step1:
New bus is connected to Reference bus. (Type 1)

Zbus=[0.1j]

Step 2:
New bus is connected to Old bus. (Type 2)
Step 3:
Old bus is connected to Reference bus. (Type 3)

Step 4:
Mi power Simulation – Input Data
 Y Bus / ZBus Formation – Simulation Report

Number of Buses : 3
Number of Transformers : 0
Number of Series Elements : 2
Number of shunt Impedence Elements : 2
Number of shunt Admittance Elements : 0

Transmission Line/ Series Element Data

Status From Bus To Bus Resistance Reactance BBy2

1 1 2 0.000 0.250 0.000

1 2 3 0.000 0.500 0.000

Status Bus number shunt reactance

1 1 0.000 1.000
2 2 0.000 1.250

Y Bus and Z Bus is Generated

Y Bus Matrix

( 0.000,(+j) -5.000) ( 0.000,(+j) 4.000) ( 0.000,(+j) 0.000)

( 0.000,(+j) 4.000) ( 0.000,(+j) -6.800) ( 0.000,(+j) 2.000)
( 0.000,(+j) 0.000) ( 0.000,(+j) 2.000) ( 0.000,(+j) -2.000)

Z Bus Matrix

( 0.0000,(+j) 0.6000) ( 0.0000,(+j) 0.5000) ( 0.0000,(+j) 0.5000)

 ( 0.0000,(+j) 0.5000) ( 0.0000,(+j) 0.6250) ( 0.0000,(+j) 0.6250)

( 0.0000,(+j) 0.5000) ( 0.0000,(+j) 0.6250) ( 0.0000,(+j) 1.1250)

RESULT:
[Link]: POWER FLOW ANALYSIS USING GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD.
DATE:

AIM
To conduct load flow analysis of a power system by Gauss – Seidal method using Mi

- Power software package.

THEORY

Load flow study

This study helps in designing the power system network such that there are no overloads
or over voltages or under voltages or excessive loss of power.

For each load condition, this analysis may be conducted so that the system performance
will be good under all possible load conditions. The load flow analysis program computes the
voltage magnitude, phase angles and transmission line power flow for a network under steady
state operating condition.

The main objective of the study is to obtain the magnitude and phase angle of the
voltage at each bus & Real and Reactive power in each line.

The load flow solution also gives the initial condition of the system when the transient
behaviour of the system is to be studied. This study is essential to decide the best operation of
the operating system and for planning the future expansion of the system. It is also essential
for designing a new power system. This study is used for both Off-line and On-line analysis.

Off-line Analysis : Giving the data to computer as obtained from the data book.

On-line Analysis : Giving data to computer as obtained from the system (current data)

This analysis can be done in any one of the following ways

1. Gauss - Seidal method
2. Newton – Raphson method
3. Fast decoupled method

28
PROBLEM FORMULATION (GAUSS-SEIDAL METHOD)
The performance equation of a power system may be written as

[IBUS] = [YBUS] [VBUS] (1)

Selecting one of the buses as the reference bus, we get (n-1) simultaneous equations.
The bus loading equations can be written as
Pi –jQi
Ii = (i = 1,2,3 ..... n) (2)

Vi *

n
Pi = Re Σ Vi* YikVk
(3) k=1

n
Qi = -Im Σ Vi* YikVk
(4) k=1

ADVANTAGE OF GAUSS – SEIDAL METHOD

1. Simplicity of the technique

2. Small system memory requirement

3. Less computational time per iteration

29
DISADVANTAGES OF GAUSS – SEIDAL METHOD
1. Slow rate of convergence, so large number of iterations

2. Number of iterations increases with increase in number of buses

3. Convergence Depends on choice of slack bus

4. Useful only for system having small number of buses

ALGORITHM:

Step 1 : Form Y-bus matrix

Step 2 : Assume Vk = Vk (spec ) 00 at all generator buses.

Step 3 : Assume Vk = 1 00 = 1+j0 at all load buses.

Step 4 : Set iteration count = 1 (iter = 1)

Step 5 : Let bus number i =1.

Step 6 : If „i‟ refers to generator bus go to step no.7, otherwise go to step 8.

Step 7a: If „i‟ refers to the slack bus go to step 9. Otherwise go to step 7(b).

Step 7b: Compute Qi using

Check for Q limit violation

If Qi (min) < QGi <Qi (max), then Qi (spec)

If QGi < Qi (min), then Qi (spec) = Qi (min) – QLi

If QGi > Qi (max), then Qi (spec) = Qi (max) – QLi

30
 If Qlimit is violated, then treat this bus as P-Q bus till convergence is obtained.

Step 8 : Compute Vi using the equation,

Step 9 : If i is less than the number of buses, increment i by 1 and go to step 6.

Step 10: Compare two successive iteration values for Vi

If < tolerance, go to step 12.

Step 11: Update the new voltage as

Vnew = Vold + (Vnew - Vold)

Vold = Vnew

iter = iter +1; go to step 5

Step 12: Compute relevant quantities.

Slack bus power, Si = =V*I=

Line flow, Sij = Pij + jQij

PLoss =

QLoss =

Step 13: Stop the execution.

31
 FLOW CHART FOR THE GAUSS-SEIDAL LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

START

Read line data, bus data, V spec, Pspec, Q-limits, tol

and acceleration factor

Compute Y-bus matrix by Inspection method

Initialize all the bus voltages suitably

Set Iteration Count Iter =1

Bus no i = 2

B i=i+1

32
 A

No
Does i refer
to P-V Bus ?
Yes

Calculate Q at bus i
QGi = QBus i + QLi

QGi > QGi max QGi < QGi min

Check for Q
limit violation

QGi = QGi max Qi = Qi calculated QGi = QGi min

Qi spec = QGi max - QLi Qi spec = QGi min - QLi

33
 E

Yes No
(Vinew - Viold) Tol ?
i = 1 to nb; i slack bus

Calculate all line power Vinew = Viold + ( Vinew – Viold)

flows, Bus voltage i = 1 to nb ; i slack bus
magnitudes, bus voltage
angles, total line power
losses. Reactive powers Viold = Vinew
generated at P-V buses i = 1 to nb ; i slack bus
and slack bus real and
reactive powers

Iter = Iter +1

Print the
Results
C

STOP

G1 G2

34
Bus Specifications:
Bus no Bus V spec Generation (P.U) Load (P.U) Q-min Q-max
type P Q P Q
1 Slack 1.06 - - - - - -
2 P-V 1.02 0.6 0.25 0.0 0.0 0.25 0.75
3 P-Q 1.0 - - 0.75 0.35 - -

Line Data

Line. Start bus End bus Series impedance Half-line Capacity

No charging [MW]
admittance
1 1 2 0.002 + j0.02 0.0001 70
2 2 3 0.003 + j0.032 0.0002 64
3 1 3 0.0015 + j0.0035 0.00015 55

Shunt Element Data

[Link] Bus. No MVAR
1 3 4.0

35
RESULT

36
[Link]: POWER FLOW ANALYSIS USING NEWTON RAPHSON
DATE: METHOD

AIM
To conduct load flow analysis of a power system by Newton _ Raphson method using

Mi - Power software package.

THEORY:

Load flow study

This study helps in designing the power system network such that there are no overloads
or over voltages or under voltages or excessive loss of power.

For each load condition, this analysis may be conducted so that the system performance
will be good under all possible load conditions. The load flow analysis program computes the
voltage magnitude, phase angles and transmission line power flow for a network under steady
state operating condition.

The main objective of the study is to obtain the magnitude and phase angle of the
voltage at each bus & Real and Reactive power in each line.

The load flow solution also gives the initial condition of the system when the transient
behaviour of the system is to be studied. This study is essential to decide the best operation of
the operating system and for planning the future expansion of the system. It is also essential
for designing a new power system. This study is used for both Off-line and On-line analysis.

Off-line Analysis : Giving the data to computer as obtained from the data book.

On-line Analysis : Giving data to computer as obtained from the system (current data)

This analysis can be done in any one of the following ways

1. Gauss - Seidal method

2. Newton – Raphson method

37
LOAD FLOW SOLUTION BY NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD
The N-R technique converges equally fast for small as well as large system, usually less than
4 or 5 iterations but more functional evaluational are required. It is become very popular for
large system studies.

The most widely used methods for solving simultaneous non linear algebraic equation is the
N-R method. This method is a successive approximation procedure based on initial estimate of
the unknown and the use of Taylor series expansion. In this method the Real and
Imaginary part of power can be represented as

Pi (1)

Qi (2)
ALGORITHM:

Step 1 : Form Y-bus matrix

Step 2 : Assume flat start for starting voltage solution

= 0.0, for i = 1,…..N for all buses except slack bus.

= 1.0, for I = M+1, M+2, …N (for all PQ buses)

= for all PV buses and slack bus

Step 3 : For load buses, calculate and .

Step 4 : For PV buses, check for Q – limit violation.

If Qi (min) < < Qi (max), then bus acts as PV bus.

If < Qi (min), then Qi (spec) = Qi (min

If > Qi (max), then Qi (spec) = Qi (max)

The P-V bus will act as P-Q bus.

38
Step 5 : Compute mismatch vector using

Step : 6 Compute ; I = 1,2,……,N except slack bus

; i = M+1…..,N

Step : 7 Compute jacobian matrix using

Step : 8 Obtain state correction vector

Step : 9 Update state vector using

Step :10 This procedure is continued until

and , otherwise go to step 3.

39
FLOWCHART FOR THE NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

START

Read line data, bus data including specified bus

powers and bus voltage magnitudes, reactive
power limits, convergence tolerance, limit on no.
of iterations (N)

Form [ Ybus ] Matrix

Initialization Vi = Vspec + j0 at all ‘PV’ buses,

Vi = 1 + j0 at all ‘PQ’ buses

Iter = 0

40
ADVANTAGES
1. On account of its quadratic convergence, Newton- Raphson method is mathematically
superior to the Gauss – seidal method and is less prone to divergence with ill
conditioned systems

2. More efficient and practical for large power systems

3. Number of iterations is independent of the system size

4. More accuracy and convergence is assured

5. This method is insensitive to factors like slack bus selection, regulating transformers

etc.,

DISADVANTAGES
1. Solution technique is difficult

2. More computations are involved and hence computing time per iteration is large 3.
Computer memory requirement is more

41
SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM

G1 G2

Bus Specifications:
Bus no Bus V spec Generation (P.U.) Load (P.U.) Q-min Q-max
type P Q P Q
1 Slack 1.06 - - - - - -
2 P-V 1.02 0.6 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.7
3 P-Q 1.0 - - 0.8 0.62 - -

Line Data
Line. Start bus End bus Series impedance Half-line Capacity

No charging [MW]
admittance
1 1 2 0.002 + j0.02 0.0001 70
2 2 3 0.003 + j0.032 0.0001 64
3 1 3 0.0015 + j0.0035 0.00015 55

42
RESULT

43
[Link] : SYMMETRIC AND UNSYMMETRICAL FAULT
DATE: ANALYSIS

AIM:

To find out the fault current for single line to ground fault.

THEORY:

The single line to ground fault the most common type is caused by lightning or by
conductors making contact with grounded structures. Figure shows a three phase generator
with neutral grounded through impedance, Zn.

Suppose a LG fault occur on phase „a‟ connected through impedance Zn.

Assuming the generator is initially on no-load the conduction at the fault bus „k‟ are
expressed by the following relation.

Va = ZfIa

Ib = Ic = 0 (1)

If = Ia

44
 (2)
Substitute Ib = Ic = 0 the symmetrical components of current are,

(3)
From the equation (3) we find that

(4)

From the sequence network of the generator the symmetrical voltages are given by

(5)

The phase voltages are given by

(6)

From equation (6)

From condition
(7)

Sub Symmetrical components of voltages from equation (5) we get

45
 =

(8)

The fault current (9)

On sub symmetrical components of current in equation (5) and (6) the symmetrical
components of voltages and phase voltages at the fault are obtained.
SEQUENCE NETWORK:

From equation (4) and (5), the +ve sequence, -ve sequence and zero sequence network are
connected in series as shown in fig. Thus for a LG fault, the thevnin impedance at the fault
impedance is obtained for each sequence network and are connected in series.
Mostly

If the generator is solidly grounded, then for solid short circuit fault

Zf = 0.

If the neutral of the generator is ungrounded the zero sequence network is open

circuited.

And If = 0

46
DATA:

G1, G2 : 100 MVA, 11 KV, X+ = X- = 15%, X0 = 5%, Xn = 6%

T1, T2 : 100 MVA, IIKV/220 KV, XLeak = 9%

L1, L2 : X+ = X- = 10%, X0 = 5%, on a base of 100 MVA

G1 is connected with bus no.1

G2 is connected with bus no.4

T1 is connected between bus no.1 and bus no.2

T2 is connected between bus no.3 and bus no.4

L1, L2 connected between bus no.2 and bus no.3

Assume phase at phase „A‟ in bus no.4

47
RESULT

48
[Link]: TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SMIB SYSTEM

DATE:

AIM

Analyse the Transient stability of a single machine infinite bus system through Mi-

Power software package.

THEORY:

For the purpose of analysis fig (a) is reduced to fig (b) using thevnin‟s equivalent of the
transmission network external to the machine and the adjacent transmission.
Because of the relative size of the system to which the machine is supplying power
dynamics associated with the machine will cause virtually no change in the voltage and
frequency of thevnin‟s volatage EB . Such a source of constant voltage and constant
frequency is referred to an infinite bus.
For any given system condition, the magnitude of infinite bus voltage EB remains constant.
However as the steady state condition change, the magnitude of EB may change represent a
changed generating condition of the external network.
We will analyze the small signal stability of the system with the synchronous machine
represented by models of varying degree of detail. We will begin with the classical model

49
and gradually increase the model detail by accounting for the effects of the dynamics of the
field, circuits and excitation system.
In each case we will develop the expressions for the elements of state matrix as explicit
function of the system parameters. This will help make clear the effects of various factor
associated with a synchronous machine on system stability. In addition to the state space
representation and model analysis we will use the block diagram representation and torque
angle relationship to analyze the system stability characteristics.

CALCULATION:

Let E‟ = Voltage behind X‟d

= Angle by which E‟ leads the infinite bus voltage EB.

With E‟ as reference phasor

It

The complex power behind Xd‟ is given by

S‟ = P + jQ‟ = E‟It*

In p.u the air gap torque is equal to the air gap power

50
Here,

Te

Linearizing about an initial operating condition represented by yields

The equation of motion in p.u are

P (Tm – Te – KD. )

P =

Also

P Tm – KS – KD. )

Where KS is synchronizing torque co-efficient and is given by

KS

Linearizing the (6) we get,

P =

Writing the (7) & (9) in vector matrix, we obtain

Where

KS = Synchronising torque co-efficient

KD = Damping torque co-efficient in p.u torque/p.u speed deviation

H = Inertia constant in MW. S/MVA

51
 = Speed deviation in p.u

= Rotor angle deviation in electrical radii

= Laplace operator
= rated speed in electrical rad/s

From the block diagram, we have

Rearranging we get,

Therefore the characteristic equation is given by

This is of the general form

52
Therefore the un-damped natural frequency is

rad/sec

and the damping ratio is

SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM:

DETAILED DIAGRAM:

53
DATA:

Generator:

555 MVA x 4 Units

Xd‟ = 0.3 p.u

H = 3.5 Mw-s/MVA
Voltage = 24 KV, 60 Hz

Transformer:
Voltage Ratio = 24/220 KV
Reactance = 0.15 p.u

Line:
Reactance of line 1 = 0.5 p.u

Reactance of line 2 = 0.93 p.u

Reactance of infinite bus = 0.5 p.u
Fault:

Three phase to ground fault at end of line 2 occur at t = 0 sec;

clearing at t = 0.07 sec

Et = 1.0 p.u;

PF = 0.9

Plant operating condition P = 0.9 pu

54
RESULT:

55
[Link]: LOAD – FREQUENCY DYNAMICS OF SINGLE- AREA

DATE:

AIM:

To develop a single area load frequency control through Mi-power software package.

THEORY:

The real power in a power system is being controlled by controlling the driving torques of
the individual turbines of the system. The speed governor is the main primary tool for the
load frequency control.

Fly ball speed governor

It is purely mechanical speed sensitive device coupled directly to the hydraulic amplifier
which adjust the control valve opening via for the fine linkage mechanism.

As the load increases speed of the turbine decreases, and the speed changer gives raise
command, so the fly balls move outwards and the point B moves downwards and the reverse
happens with the increased speed.

Speed Changer
It makes it possible to restore the frequency to the initial (nominal) value after the operation
of the speed governor which has steady state. characteristics corresponds to an increase PC
in the reference power setting.

Hydraulic Amplifier

It consists of pilot valve and main piston with this arrangement, a low power pilot valve
movement is converted into high level movement of the oil, servomotor piston. The input to
the amplifier is the position XD of the pilot valve. The output is the position XE of the main
piston. Hydraulic amplification is necessary so that steam valve or gate could be operated
against high pressure steam.

56
Linkage Mechanism
ABC is rigid link pivoted at B and ODE is another rigid link pivoted at D. The functions of
link mechanism is to control the steam valve or gate. We get feedback from the movement
of the steam valve via link CD.

Working
As load increases the speed of the turbine decreases, the speed changer gives raise command
and the fly ball move outwards and point B moves downwards and D moves upwards and
high pressure oil enters in to the upper pilot valve and presses the main piston downwards
and opens the valve or gate i.e increases the flow of steam to the turbine.

57
MODEL OF SPEED GOVERNING MECHANISM:

We shall develop the mathematical model based on small deviations around a

nominal steady state. Consider the steam is operating under steady state and is delivering
power from the generator at nominal frequency f0.
Let be the steam valve setting. Let us assume that raise command PC, to the speed
changer, the point A moved downwards, by a small amount XA which cause the turbine
power output to change,

XA = KC PC

Let us assume positive direction for downward movement and negative direction for
upward movement.

Movement of C:

(i) XA contributes PC

(ii) Increase in frequency f cause the fly balls to move outwards so that b moves
downwards by a proportional amount K2 f.

XC = -K1KC PC + K2 f (1)

Movement of D:

It is contributed by XC and XT. The movement of XD is the amount by which the pilot
valve open, thereby moving the main piston and opening the steam valve by XE.

XD XE

= K3 XC + K4 XE (2)

Movement of XE :

The volume of oil admitted to the cylinder is thus proportional to the line integral of XD.

XE (3)

Taking Laplace transform of equ (1), (2) and (3)

58
 XC(S) = -K1KC PC(S)+ K2 F(S) (4)

XD(S) = K3 XC (S)+ K4 XE (S) (5)

(6)
Substituting equation (5) in (6) we get,

XE(S) (S)+ K4 XE (S))

(7)

Substituting equ (4) in (7) we get,

(S)+ K2 F(S))

This equation can be written as,

(8)

Where,

R1 – speed regulation of the governor in Hz/MW

KG – gain of the governor

59
 TG – time constant of speed governor

- Value of TG< 100 msec

The output of a generating unit at a given system frequency can be varied only by
changing it‟s “ Load reference or control point” which is integrated with the speed governing
mechanism.

Turbine model
We are integrated in the increased power generation PG due to the increased steam valve
opening. There is incremental increase in turbine power PT due to the change in valve
position XE, which will result in an increase generator power PG. If the generator
incremental loss is neglected then

PT = PG

The figure for non- reheat turbine is shown in fig.

Tt = Time constant of turbine

Kt = Gain constant

PV = Per unit change in valve position from nominal value

Generator Load Model:

To develop the mathematical model of an isolated generator, which is only supplying local
load and is not supplying power to another area. Suppose there is a real load change of
PD. The net surplus power ( PG - PD) will be absorbed by system in two ways.

60
1. By increasing the kinetic energy stored in the rotor at the rate

= [Link] KW seconds

(9)

WKE
(10) Dividing equ (10) by (9) we get

WKE

neglect second order term.

Substituting ,

WKE (11)

Rate of change of kinetic energy,

(12)

2. As the frequency changes, the motor load changes being sensitive to speed

61
 Rate of change of load with respect to frequency =B

Where,

B = damping co-efficient in MW/Hz.

Values of damping co-efficient is positive for motor load.

PG - PD= B f

Writing power balance equation,

Dividing by Pr,

Taking laplace transform,

F(S)

F(S)

Where,

KP = Power system gain

TP = Power system time constant

Combining the governor model, turbine model and generator model, we get the complete
block diagram representation of LFC of an isolated power which is shown in fig.

62
DATA:

Rated capacity of the area = 2000 MVA

Normal operating load = 1000 MW

Nominal frequency = 60 Hz

Inertia Constant (H) = 5.0

Governor droop for all regulating generators =4%

Governor time constant = 0.05 sec

Turbine time constant = 0.30 sec

Sudden rise in load value = 20 MW

Rate of change of load (DPL) = 1.0

DPF = 1.0

DT = 0.01

Tmax = 20.0

63
RESULT:

64
[Link] : LOAD – FREQUENCY DYNAMICS OF TWO- AREA
DATE:

AIM:

To develop a two area load frequency control through Mi-power software package.

THEORY
An extended power system can be divided into a number of load frequency control areas
interconnected by means of tie lines. Without loss of generating, we shall consider a two
area case connected by a single tie line as illustrated in fig.
The control objective now is to regulate the frequency of each area and to regulate the tie
line power as per inter area power contracts. As in the case of frequency proportional plus
integral controller will be installed so as to give zero steady state error in the tie line flow as
compare to the contracted power.
It is assumed that each control area can be represented by equivalent turbine generator and
governor system. Symbols used with suffix „1‟ refers to area „1‟.
In an isolated control area case, the incremental power ( PG - PD) was accounted for the
rate of increase in area load, caused by increase in frequency. Since, a tie line transports
power in or out of an area, this fact must be accounted for in the incremental power balance
equation of each area.

Power transported out of area 1 is given by,

Ptie,1

Where,

= Power angle of equivalent machines of the two area

For incremental changes in and the incremental tie line can be expressed as,

Apply partial differentiation with respect to

65
 = T12

Where

Synchronizing power co-efficient or electric or dielectric (i.e) slope of the power angle
curve at the initial stiffness operating angle .

T12 is defined as the differential power increase obtained per differential power angle
increase obtained per differential power angle increase.

Since incremental frequency f is related to the phase angle of deviation,

=2 f

(i.e) f

We can equ T12 as,

Where and are incremental frequency changer of areas „1‟ and „2‟ respectively.

66
Similarly,

Where,

The incremental power balance equation for area „1‟ can be written as,

Taking LT on equation of above and rearranging we get,

67
Where,

KPS = Power system gain for area „1‟

= Power system time constant for area „1‟

Taking LP transform of equation,

(S) =

For the control area „2‟,

(S) =

(S) =

DATA:

Number of areas =2

Rated capacity of the area = 2000 MVA

Normal operating load = 1000 MW

68
Nominal frequency = 60 Hz

Inertia Constant (H) = 5.0

Governor droop for all regulating generators =4%

Governor time constant = 0.08 sec

Turbine time constant = 0.30 sec

Sudden rise in load value (DPD) = 0 MW (for Area 1);

20 MW (for Area 2);

Rate of change of load (DPL) = 1.0

DPF = 1.0

DT = 0.01

Tmax = 20.0

69
RESULT:

70
[Link]: ECONOMIC DISPATCH IN POWER SYSTEMS
DATE:

AIM:

To solve economic dispatch and unit commitment problem of a given power system
using Mi – Power package.
THEORY:

ECONOMIC DISPATCH PROBLEM:

The purpose of economic dispatch (or) optimal dispatch is to reduce fuel costs for the power
system. By economic load scheduling, we mean to find the generation of the different
generators (or) plants, so that the total fuel cost is minimum and at the same time the total
demand and losses at any instant must be met by total generation. The economic dispatch
problem involves the solution of two different problems.

We know that FT = F1 + F2 + ……. + FN

Equality Constraint:

Inequality Constraint:

The necessary condition, for the existence of a minimum cost operating condition is that the
incremental cost rates of all the units will be equal to some undetermined value

The power balance equation is . There are two inequalities that must be
satisfied for each of the units.

The necessary conditions may be expanded slightly as shown in the set of equation.

71
 The net saving cost = +

Where

= Increase in cost for unit 1.

= Increase in cost for unit 2.

The possible observation concerned to are,

1. If < 0, the fuel input to the system is decreased by increasing generation on

source 1 and consequently, the intial generation schedule was not optimum.
2. If > 0, the fuel input to the system is increased by increasing the generation of
source 1 and in this case it would not be desirable to increase the output of source 1.

Solution by - iteration method without loss

Step: 1 Assign initial trial value of or calculate using

Step: 2 Compute corresponding to using equations

= + (IC) + (IC)2

2
= + + (or)

72
Step: 3 Compute

Step: 4 Check the power balance equation

Step: 5 If
Assign =

If

Assign =

=
∑
Where ( )

DATA

(i) Total Demand = 850MW

Operating limits:

150 MW P1 600 MW 100 MW P2 400 MW 50 MW

P3 200 MW
Production cost function in Rs / hr

F1 = 459 +6.48 P1 + 0.00128 P12 Rs./Hr

F2 = 310 + 7.85 P2 + 0.0019 P22 Rs./Hr

F3 = 78+ 7.97 P3 + 0.00482 P32 Rs./Hr

(ii) Total Demand = 150 MW

Operating limits:

73
 10 MW P1 100 MW 10 MW P2 100 MW
Production cost function in Rs / hr
F1 = 0.05 P12 + 20 P1 + 800 Rs./Hr
F2 = 0.06 P22 + 15 P2 + 1000 Rs./Hr
B11 = 0.01; B12 = B21 =0.01; B22 = 0.024

(iii) Total Demand = 200 MW

Operating limits:

10 MW P1 100 MW 10 MW P2 100 MW
Incremental cost function in Rs /
hr dF1 = 0.2 P12 + 20 P1 Rs./Hr
dF2 = 0.2 P22 + 30 P2 Rs./Hr

RESULT:

74
[Link]: STATE ESTIMATION: WEIGHTED LEAST SQUARE ESTIMATION
DATE:

Aim
To implement and analyze the Weighted Least Squares (WLS) method for state
estimation in a system, such as a power network, using MATLAB.

Algorithm
1. System Modeling:
• Define the system topology (e.g., buses and branches in a power
network)
• Identify state variables (e.g., voltage magnitudes and angles).

2. Measurement Acquisition:
• Collect measurements (e.g., power flows, injections) with associated
noise characteristics
3. Formulate Measurement Function:
• Establish the nonlinear relationship between measurement and state
variables

Z=h(x)+e
1. Linearization:

• Linearize h(x) around an initial state estimate x0 using the Jacobian matrix H:

∆z ≈ HAx

1. Weight Matrix Construction:

• Construct the weight matrix W = R-1, where R is the covariance matrix of measurement
errors.

75
2. State Update Computation:

• Calculate the state correction:

∆x = (HWH)-¹HTWAz Xnew x0 + Ax

1. Iteration:

Repeat steps 4-6 until convergence criteria are met (e.g., ∆x is below a threshold).

76
FLOWCHART
Start
│
▼
Initialize State Estimate (x₀)
│
▼
Repeat Until Convergence:
│
▼
Compute Measurement Residual (Δz)
│
▼
Linearize Measurement Function (Compute H)
│
▼
Construct Weight Matrix (W)
│
▼
Compute State Correction (Δx)
│
▼
Update State Estimate (x_new = x₀ + Δx)
│
▼
Check Convergence Criteria
│
▼
End

Matlab implementation

77
% Define system parameters and measurements
% [This includes system topology, initial state estimates, measurement values, and error
covariances]

% Initialize state vector x

x = x0; % Initial state estimate

% Iterative process
max_iter = 10;
tolerance = 1e-4;
for iter = 1:max_iter
% Compute measurement function h(x) and Jacobian H at current x
[h_x, H] = measurement_function(x);
% Compute measurement residual
delta_z = z - h_x;
% Construct weight matrix W (inverse of measurement error covariance R)
W = inv(R);
% Compute state correction
delta_x = (H' * W * H) \ (H' * W * delta_z);
% Update state estimate
x = x + delta_x;
% Check for convergence
if norm(delta_x) < tolerance
break;
end
end
% Display final state estimate
disp('Estimated State Variables:');
disp(x);

78
Result:

79
[Link] PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF OVER CURRENT
DATE: RELAY

AIM:
To study the Operation of a Non- Directional (I D M T relay) and plot the inverse time current
characteristics.

APPARATUS:

S. No. Name of the Equipment Range Type Quantity

1 IDMT Over current relay kit - - 01

2 Connecting wires As required

THEORY:
IDMT relay is inverse definite minimum time relay. It is one in which Time of operation is
inversely proportional to magnitude of fault current near pickup value and becomes
substantially constant slightly above the pickup value of the Relay. Fault current and measure
relay operation time is used to conduct the experiment. Values recorded for various TSMs and
PSMs. Characteristics studied with the help of a graph and correlated with theory.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

80
PROCEDURE:-

1. Switch ON the MCB.

2. Initially rotor switch should be in OFF position.
3. Now set the described fault current by using the relay current setting. For that switch
ON the rotor switch and move the current till the described fault current is indicated in
the ammeter.
4. Now move the rotor switch to OFF position and press the green button. Note down the
time in seconds after relay operated.
5. Repeat the same procedure for various T.S.M and P.S.M
6. Plot the graph between time taken for relay to operate Vs P.S.M for various T.S.M.

PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Disc must be stationary before applying fault current.
2. TSM setting must be changed with due care.

READINGS AND TABULAR FORMS:-

PSM = TSM =

81
 SNO. Fault Current Time of operation

MODEL GRAPH:-

82
RESULT:

83
[Link] PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF IMPEDANCE RELAY
DATE

Aim

To evaluate the operating characteristics and performance of an impedance relay under various
fault condition.

Apparatus Required:

• Impedance relay (e.g., MiCOM P442)

• Transmission line model or simulator
• Current transformers (CTs) and potential transformers (PTs)
• Fault simulation unit
• Measuring instruments (ammeters, voltmeters)
• Data acquisition system

Theory:

Impedance relays operate by comparing the voltage and current at a point in the power
system to calculate the impedance. During a fault, the impedance decreases, and if it falls below
a predetermined threshold, the relay operates to isolate the faulty section. The relay's
characteristic can be represented on an R-X diagram, which helps in visualizing its
operating region.

84
Circuit diagram

A typical setup includes a transmission line model connected to a power source, with the
impedance relay installed to monitor the line. CTs and PTs are used to step down the current
and voltage for the relay. A fault simulation unit is integrated to introduce faults at various
points along the transmission line.

Procedure:

1. Setup Configuration:

• Connect the impedance relay to the transmission line model using appropriate CTs
and PTs.
• Ensure all connections are secure and that measuring instruments are properly
calibrated.

2. Relay Parameter Settings:

• Configure the relay settings according to the transmission line parameters, including
zone settings, time delays, and fault detection thresholds.

85
3. Fault Simulation:
• Introduce different types of faults (e.g., single line-to-ground, line-to-line, double line-
to-ground, and three-phase faults) at various locations along the transmission line using the
fault simulation unit.
• For each fault, record the relay's response time, the impedance measured, and whether
the relay correctly identified the faulted zone.

4. Data Collection:
• Measure and record the pre-fault and fault voltages and currents.
• Document the relay's operation, including trip signals and timing.

Output

86
Result:

87
[Link]: TESTING OF CT, PT, AND INSULATOR STRING.
DATE:

AIM:
To study the performance of current and potential Transformers.

APPARATUS:

S. Name of the Equipment Range Type Quantity

No.
1 Ammeters 0 – 20A Digital 2
2 Voltmeters 0 – 500V Digital 2
Current 20/5A C.T --- 1
3
transformer(C.T) 10/5A C.T --- 1
Potential 400/100V P.T --- 1
4
transformer(P.T) 200/100V P.T --- 1
5 Connecting wires ---- --- As required

THEORY:
Current transformers reduce high voltage currents to a much lower value and provide a
convenient way of safely monitoring the actual electrical current flowing in an AC transmission
line using a standard ammeter. The principal of operation of a basic current transformer is
slightly different from that of an ordinary voltage transformer. Current transformers can reduce
or “step- down” current levels from thousands of amperes down to a standard output of a known
ratio to either 5 Amps or 1 Amp for normal operation. Thus, small and accurate instruments
and control devices can be used with CT’s because they are insulated away from any high-
voltage power lines. There are a variety of metering applications and uses for current
transformers such as with Wattmeter’s, power factor meters, watt-hour meters, protective
relays, or as trip coils in magnetic circuit breakers, or

88
MCB’s.
Potential transformer or voltage transformer gets used in electrical power system for stepping
down the system voltage to a safe value which can be fed to low ratings meters and relays.
Commercially available relays and meters used for protection and metering, are designed for
low voltage. This is a simplest form of potential transformer definition. Potential transformer
theory is just like a theory of general purpose step down transformer. Primary of this
transformer is connected across the phase and ground. Just like the transformer used for
stepping down purpose, potential transformer i.e. PT has lower turns winding at its secondary.
The system voltage is applied across the terminals of primary winding of that transformer, and
then proportionate secondary voltage appears across the secondary terminals of the PT. The
secondary voltage of the PT is generally 110 V. In an ideal potential transformer or voltage
transformer, when rated burden gets connected across the secondary; the ratio of primary and
secondary voltages of transformer is equal to the turns ratio and furthermore, the two terminal
voltages are in precise phase opposite to each other. But in actual transformer, there must be an
error in the voltage ratio as well as in the phase angle between primary and secondary voltages.

A) CURRENT TRANSFORMER CIRCUIT

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Give connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply rated current to primary side of CT.
3. Note down ammeter readings.
4. Connect ammeter in secondary side of CT.
5. Note down the secondary ammeter readings.
6. serve CT performance by doing above procedure.

89
TABULAR COLUMN:

CT CT
[Link] C.T Range
Primary Current (A) Secondary Current (A)
1 20/5A C.T
2 10/5A C.T

B) POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER CIRCUIT:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Give connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply rated voltage to primary side of PT.
3. Note down voltmeter readings.
4. Connect voltmeter in secondary side of PT.
5. Note down the secondary voltmeter readings.
[Link] PT performance by doing above procedure.

90
TABULAR COLUMN:
PT PT
[Link] P.T Range
Primary Voltage (V) Secondary Voltage (V)
1 400/100V P.T
2 200/100V P.T

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Avoid loose connections

2. While removing connecting wires be careful

RESULT:

91
 TESTING OF STRING INSULATOR

AIM:
To determine string efficiency of suspension insulator with and without guard ring.

APPARATUS:

S. No. Name of the Equipment Range Quantity

1. 1-Phase Auto transformer. 100Volt/1Amp 01
2. Digital Voltmeter. 300Volt 01
3. MCB Protection. 20A 01
4. Fuse Protection. 1A 01
5. Capacitors. 2 micro Farad 03
6. Capacitors. 10 micro Farad 04
7. Capacitors. 1 micro Farad 03
8. Connecting wires. --- As required

THEORY:
A string of suspension insulators consists of a number of porcelain discs connected in series
through metallic links. Fig. 1 (i) shows string of suspension insulators. The porcelain portion
of each disc is in between two metal links as shown in Fig. 1 (ii). Therefore, each disc forms a
capacitor C as shown in Fig. 1 (iii). This is known as mutual capacitance or self-capacitance.
However, in actual practice, capacitance also exists between metal fitting of each disc and
tower or earth. This is known as shunt capacitance C1. Due to shunt capacitance, charging
current is not the same through all the discs of the string [See Fig. 1 (iii)]. Therefore, voltage
across each disc will be different. Obviously, the disc nearest to the line conductor will have
the maximum voltage. Thus referring to Fig. 1 (iii), V1 will be much more than V2 or V3.
The following points may be noted regarding the potential distribution over string of
suspension insulators:
(i) The voltage impressed on a string of suspension insulators does not distribute itself
uniformly across the individual discs due to the presence of shunt capacitance.
(ii) The disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it. As we move towards
the Cross-arm, the voltage across each disc goes on decreasing.
92
 (iii) The unit nearest to the conductor is under maximum electrical stress and is likely to be
punctured. Therefore, means must be provided to equalize the potential across each unit.
(iv) If the voltage impressed across the string were d.c, then voltage across each unit would
be the same. It is because insulator capacitances are ineffective for d.c.

String Efficiency:
The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of number of discs and the voltage
across the disc nearest to the conductor is known as string efficiency.
Voltage across the string
String efficiency =
n × Voltage across disc nearest to conductor
Where n = number of discs in the string.
String efficiency is an important consideration since it decides the potential distribution along
the string. The greater the string efficiency, the more uniform is the voltage distribution. Thus
100% string efficiency is an ideal case for which the voltage across each disc will be exactly
the same. Although it is impossible to achieve 100% string efficiency, yet efforts should be
made to improve it as close to this value as possible.
Methods to Improve String Efficiency:
i) By using longer cross-arms ii) By grading the insulators. iii) By using a guard ring

93
The potential across each unit in a string can be equalized by using a guard ring which is a
metal ring electrically connected to the conductor and surrounding the bottom insulator . The
guard ring introduces capacitance between metal fittings and the line conductor. The guard
rings contoured in such a way that shunt capacitance currents i1, i2 etc. are equal to metal fitting
line capacitance currents i′1, i′2 etc. The result is that same charging current I flows through
each unit of string. Consequently, there will be uniform potential distribution across the units.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig 3: Without Guard Ring

Fig 4: With Guard Ring

94
PROCEDURE:
Without Guard Ring:
1. Connect the circuit as per the Fig. 3. From one of the Variac output terminals connect
to terminals S1 and other Variac output terminal to G as shown in Fig. 3.
2. Apply voltage from the Variac across the string in steps of 20V starting from 30V to
110V.
3. Measure the voltage across S1 and S2(which is to be noted as E1); S2 and S3(which is to
be noted as E2); S3 and S4(which is to be noted as E3) ; S4 to G( which is to be noted as
E4)
4. Tabulate the voltages E1 to E4 in the tabular column 1. 5. Calculate the string efficiency
without guard ring.

With Guard Ring:

1. Connect the circuit as per the Fig. [Link] one of the Variac output terminals connect to
terminals S1 and other Variac output terminal to G. To connect the guard ring to the string,
connect the terminals S4-S7, S3-S8, S2-S9 and also make connections between S1-S10, S1-
S11 and S1-S12
2. Apply voltage from the Variac across the string in steps of 20V starting from 30V to
110V.
3. Measure the voltage across S1 and S2(which is to be noted as E1); S2 and S3(which is to
be noted as E2); S3 and S4(which is to be noted as E3) ; S4 to G( which is to be noted as
E4)
4. Tabulate the voltages E1 to E4 in the tabular column 2.
5. Calculate the string efficiency with guard ring.

CALCULATIONS:

String Efficiency Voltage across the string

number of units in the string Voltage across the unit near the power conductor

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TABULAR COLUMNS:
Without Guard Ring:
Table 1
E E1 E2 E3 E4 String Efficiency

With Guard Ring:

Table 2
E E1 E2 E3 E4 String Efficiency

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RESULT:

97
[Link] RELAY COORDINATION IN RADIAL FEEDER
DATE PROTECTION SCHEME

Aim
To study and implement the coordination of overcurrent relays in a radial feeder protection
scheme, ensuring selective isolation of faulted sections while maintaining system stability.

Apparatus Required

• Overcurrent relays (Inverse Definite Minimum Time, IDMT type)

• Current transformers (CTs)
• Circuit breakers
• Variable AC power supply
• Ammeter (0-15 A range)
• Rheostats or load banks
• Timer
• Auxiliary DC supr., (110V)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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The experimental setup consists of a radial feeder with multiple overcurrent relays installed at
different points along the feeder. Each relay is connected to a circuit breaker and is associated
with a current transformer for current measurement. The relays are configured to trip their
respective circuit breakers upon detecting fault conditions, with coordination ensuring that the
relay closest to the fault operates first.

Procedure

1. Circuit Setup:
•Connect the overcurrent relays in series along the radial feeder
model.
• Integrate current transformers with each relay to monitor the feeder current.
•Connect circuit breakers in series with each relay to isolate feeder sections.
•Ensure all connections are secure and verify the functionality of measuring instruments.

2. Relay Parameter Configuration:

• Current Setting (Plug Setting Multiplier, PSM): Adjust each relay's pickup current based on
the expected load current and fault levels
• Time Multiplier Setting (TMS):Set the TMS for each relay to achieve the desired operating
time. Relays closer to the load should have lower TMS values to operate faster than those nearer
to the source.

3. Testing Procedure:

• Gradually increase the feeder current using the variac until it exceeds the pickup value of the
relay farthest from the source (Relay R3).
• Record the operating time of R3 and the corresponding current value.
• Introduce a fault at various points along the feeder and observe which relay operates first.
Ensure that the relay closest to the fault location trips before upstream relays
• Repeat the tests for different fault currents and locations, recording the operating times and
verifying the coordination between relays.

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4. Data Analysis:

• Analyze the recorded operating times to ensure that each relay operates in the correct sequence
based on its position along the feeder.
• Verify that the coordination time interval (CTI) between primary and backup relays is
maintained, typically around 0.3 to 0.5 seconds, to allow the primary relay to operate
before the backup.

Result:

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