SEMICONDUCTOR

MODULE 2
 ENERGY BANDS

Energy Level or shell

Sub shell (s, p, d, f)
Orbitals
Suppose we have a large
number N of identical
atoms, far enough apart
that their interactions are
negligible. Every atom has
the same energy-level
diagram. We can draw an
energy-level diagram for
the entire system. It looks
just like the diagram for a
single atom
Now we begin to push the atoms uniformly closer
together. As they are too close to each other that
appear to be stacked upon each other. They look
like a band rather than separate energy levels.
Valance Band: An energy band is formed by a series of energy levels
containing valence electrons.

Conduction Band: It is at higher level than the Valance band. It could be

unfilled or partially filled depending on the nature of material and other
conditions.

Energy
Band gap
Conductors, Semiconductor and
Insulator based on energy bands

The unfilled or
partially filled
conduction band could
be filled with electrons,
if we apply external
energy to promote or
excite the electrons
from the valance band
to the conduction band.
▪ In a conductor such as a metal, there are electrons
in the conduction band even at absolute zero.

▪ Both valance band and conduction band are

overlapping and there is no band gap.

▪ Since the conduction band is partially filled for

conductors, current flows in response to even a
small applied electric field
• The highest band that is completely filled in an insulator
at absolute zero temperature is called the valence band.
The next higher band, called the conduction band is
completely empty. There are no electrons in it at absolute
zero. As the name suggests, electrons in the conduction
band can conduct electricity.

• At higher temperature, with thermal energy an electron

can go from valance band to conduction band. But in the
case of insulators, the band gap is too high around 5ev and
this much energy is not normally available from thermal
energy. So, in an insulator, almost no electrons are present
in the conduction band. Because of that little or no current
flows in response to an applied electric field, and the
electrical conductivity will be low.

Semiconductor 12
▪ A semiconductor at absolute zero also has an
empty conduction band above the full valence
band. But the difference with insulator is that, in a
semiconductor the energy gap between these
bands is relatively small and electrons can more
easily jump into the conduction band.

▪ As the temperature of a semiconductor increases,

the population in the conduction band increases
very rapidly. For example, in a semiconductor near
room temperature with an energy gap of 1 eV, the
number of conduction electrons doubles when the
temperature rises by just 10 degrees Celsius.
 The energy of electrons
corresponding to the
Fermi Level highest occupied energy
and Fermi level at absolute 0°𝐾 is
Energy called Fermi energy and
the energy level is called
Fermi level.
❑When there are many electrons in a system, How are the electrons distributed
among the various quantum states at any given temperature ?

❑Electrons obey Pauli's exclusion principle, so only one electron can stay in one
quantum state. Electrons are also indistinguishable particles ( all the electrons
are identical). The distribution function derived from the exclusion principle
and the indistinguishability requirement is called the Fermi–Dirac distribution.

❑This distribution gives the probability f(E) that at temperature T, a particular

state of energy E is occupied by an electron,

15
Semiconductor
 For Semiconductors
The energy EF is called the Fermi energy or the
Fermi level. We use EF0 for its value at absolute zero
and EF for other temperatures. We can accurately
let EF = EF0 for metals because the Fermi energy
does not change much with temperature for solid
conductors. However, it is not safe to assume that EF
= EF0 for semiconductors, in which the Fermi
energy usually does change with temperature.
Dependence of Fermi factor with temperature and energy
Probability of occupation for E<EF at T=0K:
When T=0K and E<EF

The probability of occupation of energy state is 100%

f(E)=1 for E<EF

f(E)=1 means the energy level is certainly occupied and E<EF

applies to all energy levels below EF. Therefore, at T=0K all the
energy levels below the Fermi level are occupied.
Probability of occupation for E>EF at T=0K:

When T=0K and E>EF

The probability of occupation of energy state is 0%.

f(E)=0 for E>EF
At T=0K, all the energy levels above Fermi levels are unoccupied.
Hence at T=0K the variation of f(E) for different energy values,
becomes a step function as shown in the above figure.
The probability of occupation at ordinary temperature (for E≈EF at T>0K)
At ordinary temperatures for E<EF, f(E) starts reducing from 1 for values
of E close to but lesser than EF as in the figure. The values of f(E) become ½
at E=EF.

The probability of occupation of energy state is 50%.

Further for E>EF the probability value falls off to zero rapidly.

Hence, the Fermi energy is the most probable or the average energy of the
electrons across which the energy transitions occur at temperature above
zero degree absolute.
 Classification of
Classification of Semiconductors
Semiconductors

Semiconductors

Intrinsic Extrinsic
Semiconductors Semiconductors

Chemically pure Dopped controlled

semiconductors impurities (dopants)
 Holes

➢ A hole is the vacancy left when an electron is

removed from a covalent bond, and it can move
through the material, acting as a positive charge
carrier.
➢ In an intrinsic semiconductor, an electron moving
to the conduction band leaves a hole in the valence
band. Electrons and holes exist in equal numbers
and move in opposite directions under an electric
field, with holes behaving like positive charges.
➢ We can add other elements into a pure
semiconductor device to get desired properties.
This deliberate addition of impurity elements is
called doping. The resulting material is called an
extrinsic semiconductor.
 N-type semiconductor

We have doped the silicon lattice with

Phosphorous, a pentavalent element. Now
pentavalent element has five electrons, so it
shares an electron with each of the four
neighbouring silicon atoms, hence four
electrons are tied up with the silicon atoms
in the lattice. This leaves an extra electron.

This excess electron is free to move and is responsible for conduction. Hence N-
type (Negative Type) extrinsic semiconductor (silicon in this case) is made by
doping the semiconductor with pentavalent element.
 P-type semiconductor

To create a P-type semiconductor, all we must

do is to dope in a trivalent element into the
lattice. A trivalent element has three electrons
in its valence shell. It shares three electrons
with three neighboring silicon atoms in the
lattice, the fourth silicon atom demands an
electron but the trivalent atom has no more
electron to share.

This creates a void in lattice which we call it has hole. Since the electron is
deficient, the hole readily accepts an electron, this makes it a P-type (Positive
type) extrinsic semiconductor.
SHIFTING OF FERMI ENERGY LEVEL IN EXTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTOR
Mathematical interpretation for shifting of
Fermi level
The application of band theory to n-type and p-
type semiconductors shows that extra levels have been
added by the impurities. In n-type material there are
electron energy levels near the top of the band gap so that
they can be easily excited into the conduction band. In p-
type material, extra holes in the band gap allow excitation
of valence band electrons, leaving mobile holes in the
valence band.
➢ The addition of donor impurities contributes electron energy levels high in the
semiconductor band gap so that electrons can be easily excited into the conduction
band. This shifts the effective Fermi level to a point about halfway between the donor
levels and the conduction band.

➢ Electrons can be elevated to the conduction band with the energy provided by an
applied voltage and move through the material. The electrons are said to be the
"majority carriers" for current flow in an n-type semiconductor.

➢ The addition of acceptor impurities contributes hole levels low in the

semiconductor band gap so that electrons can be easily excited from the valence band
into these levels, leaving mobile holes in the valence band. This shifts the effective Fermi
level to a point about halfway between the acceptor levels and the valence band.

➢ Electrons can be elevated from the valence band to the holes in the band gap with the
energy provided by an applied voltage. Since electrons can be exchanged between the
holes, the holes are said to be mobile. The holes are said to be the "majority carriers"
for current flow in a p-type semiconductor.
 Applications of Elemental and Compound Semiconductors
• Compound semiconductors are widely used in high-speed devices and devices requiring the emission or
absorption of light.

Semiconducting materials Applications

Si and Ge Detectors for IR and nuclear radiation
GaN, GaP, GaAs and Zns Light Emitting Diodes
InSb, CdSe, PbTe and HgCdTe Photodetectors
GaAs and AlGaAS Semiconducting Laser
 Elemental and Compound Semiconductors
Elemental Semiconductors and its groups in periodic table
• Silicon and Germanium are the commonly used
semiconductors. They are elements belonging to the IV II III IV V VI
group. They are used either in pure form or doped form. B C N
These intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors are known as
Elemental semiconductors. Al Si P S
Zn Ga Ge As Se
• Germanium was widely used in the early days of
semiconductor development for transistors and diodes. Cd In Sb Te

• Silicon is now used for the majority of rectifiers, Compound Semiconductors

transistors, and integrated circuits (ICs). Compounds Types of Compound
Semiconductor Semiconductor materials
• The elemental semiconductors are not suitable for
producing light, while the compound semiconductors have Binary IV-IV compound SiC, SiGe
high optoelectronic conversion efficiency and are widely III-V compound AlP, AlAs AlSb, GaN GaP,
used in fabrication of optoelectronic devices, such as GaAs, GaSb, InP, InAs,
lasers, LEDs etc. InSb
• Compound semiconductors are composed of elements II-VI compound ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS,
from two or more different groups of the periodic table, CdSe, CdTe
such as III-V, II-VI semiconductors. Ternary GaAsP, HgCdTe, AlGaAs
Quanternary InGaAsP
 Formation of p-n junction
• Assume a p-type and n-type semiconductor (fig a) with uniform
doping and that doping concentrations is identical in both types of
semiconductors,
Number of acceptors in p-type = Number of donors in n-type.
• The p-type semiconductor contains holes as the majority carriers
Figure A
which are produced by the acceptor atoms and very few thermally
generated electrons, as minority carriers. Holes Electrons
Figure A -ve ions in p-type
• The n-type semiconductor contains electrons as the majority +ve ions in n-type
carriers contributed mainly by the donor atoms and very few
thermally generated holes as minority carriers.
• The impurity atoms are ionized and firmly fixed in the lattice as +ve ions in n-type and –ve ions in p-type
through covalent bonds.
• Before contact, both p-type and n-type semiconductors are electrically neutral. One hole is associated with each
acceptor in the p-type material and one electron with each donor on n-type material.
• Thus, the charges on mobile carriers balance the fixed ion charges in each region.
 Formation of p-n junction
• When the p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined, it leads to
the formation of p-n junction and following two events take place.

➢ Diffusion of majority carriers or diffusion current

➢ Drift of minority carriers or drift current
Figure a
Holes Electrons
Diffusion of majority carriers or diffusion current -ve ions in p-type
+ve ions in n-type

• Now, there is a difference in the concentration of holes and electrons

at the two sides of a junction
• The holes from the p-side diffuse to the n-side, and the electrons from
the n-side diffuse to the p-side. These give rise to a diffusion current
across the junction

Figure b
 Formation of p-n junction
• As the diffusion process goes on, a layer of positive charge in n-side
and a layer of negative charges in the p-side of the junction get
developed. This forms an electric double layer of ions around the
junction and it is known as the space-charge region (figure c).
• This region of positive charge and negative charge on either side of the
junction is termed as the depletion region
• This narrow space-charge region is depleted of mobile charges and
Figure b
contains only the immobile uncompensated ions. Therefore, this region
is also called the depletion region, which is about 1 µm width.
• The array of fixed ions produces electric field, E, which is directed
from the donor ions on n-side toward the acceptor ions on p-side. This
electric field is in a direction that opposes further diffusion of majority
carriers into opposite sides.
• Ultimately, the electric field stops the diffusion of majority carriers and
establishes an equilibrium potential difference Vo across the depletion
region. This potential Vo is known as the internal potential barrier. Figure c
 Formation of p-n junction

Drift of minority carriers or drift current

• It can be noted that the field due to space charge has

the right direction to cause the flow of minority
carriers across the junction.

• Electrons reaching the edge of the junction on p-side

are accelerated by the electric field into n-region and
similarly, the holes reaching the edge of the junction
on n-side are accelerated into p-region (see the figure).

• As a consequence, an electric current flows across the

junction. This current is called drift current.
 Diode applications – Schottky diodes (or Hot-carrier diode)
Schottky diodes are mainly as rectifier at signal frequencies exceeding
300 MHz
• Construction
It is a metal-semiconductor junction diode with no depletion layer. It uses
a metal (like gold, silver, platinum, tungsten etc.) on one side of the
junction and usually an N-type doped silicon semiconductor on the other
side. The diode and its schematic symbol are shown in the figure.
+ -
• Operation
When the diode is unbiased, electrons on the N-side have lower energy
levels than electrons in the metal. Hence, they cannot surmount the
junction barrier (called Schottky barrier) for going over to the metals.

When the diode is forward-biased, conduction electrons on the N-side + -

gain enough energy to cross the junction and enter the metal. Since these
electrons plunge into the metal with very large energy, they are
commonly called 'hot carriers'. That is why this diode is often referred to
as hot carrier diode.
 Diode applications – Schottky diodes (or Hot-carrier diode)

Unique features of Schottky diode as compared with an

ordinary P-n junction diode

1. It is a unipolar device because it has electrons as majority carriers on

both sides of the junction. An ordinary P-N junction diode is a bipolar
+ -
device because it has both electrons and holes as majority carriers.
2. Since no holes are available in metal, there is no depletion layer or
stored charges to worry about. Hence, Schottky diode can switch
OFF faster than a bipolar diode. Because of these qualities, Schottky
diode can easily rectify signals of frequencies exceeding 300 MHz.
+ -
V-I characteristics

The V-I characteristics of Schottky diodes

are very much similar to the PN junction
diode. Current is the dependent variable
while voltage is the independent variable in
the Schottky diode. The forward voltage drop
of the Schottky diode is low between 0.2 to
0.3 volts.
 Diode applications – Schottky diodes (or Hot-carrier diode)

Applications

• Switch-mode power supplies (SMPS): Its low power loss and fast
switching speed make it an efficient rectifier for high-frequency
power supplies.
• Voltage clamping: The low forward voltage drop is useful for + -
clamping voltages and preventing transistor saturation in digital
logic circuits.
• Radio frequency (RF) circuits: It is used as a mixer or detector in
RF applications due to its high switching speed.
• Solar panels: Schottky diodes are used as blocking diodes to
prevent batteries from discharging back through the solar panels at + -
night
 Diode applications – Clippers and Clampers
• Clippers and Clampers are diode wave shaping circuits i.e., circuits meant to control the shape of the voltage
and current waveforms to suit various purposes.
• The output of the clipping circuit appears as if a portion of the input signal were clipped off,
• Clamper circuits simply clamp (i.e, lift up or down) the input signal to a different dc level.
• The diode-based clipper circuit can be classified into

➢ Series Diode Clippers and

➢ Parallel (or shunt) diode clippers

• In series clipper circuits, the diode is connected in series with the output. In such clippers, the input signal
appears at the output when the diode is forward biased and conducting.
• Series clippers are further classified into series positive clippers and series negative clippers
• Series positive clippers remove or clips the positive half of the waveform whereas the series negative clippers
remove the negative half of the wave form
 Series Positive Clippers
• The input signal Vi is applied at the input side while the output is taken at the load resistor.
• During the positive half cycle of the input, the voltage at point A is positive than point B. So the diode is in
reverse bias and there is no current conduction. The input signal cannot pass, thus there is no voltage drop at
the RL. Therefore, there the positive half cycle does not appear at the output as shown in the figure.
• During the negative half-cycle, the voltage at point A is negative than point B. The diode becomes forward bias
and the signal pass through it. The signal appears across the RL. Therefore, the negative half cycle passes
through the circuit and appears at the output.
 Series Negative Clippers
• The series negative clipper circuit clips the negative half of the input cycle.
• During positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased due to the input voltage. Therefore, the input signal
passes through the diode and appears at the output.
• During the negative half cycle, the diode becomes reverse-biased and it does not conduct. Therefore, there is
no voltage at the output and the negative half cycle is clipped from the input waveform.

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 Parallel (or Shunt) Clippers

• In parallel clippers, the diode is connected in parallel with the output. The input signal appears
the output when the diode is reverse biased.
• The parallel clippers can also be divided into positive parallel clippers and negative parallel
clippers.
 Parallel (or Shunt) Positive Clippers
• The shunt positive clipper clips the positive half cycle of the input waveform. The circuit diagram is given
below

• During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased as the voltage at point A is greater than point B.
so the diode conducts the input signal and there is no voltage difference at the output.
• During the negative half-cycle, the voltage polarity of the input signal at points A and B reverses and the
diode becomes reverse biased. Therefore, the diode blocks the input signal and the signal voltage appears
across the diode that is taken as the output of the clipper.
• In such a way, the shunt positive clippers, clips or remove, the positive half of the input cycle and allow the
negative half cycle
 Parallel (or Shunt) Negative Clippers
• The shunt negative clipper clips the negative half of the input waveform. The circuit diagram is given below

• During the positive half cycle, the diode is reversed biased, thus it blocks the signal that appears across it.
therefore, the positive half also appears at the output.
• During the negative half cycle, the diode is forward biased and it conducts the signal. Therefore, there is no
voltage at the output for the negative half cycle.
• Thus the parallel negative clipper clips or removes the negative half of the input waveform and allow the
positive half cycle.
 Clamper Circuit

• A clamper circuit is an electronic circuit that shifts the DC level of a signal without changing the shape of
its waveform. It moves the whole signal either up or down about the reference level.

• Unlike the clipper circuit, it does not change or distort the shape of the waveform. It simply adds or
subtracts the DC level from the waveform to shift the waveform up or below the 0V reference line.

Working of Clamper Circuit

The idea behind the clamper circuit is to add the DC component to shift the waveform above the 0 V line or
subtract the DC component to shift the waveform below the –v line. This DC component is introduced into the
circuit by utilizing a capacitor (which is the main component of a clamper circuit apart from diode and
resistor). The capacitor store the charge in one half-cycle and discharges in another half cycle where it adds to
the input signal and shifts the DC level of the whole signal.

• The Clamper circuit can be divided into positive clamper and negative clamper.
 Positive Clamper Circuit
• In a positive clamper circuit, the input waveform is shifted upward above the 0v reference line. Here is the
circuit diagram of a positive clamper circuit.

• During the positive half cycle, the diode is reverse biased, therefore, the input signal appears at the output as it
is. At this point, the capacitor is not charged and there is no clamping. Therefore, the output at this half cycle is
not considered.
• During the next negative half cycle, the diode becomes forward biased and it starts to conduct, at this half
cycle, the capacitor charges up to the peak input voltage VM with inverse polarity.
• During the next positive half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it does not conduct. Due to this, the
capacitor starts to discharge. The capacitor discharge adds to the input signal which appears at the output as the
summation of both voltages which reaches up to 2VM. This is how the signal level is shifted above the 0v line
 Negative Clamper Circuit
• The negative clamper shifts the whole input waveform downward.

• During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward-biased. Therefore, it conducts and charges the capacitor
with inverse polarity up to the peak input voltage -VM. There is no output during this half cycle.

• During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it does not conduct. Therefore, the capacitor
discharges which adds with the input waveform. The addition of both voltages shifts the whole waveform
furthermore up to -2VM. This is how the input signal is shifted downward.