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psychology
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 UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

 Positive psychology is a new field of inquiry within modern psychology that

emerged two decades ago, with an exclusive emphasis on understanding the
nature of happiness and well-being and the conditions which promote them
across cultures and societies. The aim was to help people to lead a good life.

POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 1 – AIMS AND SCOPE (MARTIN SELIGMAN)

According to Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi (2000) the agenda of Positive Psychology

are as follows.

 To articulate a vision of good life that is empirically sound while being

understandable and attractive.
 To show what actions can lead to well-being, to positive individuals, and to
thriving communities.
 To help document - (i) what kinds of families result in children who flourish, (ii)
what work settings support the greatest satisfaction among workers, (iii) what
policies result in the strongest civic engagement, (iv) and how people’s lives can
be most worth living.
 “Positive Psychology is the scientific study of optimal human functioning.” It aims
to “discover and promote the factors that allow individuals and communities to
thrive.”
 “Positive Psychology aims to understand and build the emotions, and the
strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive. Positive
Psychology has three central concerns: positive experiences, positive individual
traits, and positive institutions.” - Angela Duckworth, Paul Rozin, and Martin
Seligman.

According to Duckworth, Rozin, and Seligman, the three central concerns of positive
psychology involve,
 “Understanding positive experiences or positive emotions consists in the study of
‘contentment’ with the ‘past’; ‘pleasure’ in the ‘present’; and ‘hope’ for the
‘future’;”
 “Understanding positive individual traits means the study of strengths and
virtues viz., the capacity to love, valour, altruism, grit, creativity, curiosity,
integrity, moderation, self-control, spirituality and humor;” and
 “Understanding positive institutions involves the study of the strong families,
communities, corporations and the virtues that nourish them such as justice,
responsibility, civility, work ethic, leadership, teamwork, purpose and tolerance.”

POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2 – AIMS AND SCOPE (PAUL T. WONG)

 Dr. Wong is the Founding President of the Meaning-Centered Counselling

Institute, Inc. (MCCI) and the originator of ‘meaning-centered counselling and
therapy’ (MCCT), an ‘integrative existential positive psychotherapy.’
 In Wong’s view, suffering is as much required for flourishing and growth as the
experience of positive emotions.
 Therefore, he terms his vision as “Existential Positive Psychology (2.0) of
Flourishing Through Suffering.”
 He also terms it as second wave of PP
 Existential-Humanistic psychologists are of the view that both pleasure and pain
contribute to our well-being. Viktor Frankl, a German psychiatrist who survived
the Holocaust during Hitler’s regime and later developed his therapeutic
approach known as ‘Logotherapy’ argued that there is a strong relationship
between depression, anxiety, and meaninglessness.
 Wong notes that, “Existential positive psychology (EPP) or positive existential
psychology represents a natural amalgamation between PP and existential
psychology. Basically, EPP addresses a few fundamental questions about self-
identity and the human condition of striving for happiness within the constraints
of reality.”

THE CONCEPT OF WELL-BEING

 Well-being is a central concept in positive psychology.

 Shah and Marks (2004, p. 2) state that, “Well-being is more than just happiness.
In addition to feeling satisfied and happy, well-being means developing as a
person, being fulfilled, and making a contribution to the community.”
 Bradburn (1969) noted that high psychological well-being indicates more of
positive affect than negative affect and low psychological well-being indicates the
vice-versa.
 Ed Diener’s (1984) concept of Subjective Well-Being (SWB) is associated with two
elements (1) positive and negative affect (2) and life satisfaction. The Satisfaction
with Life Scale (SWLS) with five items only is developed by Diener (Diener, et al.,
1985) and is the most widely used measure for research on well-being.
 Another important contribution came from Carol Ryff (1989) who questioned the
idea of limiting the notion of well-being to pleasure seeking or happiness as is
usually called. Ryff’s concept of Psychological Well-being (PWB) goes beyond
one’s affective experiences.
 It focuses on knowing to what extent a person has been able to develop one’s self
in terms of six different psychological dimensions viz., autonomy, environmental
mastery, personal growth, positive relations with others, purpose in life, and self-
acceptance.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

 There are two ways of writing the history of a discipline viz., internal history and
external history (Leahey, 2004).
 Internal history refers to the emergence of a field and the developments within it
from its inception up to a particular period at which time the historian wishes to
write.
 External history goes outside the disciplinary boundaries and looks at the social
and cultural events and the context in which a particular discipline emerged and
what are the influencing events.

Positive Psychology and Other Social Sciences

 Since the main theme of positive psychology is happiness, well-being and

flourishing, this field of inquiry is related to other disciplines in social sciences
such as economics, political sciences, and sociology on the one hand, and to
medicine, psychiatry and public health on the other.
 In general, we can say that positive psychology has relation to any discipline or a
branch within it that has something to do with human welfare.
 Much of the earlier studies that were conducted by social scientists on ‘quality of
life’ focused on certain ‘social indicators’ that ensures a better life.
 Such indicators include socio-economic conditions of a society such as GDP,
infrastructure development, civic amenities, health and hygiene, crime rate,
absence of religious conflicts, governance and others that distinguish developed
nations from developing and underdeveloped nations.

GDP to GNHI - Towards “Holistic Approach to Human Development”

 The term ‘gross national happiness’ was first coined by the 4th King of Bhutan,
King Jigme Singye Wangchuk, in 1972 when he declared, “Gross National
Happiness (GNH) is more important than Gross Domestic Product (GDP).”
 The concept implies that sustainable development should take a holistic approach
towards notions of progress and give equal importance to non-economic aspects
of well-being.”
 The GNH Index (GNHI) includes nine domains (1) Psychological well-being, (2)
Health, (3) Education, (4) Time use, (5) Cultural diversity and resilience, (6)
Good governance, (7) Community vitality, (8) Ecological diversity and resilience,
and (9) Living standards.
 A revised version of GNHI was released with 33 indicators in the 9 domains.
These indicators and domains aim to emphasize different aspects of well-being,
and different ways of meeting underlying human needs.

Value Crisis

 Positive psychology also emerged in partial response to the value crisis

experienced on the moral and ethical front in the American society and hence it is
admittedly a cultural phenomenon (see Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000;
Seligman, 2002).
 It has resulted in a renewed focus on the study of virtues and character strengths.
Values in Action Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS) developed by Peterson and
Seligman (2004) has become very popular among researchers.
 It is a systematic and comprehensive approach to the study of character strengths
informed by all the major and lesser-known spiritual traditions of the world
which include Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Judaism, Islam, Sufism,
Upanishads, Yoga, and many others.
 It is the best example of the response by psychologists for the value crisis
experienced in American society.
 It has been translated in many languages and also cross-culturally validated in
many countries. A Hindi translated version of this inventory (Singh & Choubisia,
2009) is also available.

POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER AREAS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Health Psychology and Positive Psychology

 Research findings from various studies affirm that stress, anger, resentment,
anxiety and worry have the potential health threatening effects.
 A variety of related research show that those who undergo long periods of
extreme stress are more vulnerable to illness.
 It is found that negative emotional states, the brain and rest of the nervous
system, the endocrine system and the immune system interact in a complex way
leading to negative impact on our health.
 “Psychoneuroimmunology”, a new field of research came into existence in the
1980s to understand these complex pathways and mechanisms.
 Investigations in this new field have documented that the mind and attitude play
a significant role in the functioning of the immune system, leading to illness.
 In another direction Barbara Fredrickson investigated the relation between
positive emotions and our sense of well-being.
 She proposed what she calls “broaden and build theory.”
 According to her theory emotions like joy, contentment, interest, love, and pride
“all share the ability to broaden people’s thought-action repertoires and build
their enduring personal resources, ranging from physical and intellectual
resources to social and psychological resources”.
 It is also observed that expressions of positive emotions in early life have a
significant relation to our longevity.
Clinical Psychology and Positive Psychology

 First, the clinical psychologists, followed the early ‘medical model.’ They were
preoccupied in removing symptoms in treating a mental disorder to restore
normalcy and health because the absence of illness was considered as the primary
criterion of health.
 However, a famous psychiatrist, Thomas Szasz, vehemently opposed this idea. In
his classic paper Myth of Mental Illness, Szasz argued that any disease, disorder
and illness must have a definite location and relation with the pathology of our
anatomy, physiology and biochemistry.
 It must be definitely related to any one of the organ systems in our body. That is,
to consider something as an illness there must be an organic/physical basis.
 Since, in many so called mental disorders and illnesses one cannot demonstrate
any such physical basis or relationship he argued that we cannot consider them as
diseases.
 Second, with the emergence of Behavior Therapy and Behavior Modification
many of the abnormal behavior considered as mental illness were viewed as
either ‘learning deficits or ‘excess’ in learning due to faulty conditioning –
classical and instrumental.
 Third, in Cognitive Therapy symptoms of many mental disorders are viewed as
manifestation of ‘irrational beliefs and thinking’ leading to negative emotions.
 Fourth, Humanistic psychologists saw them as ‘failure in a person’s growth’ and
‘inability to actualize one’s potentials.’
 Fifth, Systems therapists viewed many mental illnesses as manifestations of a
‘dysfunctional family constellation.’ Many such insights shifted the perspective
from looking only at causal relation between symptoms and underlying pathology
to what is healthy in a person.

Developmental Psychology and Positive Psychology

 Developmental psychologists have studied for long the role of environments –

physical, psychological and social, on the development of humans at various age
period.
 The role of deprivation and disadvantage (cultural, social, economic and
educational); of family environment (parental conflicts, abuse and alcoholism);
 and of the incidences of mental illness in the family with a genetic history have
been studied.
 In relation to the physical, emotional, cognitive, moral and ethical and social
development. It is found that any kind of such adverse circumstances can affect
one or more aspects mentioned leading to certain deficits.

Personality Psychology and Positive Psychology

 The reading of the history of psychology of personality shows that several decades
ago the terms ‘virtue’ and ‘character’ were considered as not scientific because
they are value loaded terms.
 Hence, the term ‘personality’ was introduced by Gordon Allport as a neutral and
scientific term in their place.
 There are many critics of Positive Psychology who point out that this field of
inquiry has its foundation in Humanistic Psychology but has not been
acknowledged sufficiently (Froh, 2004).
 Ever since Humanistic psychologists like Kurt Goldstein, Carl Rogers, Abraham
Maslow, Clark Moustakas, Sydney Jourard and many others emphasized on self-
actualization and growth there has been a thrust on understanding what
characterizes ‘healthy personality’ (Coan, 1974; Jourard & Landsman,1980).
 A healthy person is regarded as one who is free from neurotic conflicts and is able
to function optimally actualizing his/her innate potentials.
 Maslow (1971) distinguished between ‘Deficiencyneeds’ and ‘Being-needs.’
Unlike persons who are engaged only in fulfilling their deficiency needs to
maintain some kind of homeostasis, those persons who function to fulfill their
Being- needs manifest healthy personality characteristics.
 Many of those characteristics are now termed as positive traits and positive
strengths, which is another important focus of positive psychology.
 They include both temperament and personality traits which are related to
individual well-being. Important ones among them are hope and optimism, self-
esteem, extraversion, a positive outlook on life, and pursuit of meaningful goals.
Social Psychology and Positive Psychology

 Importance of satisfying interpersonal and social relationships and social support

from significant others is amply demonstrated in many studies.
 Such satisfying relationships are found in happy marriage and having intimate
friends.
 Corey M. Keyes (1998) postulated the concept of “social well-being” with five
dimensions validated by empirical investigations.
 They are: social integration, social contribution, social coherence, social
actualization and social acceptance.
 Further, social psychologists have also sensitized to the fact that there are cultural
differences in the understanding of what constitutes happiness and well-being.
 Concepts of happiness in America and Japan, for example, are quite different.
 In addition, social psychologists have also found that affluence and materialism
among many so called developed societies with a consumer culture as in the
United States, for example, has a dark side to it.
 It is also found that people who are after material wealth and fame only and
sacrifice fulfillment of important psychological needs may also sacrifice their own
happiness and life satisfaction.
 Studies show that increase in income like the sudden wealth of lottery winners,
has only shot term effects (Diener & Oishi, 2005b).
 In the Indian context our joint family system can provide satisfying relationship
provided it does not become too restrictive of personal growth leading to a feeling
of emotional suffocation.

The Psychology of Religion and Positive Psychology

 Religion, irrespective of which denomination it is, has two primary aspects (1)
faith in a God or Divinity and associated beliefs and practices; and (2) moral and
ethical code of conduct prescribed to be adhered to.
 In recent years, a distinction is made between religion and spirituality as well.
 Religion is often employed when one refers to the following of organized and
institutionalized faith system by practicing the customs and rituals prescribed.
 Spirituality is employed when one refers to an individual’s desire and efforts to
connect with a superior universal principle through expansion of one’s awareness,
which transcends the limited perspective of different religions.
 The role of religious practices such as prayer and worship are examined in
researches on healing of various physical and mental disorders.
 On the other hand, moral and ethical aspects have been studied as virtuous living.
 The study of virtue has a prominent place because the meaning of a good life or
life well lived is strongly connected to traits like honesty, forgiveness,
compassion, gratitude and wisdom.
 It is found that expressing human virtues contributes to individual well-being and
well-being of others.
 Peterson and Seligman’s work on character strengths and virtues already
discussed in an earlier section is relevant in this context as well.
 UNIT 2

EASTERN AND WESTERN PERSPECTIVES ON POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

DISTINCTION BETWEEN WESTERN AND INDIAN PSYCHOLOGICAL

PERSPECTIVES

 In India, the discipline formally started at Calcutta University in the year 1915-16
when Dr. N.N. Sengupta, a Harvard-trained psychologist, joined as a faculty.
 Another pioneer was Dr. Girindrasekhar Bose who was interested in
psychoanalysis and completed the first doctoral research in psychology in India
on the concept of repression.
 Both these scholars did have interest in the Indian thought systems but the
formal teaching and research in psychology remained confined largely to the
Euro-American tradition of mainstream psychology (see for historical
perspectives Sinha, 1986; Dalal, 2014).
 This tradition has formed the formal or official perspective adopted in teaching
and research in the Indian academia.
 In general, the teaching-learning practices have been preoccupied with the
concepts, theories, and methods developed in the Euro-American centers of
learning.
 They were adopted and to some extent indigenized to study various issues in the
Indian context (D. Sinha, 1997).
 The empirical researches thus used Indian samples and provided patterns of data
reflecting variations in Western theoretical concepts.
 The use of concepts and theories of Indian origin was rare. The awareness of
limitations of this approach led to various efforts towards indigenization of
 Western concepts and theories and incorporating concepts of Indian origin The
term ‘Indian Psychology’ has been used for both the knowledge based on Indian
data as well as the psychology rooted in the indigenous Indian intellectual
tradition. However, the latter usage seems more appropriate.
 IP is broad-based in its assumptions about reality and encompasses physical,
social, moral, and spiritual aspects of functioning in an integrated manner.
 The consciousness-based IP offers a more coherent framework for psychology
than psychology with a material base as noted in mainstream psychology.
 Self as a subject is the focus in IP, but in West, it is the object. Experience is at the
center of awareness and knowing becomes being. There is direct personal
involvement and Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Tantric traditions clearly focus on
spiritual development.
 The works of Sri Aurobindo have attempted to synthesize the Eastern and
Western ideas which clearly indicates the direction in which psychology has to
move if it wants to contribute something substantial to our individual and
collective development.

POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND INDIAN PSYCHOLOGIAL

PERSPECTIVES

 Both the traditions of psychology, IP and PP, emphasize potentials, strengths, and
pursuit of well-being.
 The two streams of knowledge, however, differ in several ways. The way of
defining human existence, the basis of awareness, thinking, and action is
conceptualized differently.
 It may be noted that the discipline of modern psychology as developed in the
Euro-American settings is rooted in an evolutionary view in which humans are
evolved form of animals.
 In contrast, the Indian view considers human beings as part of the divine.
 These two divergent standpoints on human nature implicate diverse agendas in
regard to the definition of self, life goals, conceptualizing well-being and
happiness, and approach to our habitat.
 The Multilayered Structure of Human Existence From the Upanishadic
period, one finds that human existence is conceived as a multilayered structure
that is connected with human development and wellbeing.
 The Taittiriyopanishad describes five Kosas or sheaths.
 The first level is Annamaya Kośa or bodily sheath, it is concerned with food,
the physical body, and the material world.
 The second level is Prāņamaya Kośa or the sheath related to vital biological
functions such as life-breath, emotions, and bio-energy.
 The third level is the sheath of Manomaya Kośa which is made up of the mind.
 The next level is Vigyānamaya Kośa which relates to higher forms of the mind
and the subtle reams like high order insights, intuition, and clarity of awareness.
 The final stage is the Ānandamaya Kośa or the realm of transcendence and
blissful release into infinity and perfect awareness.
 Pursuing the Middle Path Āyurveda, the Indian system of medicine, as well as
the Indian folk wisdom prominently emphasize that the extremes should be
avoided (Ati sarvatra varjayeta).
 The Buddhist doctrine of the middle path (Majjhimaparipada) also gives
preference to observing the middle way.
 It may be recalled that Buddhism favors the position of Anātma and does not
subscribe to the idea of Atman.
 It also says that everything is changing in this world and nothing is permanent.
This may give freedom from everyday suffering.
 Impermanence, egolessness, and ‘Nirvana’ form the key teachings of Buddha.
 Pursuit of Sthita Pragya or Steady Wisdom as a Desirable State The
text of Srīmad Bhagavad gītā proposes that the state of bliss is an attainable goal.
 To this end, it recommends that one should move on the path of seeking a state of
steady wisdom (Sthitapragya).
 This state is achievable by training the mind to maintain a state of equanimity in
happiness and misery, success and failure, fame and anonymity.
 It helps to transcend the illusory world full of suffering and attaining bliss.
Indeed it’s a model of a perfect person.
 Attaining an Inclusive Vision It is clear that the Indian view proposes to
strive for attaining a state of happiness unaffected by mundane realities.
 This state allows enjoying equanimity and inner liberation. The perspective of
Vedanta school seeks to align with Brahman.
 The Brāhmaņa occupies the entire world (Sarvam khalvidam Brahma) and
seeing this would lead to the realization that I am Brahmaņa (Aham brahmāsmi).
 Its natural consequence will be the experience of similarity and oneness with
others or non-duality (Advaita).
 Bhagavad gītā also states that only those persons who can see sameness across all
beings are the real seer (Sar vbhūteşu yenaikam bhāvamavyaymiikshate).
 The wise people perceive everybody on equal footing (Panditah samadarśinah).
The inclusive vision is expressed in the aspiration of treating the whole earth as a
family (Udāra caritānām tu vasudhaiva kutumbakam).
 The broad vision maintains this position and does not discriminate against
‘others’. It is a dogmatic and constricted view to distinguish between self and
other .
 The Pursuit of Dharma and Human flourishing It is important to note
that the concept of Dharma implies virtues and extends to duties which allow
maintenance and sustenance of life.
 In the social context the duties are performed based on one’s position in society
and stage of life.
 This maintains social order which contributes to cosmic order leading to
universal well-being.
 Human flourishing is brought about by balancing and pursuing the life goals or
purusharthas.
 According to Vaiśeśik school of Indian thought , dharma includes both prosperity
in this world (Abhyudaya) and liberation (Nihsreyas) from suffering and
pursuing Moksha.
 Therefore, material development and spirituality both have legitimate places in
life and they need not be seen as mutually exclusive.
 In this context, it must be remembered that the four life goals (Puruśārthas) i.e.
dharma (ethical duties), artha (prosperity), kāma (pleasure), and moksha
(liberation) are equally important.
 This implies that all aspects have to be integrated and form a description of an
ideal life.
 RELIGIOUS AND SPIRITUAL PRACTICES FOR ENHANCING WELL-
BEING

The Indian tradition has a rich repertoire of approaches and practices to enhance
well-being.

1) Yoga and Well-being The system of Yoga helps achieve integration of mind
and body and facilitates attaining happiness and well-being.
 Yoga helps nurture positive attitudes and reconditions the neuromuscular
systems.
 It enhances the capacity to withstand greater stress and strain and allows
harmonious development of all the potentialities present in a person.
 The meaning of Yoga implies the act of joining. Patanjali, the author of Yoga
Sutras, defines yoga as a process of restraining the mind (Chitta) from various
modifications (Vritti).

The eight limbs of yoga (Aştāńga Yoga) enunciated by Patanjali include:

o Yama - moral injunctions or self restraints which consists of various moral

and ethical practices, for example, not to steal, not having greed etc.
o Niyama - various observances such as maintaining cleanliness, being
content, engaging in self-study (Svādhyāya), etc.
o Āsana - various yogasana or postures
o Pranāyama - regulation of breath, which is the life force or life energy
o Pratyāhara - internalization of the senses towards their source,
nonattachment
o Dhārana - concentration
o Dhyāna - meditation
o Samādhi - bliss, higher consciousness
2) Self Mastery: The Path towards well-being The Bhagavad gītā tells that
true enjoyment lies inside us and promotes mastery over ourselves (Misra,
2009).
 Unfortunately, the persistent focus on materialistic goals further intensifies the
experience of unhappiness because the goal shifts, and the sense of absence of
happiness continues.
 The Indian perspective states, therefore, that self needs to be regulated by self
through self-initiated practices.
 As Lord Krishna advises to Arjuna, “let a man lift himself by his own Self alone,
and let him not lower himself; for, this Self alone is one’s friend and this Self
alone the enemy.
 The Self is the friend of the self for him who has conquered himself by the Self,
but to the unconjured self, the Self stands in the position of an enemy like the
(external) foe” (Bhagavadgītā 6-6).
 Indeed mindfulness interventions and different kinds of Yoga (e.g., Vipāsana,
Prekshā Dhyāna, Sudarśana-Kriyā), and Seva or service to fellow beings offer
immense possibilities of self-renewal and experiencing peace and well-being.
 With an adequate degree of self-regulation, one is able to deal with desires, attain
peace and enjoy sustainable happiness.
3) Development of Virtues
 Bhagavadgītā presents details about the qualities to adopt - daivi sampat
(qualities belonging to the divine state, such as purity of heart, fearlessness,
control of the senses, truth, absence of anger, compassion, modesty, patience,
fortitude etc.), and those to be abandoned - āsuri sampat (demonic qualities,
such as arrogance, anger, hyprocrisy etc.).
 Thus freedom from pride and delusion, the conquest of attachment, dwelling in
the Self (Ātman), absence of desires, and freedom from the pairs of opposites like
pleasure and pain are recommended.
 In this context, it may be noted that detachment is never possible without
attaching ourselves to something nobler and more divine.
 So in order that the mind may not have evil attachments, it should attach to the
Self and live in a spirit of contemplation upon it.
4) Vipāsanā Meditation
 Vipāsanā which refers to insight is considered to be the essence of the teaching of
Buddha. It is a simple and non-dogmatic technique.
 It is taught in courses of ten days during which the participants remain within the
area of the course site, having no contact with the outside world.
 They maintain silence, refrain from reading and writing, and suspend any
religious activity, working according to the instructions provided.
 They observe celibacy and abstention from all intoxicants. With meditation and
self-discovery during this process, a meditator gains mental strength, and then
can apply the learning in everyday life for one’s own benefit and for the good of
others.
 These are reflective of Metta Bhavana, the development of goodwill toward
others. Real happiness lies in peace, equanimity, and goodwill. Sri S.N. Goenka
has made it popular (see Hart, 1987).
5) Praņāyāma
 It refers to the science of breath. Prana is the vital energy of the universe.
 Thus prāņayāma is the science that imparts knowledge related to the control of
prana. Controlling prana allows control of mind and body.
 The yogic breathing exercises enable controlling the mind and attaining higher
states of consciousness.
 It is through the manifestation of prana that all body functions are coordinated.
The energy of prana is subtle in form.
 Its most external manifestation is the breath. Prana is the energy that governs the
breath.
 Breath becomes the bridge between mind and body. It is called a thermometer,
which registers the conditions of the mind and the influence of the environment
on the body.
 It is through the control of respiration that the yogi proceeds to control the other
subtle energies of prana.
 There are various forms of Praņāyāma such as Nādi Śodhan, Kapāla-bhāti,
Bhaştrikā, Ujjayi, Bhrāmari, Sitali, and Sītkari. Actually, all these types of
pranayama involve variations in inhalation, retention, and exhalation of breath.
Breath awareness is an essential part of meditation.
6) Meditation
 Meditation brings mind, body and spirit in harmony by experiencing equanimity.
The basis is the idea that we are not separated into mind and body.
 We are one whole - the mind responds to the body at the same instant the body
responds to the mind.
 The awakened life is energetic and fully conscious. Meditation essentially involves
looking inward.
 It brings balance and equilibrium is maintained. Meditation involves a variety of
practices such as self-inquiry, mindfulness, reflection, concentration,
contemplation, prayer, quiet mind, controlled breathing, and bliss.
7) Guņas and Svabhāva
 The triguna or three Gunas i.e. Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas, which represent the
principles of illumination and creativity, activity and energy, and inertia,
respectively.
 Thus people are differentiated on the basis of the pattern of relative dominance of
the three gunas.
 A satvic person is described as one who is endowed with discriminative intellect;
who is self-controlled, serene, equanimous, and steadfast; who is virtuous,
generous, and gentle; and who is detached and duty-bound without expectations,
a seeker of self and awareness of the unity underlying all diversities.
 A rajasic person is one who is driven into action by passion, is restless, is
struggling; who has more desires, strong likes and dislikes, and pursues sensory
pleasures; who is attached to one’s social roles; who lacks clear discrimination
and has distorted understanding; and who is egotistic.
 A tamasic person is depressed, lethargic, disinclined to work, negligent,
undisciplined, arrogant, hostile, indecisive, ignorant, inadvertent, uncertain, and
dull.
 UNIT 3

POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

 When humans evolved from pure instinctual ways of existence to conscious and
purposeful ways of leading life, the quest for happiness, well-being, thriving,
flourishing, and so on have gained prominence.
 There are significant differences across cultures, within cultures and among
individuals in the ways these have been expressed.

DIFFERENCES IN CULTURAL WORLDVIEWS

 Due to wide spread systematic research in the field of Cross-Cultural

Psychology our knowledge of within culture and between culture differences
in human behaviour has increased. It is realized that the idea of culture is not
monolithic.
 Another important outcome is the growing realization that cultural belief
systems differ in their views about the nature of the universe and reality on
the one hand and on the nature of life, awareness and mind on the other.
 Together such beliefs constitute the basis for shaping the ways of thinking
(eidos) and the ways of living (ethos) and guide people in their day-to-day
activities. They have been denoted in anthropology as: “Cultural orientations”
(Kluckhohn, 1950), “value orientations,” “unconscious systems of meaning,”
“unconscious canons of choice,” “configurations,” “culture themes,” and “core
culture”

Psychologies and Worldviews

 A worldview is ‘a way of describing the universe and life within it,’ both in
terms of 'what is’ and ‘what ought to be.’ From this a set of beliefs emerge that
include:
(a) limiting statements and assumptions regarding ‘what exists’ and ‘what
does not’ (either in actuality, or in principle);
(b) ‘what objects or experiences are good or bad’;
 (c) and ‘what objectives, behaviors, and relationships are desirable or
undesirable’.
 Since, a worldview also determines (a) ‘what can be known or done in the
world’ and ‘how it can be known or done’ they provide the epistemic and
ontological foundations for other beliefs within a belief system (Koltko-
Rivera, 2004).

INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY: MEANING, DEFINITION AND SCOPE

 In the past four decades the term ‘Indian Psychology’ has gained greater
currency nationally.
 The “Pondicherry Manifesto of Indian Psychology,” was signed by 160
delegates who attended a conference held at Puducherry, India in October
2002.
 The manifesto emphasizes the need and importance of developing the
psychological perspectives that is relevant for Indian cultural context.
 In the literature the term is used with different connotations. The most
important meaning of this term is related to the psychological insights
embedded in the three ancient traditions of our country viz., Vaidika, Jaina
and Bouddha. It is also referred to as ‘Indian psychological thought’.
 Terms like Yoga Psychology, Jaina Psychology and Buddhist Psychology
represent ‘psychology with an Indian identity.’
 Yet another connotation of the term represents ‘psychology of Indian
people.’ This is exemplified in the works of Sudhir Kakkar a psychoanalyst
trained under Eric Erickson who has written on the Indian Psyche from
Psychoanalytic point of view.

POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY

 Jane Henry (2013) notes that “Psychology has only recently turned its gaze to
investigate happiness and well-being while spiritual traditions have been
scrutinizing this for millennia”. Lomas, Case, Cratty and Vander Weele (2021)
have published a study entitled “A global theory of happiness.”

a) Happiness, broadly construed, is a mental phenomenon arising from the

experience of living well.
b) Living well involves pursuit of valued and desirable mental experiences;

c) Those mental experiences can be either pleasure or some kind of satisfaction not
associated with hedonism.

d) It is possible to contrast different forms of happiness.

e) Differential emphasis is laid on different forms of happiness based on how true

human well-being is understood in civilizations and what constitute it.

Concepts Associated with Pleasure, Happiness, Well- Being and

Flourishing

 Indian psychology has many concepts associated with positive affective states and
traits.
 They are in Sanskrit but their variants can be found in all the other languages of
India which are too many. We can classify them into four broad categories: (1)
those which represent happiness in the ordinary states of consciousness; (2)
those associated with the sense of health and wellness; (3) those associated with
development and welfare; and (4) those associated with transcendental/spiritual
state of consciousness
1) The first category includes sukha (agreeableness), samtosha (happiness),
ullāsa (pleasantness), harsha (joy), shanti (peace), trpti (satisfaction), tushti
(contentment). These affect states are commonly related to our experiences of
day-to-day transaction with empirical reality. They are used in different
contexts. They are determined by bio-psycho-social aspects.
2) The second category includes concepts related to sense of health and well-
being. They include physical and/or psychological health. They are ārogyam
(good health), nirāmaya (freedom from disease or illness), swāsthyam
(sound state of body/mind), shubha (to shine, be splendid, and look beautiful
or handsome; eminent, good, virtuous).
3) The terms abhivrddhi, abhyudaya, kalyāna, and mangala are also used which
mostly denote growth, development, auspicious, welfare, and so on. These
terms are used both with reference to individual and collective welfare.
4) Two specific terms ānanda and sthitaprajna are discussed in the second
category. Just like the word sukha has been paired with material pleasures
 over the years, the word ānanda has come to be associated with yoga and
spirituality. This is reflected in the conventional usage of the term ānanda as a
suffix to designate renunciates (sanyāsi).

PURUSHĀRTHA: LIFE GOALS WORTH PURSUING

 Living well involves pursuit of valued and desirable experiences that can only be
possible if one makes a conscious choice.
 Therefore, conscious pursuit of what one values and desires is termed as
purushārtha.
 Thus purushartha refers to the life goals worthy of human pursuit. It is what a
particular person values in life and desires to fulfill.
 There are individual differences in this. Purushartha consists of four broad goals
namely, dharma, artha, kāma and moksha.
 These four classes of desirable goals are considered equally valid. However, it is
very much recognized that human beings pursue artha and kāma more, which are
materialistically oriented, and dharma and moksha less, which are spiritually
oriented.

ĀNANDA: SUSTAINED HAPPINESS AND WELL-BEING

 Indian psychological thought recognizes that man is animal and man is

human. But it also goes a step forward to posit that man is divine/spiritual
because it is developed and guided by a worldview that recognizes the reality of
both physical and spiritual dimensions of human existence.
 Within the spiritual worldview of the Indian traditions - Vedic, Jaina, and
Buddhist – it is proclaimed that human beings have the potentiality to evolve to a
higher level and attain a Divine status.
 Such personas are called mahātma and mahāpurusha. They are embodiments of
virtues of altruism, compassion and wisdom and a sense of universal
brotherhood.
 Some of them are also persons of extraordinary spiritual powers. They are also
not afflicted with desire (kāma), anger (krodha), greed or avarice (lobha),
attractions and attachment (moha), pride (mada) and jealousy (mātsarya).
 They are said to remain in a state of sustained equanimity (sthitaprajna) and
sustained happiness (ānanda).
 Such a state is described as beyond the binary opposites or dualities (dwandwa)
like pleasure and pain, struggles and sorrows, deprivation and disadvantage and
other experiences which do not affect them.

COMPARING THE PP 1 AND PP 2 WITH INDIAN PERSPECTIVES

 First, Seligman focused more on positive experiences, positive traits, and the
community and institutions that help in the development of them. In this vision,
the role of pain and suffering was not recognized.
 Second, Wong focused on this neglected aspects in Seligman’s vision. He
emphasizes that the term positive psychology need not imply we neglect the
importance of what is seen as negatives of life.
 He has argued that even our struggles of life and consequent pain and suffering
also contribute for human growth by providing meaning, if properly viewed, and
thereby to our sense of well-being.
 Therefore, PP1 and PP2 taken together provide us a better picture which is not
one sided about the meaning of well-being than considering either of them.
 Wong, of course has extended the vision of PP1, but due to his existential
background and emphasis on meaning tend to focus more on this in his views.
 In contrast to PP1 and PP2, the Indian thought approaches the subject of well-
being from a vantage point that goes beyond the binaries.
 It is interesting and important to note that Abraham Maslow in his last work
Farther Reaches of Human Nature (published posthumously) did recognize that
human beings not only aspire to fulfill the need for self-actualization they also
have a need for self-transcendence.
 He termed them as “peakers” or “transcenders.” He distinguished them from
merely healthy self-actualizers. Transcenders wish to remain in what U. A. Asrani
described as “unitive consciousness.”
 Healthy self-actualizers, on the other hand, undergo peak experience or
transcendent experience but engage themselves actively in society actualizing
their potentialities (Maslow, 1971).
 Neither PP1 nor PP2 recognize transcendence as understood by Maslow or by
Indian thinkers.
 The discussion of Being values in Maslow’s theory and the idea of meaning as one
of the elements of well-being in PP1 and PP2 appear to be similar.
 Both PP1 and PP2 do not speak so much about the need for self-transcendence in
the Maslowian sense or what Indian rishis or yogis have envisioned.
 Thus, Indian psychological thought is guided by a broader and deeper worldview.
Our discussion of issues related to positive psychology need to be approached
within that framework.
 This will help to expand the range and scope of contemporary positive psychology
discourse.
 UNIT 4

CHARACTER STRENGTHS AND VIRTUES: INTERPERSONAL

STRENGTHS AND WELL-BEING

CONCEPT OF CHARACTER STRENGTHS

Martin Seligman stated, “Psychology is not just the study of weakness and damage,
it is also the study of strength and virtue. Treatment is not just fixing what is
broken, it is nurturing what is best within ourselves” (Seligman, 1998).

Defining Character Strengths

A strength can be defined as a natural capacity for behaving, thinking, or feeling in a

way that allows for optimal functioning & performance in the pursuit of valued
outcomes (Linley & Harrington, 2006). It is something that an individual has a
natural inclination towards.

What Strengths are Not

 Talents (what we naturally do well): These are naturally occurring patterns of

thoughts, feelings, and behaviour. They are potential strengths.

 Skills (what we train ourselves to do): These are specific competencies we develop
or acquire because they are needed to do our job well, relate better with people or the
environment, e.g., computer skills, communication skills, driving skills, etc.
Character strengths can push us to building specific skills. The strength of the love
for learning can drive us to learning computer skills which also gives us an edge in
the job market.

 Interests (our passions): preference towards certain activities or goals that are
significant to the individual. Character strengths and interests are closely linked. We
might choose interests that give the opportunity to display our strengths. For
example, interest in civil services because it helps me to use my strength of
leadership.

 Resources (our external supports): these are systems available in our environment
that help us to live well, e.g., social network of family and friends, access to health
and education etc.
 Values (what we internally hold dear): internalized goals and desires that are
socially and morally approved. Strengths are values in action.

VIA CLASSIFICATION OF STRENGTHS AND VIRTUES

 Peterson and Seligman generated an exhaustive list of virtues and strengths that
were common across cultures by using various methods including literature
survey, deliberation with leading scholars in the field, and refering to ancient
religious and philosophical texts.
 This resulted in the identification of twenty-four character strengths, that are
grouped under six virtues (which are the core universal characteristics
emphasized by philosophers and religious leaders).
 Wisdom – this virtue incorporates strengths related to the acquisition and use of
knowledge.
 Courage – these strengths involve the exercise of will to accomplish goals in the
face of internal or external opposition.
 Love, humanity – interpersonal strengths that involve inclination towards
forming connections with others.
 Justice – civic strengths that contribute to society.
 Temperance – these strengths buffer us against excesses.
 Transcendence – these strengths help to establish a meaningful connection
with the larger universe.

Signature Strengths

 Every human being possesses each of the 24 character strengths. However, some
strengths are more dominant than the others. These are called signature
strengths.
 Positive Psychologists emphasize the development and use of one’s signature
strengths.
 These are character strengths that an individual possesses, recognizes and uses
frequently in various aspects of their life.
 Signature strengths are those that represent ‘the real you’, they bring with them a
sense of authenticity.
There are three key features that can help us recognize our signature strengths
(Niemiec, 2018):

 Essential - our signature strengths feel like an integral part of who we are. These
strengths represent our positive traits. Others may use these to describe us.
 Effortless - using our strengths feels natural and easy. Doing an activity that feels
effortless and experiencing a sense of flow in the process indicates that we are
using our strength
 Energizing - expressing signature strengths is invigorating and intrinsically
motivating.

Other Classification of Strengths

Clifton’s StrengthsFinder

 Donald Clifton and Edward Anderson from the Gallup Corporation developed
another popular method of conceptualizing strengths known as Clifton’s
StrengthsFinder or Gallup’s StrengthsFinder.
 According to them, a strength is a combination of talent, knowledge and skill.

Strength = Talent + Knowledge and Skill

 Skill refers to the specific steps required to perform a particular activity. A talent
when polished, honed and built upon by acquiring the necessary competence and
expertise becomes a strength. Thus, for a talent to become a strength one needs to
invest time and energy in it, practice and develop it.
 Talent, knowledge and skills are all important for building a strength. However,
talents take precedence. They are the starting point for a strength, are innate and
cannot be developed.

The Search Institute’s 40 Developmental Assets

 The Search Institute’s Developmental Assets (Benson et al., 1998) framework

focuses on children
 Developmental Assets are the relationships, opportunities, and character
strengths that are strongly related to children and youths’ well-being
 There are certain external resources in our environment that support and
promote psychological growth, resilience and thriving in children.
INTERPERSONAL STRENGTHS AND WELL- BEING

 These strengths enhance our social connectedness, build our social resources and
enrich our interpersonal relationships.
 These include:
o Forgiveness
o Gratitude
o Kindness
o Empathy

Forgiveness

 Forgiveness is a character strength that belongs to the virtue category of

temperance. Temperance refers to moderation.
 This virtue category includes those strengths that allow us to moderate or restrain
our thoughts, feelings and behaviour.
 Thus, the strengths of temperance ‘temper’ our responses and prevent us from
extremes.
 Specifically, the positive trait of forgiveness protects us from the excess of hatred.
It is a character trait that is highly valued across cultures.

Forgiveness and Well-Being

 True forgiveness reduces anxiety, brings a sense of inner peace and strengthens
the immune system (Weir, 2017).
 Individuals with high levels of forgiveness also show higher levels of positive
emotions and social integration (Long et al., 2020).

Gratitude

Gratitude belongs to the virtue category of Transcendence. Transcendence is the act

of rising above something to a superior state. The character strengths listed under
this category are those that help us to connect to the larger universe and provide
meaning to our lives.

 Personal gratitude refers to thankfulness that one feels and expresses towards an
individual for the psychological or instrumental help they have provided.
 Transpersonal gratitude transcends the person. It refers to thankfulness that one
feels and expresses towards a higher power, God or life.
 Trait gratitude is what we refer to as the character strength of gratitude. It
involves a stable, long term, sustained attitude and daily practice of gratitude.
 State gratitude refers to the momentary feelings of gratitude that an individual
experiences in response to specific situations.

Gratitude and Well-being

Psychological benefits of practicing gratitude have been observed in the following

ways:

 greater optimism
 greater religiousness and spirituality
 strengthening of interpersonal relationships
 improved self-regulation
 enhanced happiness and well-being
 better physical and mental health

Kindness

 Kindness is a character strength under the virtue category of Humanity. Kindness

means being nice to others - showing compassion and care, being concerned
about their well-being and performing good deeds for them.
 This care, affection and attention directed towards the other is for their own sake
as human beings, not out of a sense of duty or principle.
 Acts of kindness could be big (e.g., donating blood in the hospital) or small
(holding the door open for the person entering behind you).

Compassion and Altruism

 Compassion, experienced as loving kindness, involves taking action to reduce the

other’s suffering.
 Altruism is understood as selflessness. Truly altruistic acts that go beyond
generosity towards our kith and kin, or an expectation of reciprocity can help us
to evolve spiritually.
Kindness and Well-Being

 Studies have shown that kindness, compassion, generosity, and altruism have
significant impact on well-being.
 Results showed that subjective well-being was significantly enhanced for
participants who received the kindness intervention. An example of kindness in
action is volunteerism.
 Volunteering for social causes not only benefits the cause/beneficiary but also has
implications on the wellbeing of the benefactor.
 It enhances the psychological, emotional, and social well-being of volunteers
(Balashov et al., 2018). Volunteering enhances our connections with others, gives
a sense of mastery, boosts self-esteem, and adds meaning and purpose to our life.

Empathy

 Empathy as a trait is closely related to the character strengths of forgiveness and

gratitude (Breen et al., 2010).
 Individuals high on empathy are aware of and can understand other people’s
feelings by putting themselves in their shoes.
 Empathy allows us to understand situations and experiences from another’s
perspective.
 Thus, empathy requires both cognitive (i.e., perspective taking) and emotional
(i.e., warm feelings) skills for accurate understanding and communication of that
understanding to the other.
 Hence empathy is a valuable character trait for people in helping professions like
doctors, counsellors, psychotherapists, etc.

Empathy and Well-being

 Empathy is increasingly being studied in the context of the workplace.

 It has been found that employees with empathic managers show lesser somatic
complaints (Scott et al., 2010).
 An empathic individual would not only sense the employees’ negative emotions,
but also be attuned to positive ones, e.g., an employee’s happiness and excitement
at having successfully completed a big project would be sensed and shared by an
empathic manager.
 UNIT 5

CHARACTER STRENGTHS AND VIRTUES: INTRAPERSONAL

STRENGTHS AND WELL-BEING

INTRODUCTION

 Intrapersonal strengths are those positive personality traits that help us to be

more aware of our internal attitudes and inner processes.
 These are inner qualities or attitudes that help an individual manage emotions
effectively, adjust well to situations and people, pursue and achieve goals, achieve
success in life, and become better versions of oneself.
 They contribute to both hedonic as well as eudaimonic well-being.
o Growth mindset
o Multicultural mindset
o Grit and Determination
o Self-compassion
o Self-forgiveness

GROWTH MINDSET

 ‘Mindset’ refers to a set of beliefs that shapes how you make sense of the world,
influences the way you think, feel and behave. The Mindset Theory (Dweck &
Legget, 1988) suggests that people can have two mindsets or attitudes about
intelligence:
 Entity or Fixed Mindset: Here one considers intelligence to be fixed, assumes that
talents, abilities and understanding are more-or-less fixed or unchangeable.
 Incremental or Growth Mindset: Here one considers intelligence to be flexible,
and changeable. It is assumed that talents, abilities and understanding can be
cultivated, expanded and refined.

MULTICULTURAL MINDSET

 Maddux et al. (2014) report that even when individuals are exposed to the same
multicultural environment, it is their psychological approach and engagement
with different cultures that determines the extent to which they are able to
 integrate diverse ideas, new ways of thinking, conflicting beliefs into their existing
set of thought/action repertoires.
 The successful assimilation of these differences and subsequent broadening of an
individual’s cognitive, emotional and behavioural capacities eventually translates
into visible advancement in professional opportunities.
 It requires an active engagement with a new culture so as to develop new ways of
thinking and perceiving that will impact one’s values, beliefs and behaviour.
 The term multicultural mindset largely comes from the organizational literature.
As the work and organizational world becomes more and more culturally diverse,
career psychologists are looking at interventions that can promote a multicultural
mindset in young people.

This kind of global mindset needs:

o Drive—interest, curiosity and confidence while interacting in a

multicultural environment.
o Knowledge—meaningful understanding of the similarities and differences
between cultural groups, without resorting to stereotyping.
o Strategy—awareness and ability to plan effectively keeping these cultural
differences in mind.
o Action—being able to adapt when relating and working in multicultural
settings.

GRIT AND DETERMINATION

 Grit can be termed as the Strength of will, that helps us to achieve goals. Grit is a
combination of passion and perseverance.
 It is a personality trait that combines passion, motivation and determination to
achieve long term goals (Datu et al., 2017).
 According to Duckworth et al. (2007), there are two dimensions that characterize
grit: (i) consistency of interest and (ii) perseverance of effort.
 Grit involves working hard towards long term goals with sustained interest,
despite disappointments or failures along the way.
 Gritty individuals deliberately choose and continue to persevere in long-term
goals that are not immediately rewarding.
 Thus grit can contribute to one’s better academic performance, career
development, physical health and psychological well-being (Datu, 2021).

SELF-COMPASSION

 Self-compassion is compassion directed inward. It involves being sensitive to our

own distress and a desire to reduce that distress.
 According to Kristin Neff (2003), self compassion consists of three components:
1. Self-kindness:Self-compassion involves being gentle and benevolent towards
ourselves when we falter, are distressed, or feeling incompetent and inadequate.
Rather than resisting, denying, or beating ourselves up for our shortcomings
2. Common Humanity: In times of distress, we often ask ourselves, “Why me?”
By doing so, we are indirectly telling ourselves that bad things only happen to me,
and everyone else’s life is perfect. This is a distorted view of reality created by
tunnel vision. The truth is that trials and tribulations are part and parcel of being
human. By understanding that life challenges and personal failure are universal,
we feel less isolated and alone in our pain.
 3. Mindfulness: Mindfulness means being aware of things as they are, not more,
not less. Thus, neither do we avoid our pain (by resisting or denying it, e.g., “I
wish I wasn’t so hurt!”), nor do we over-identify with it (by ruminating, e.g., “Why
am I always so upset?”). We observe our thoughts and feelings as they are,
without judgment (e.g., “I feel hurt/upset”).

What Self-Compassion is Not

 Self-pity: When individuals feel self-pity they tend to get absorbed by their own
misery.
 They brood over their suffering and think they are the only ones going through it.
This, as we read earlier, is in contradiction to self-compassion.
 People who are self-compassionate, in fact, view suffering as universal. They
accept pain as an inevitable part of being human that is experienced by everyone.
 Thus, it reduces the tendency to exaggerate personal distress, prevents us from
feeling isolated, and makes us more open to accepting our pain with kindness.
 Self-indulgence: We often feel that being easy on ourselves will make us lazy,
careless, and indifferent.
 We somehow have the notion that self-criticism is a more effective motivator than
giving ourselves nurturing, support, and encouragement.
 Nothing could be farther from the truth. Constant criticism makes us feel
worthless and depressed.
 It might push us to do better only so that we can avoid these negative feelings. But
this motivation will be difficult to sustain, and we will lose steam quickly.
 Self-compassion, on the contrary, motivates us to do well because we care. We
feel safe to acknowledge our weaknesses and to work on them.
 Thus, we work on them because we want to be a better version of ourselves. This
motivating force is long-lasting.
 Self-esteem: Self-esteem is based on a person standing out from a group, on how
unique and different he/she is from others around him.
 We need to see ourselves as being above average or better than others to have
high self-esteem, e.g., I am more competent than my colleague or I am more
fortunate than my neighbour.
 In case of low self-esteem - I am not as smart as my classmates or her life is
easier than mine.
 In other words, self-esteem is based on comparison. This, again, contrasts with
what we know about self-compassion.
 Self-compassion celebrates the similarity, rather than separateness, of human
experiences.
 It emphasizes the interconnectedness of human beings, e.g., Struggle is
inevitable, everyone goes through it or It’s human to feel pain.

SELF-FORGIVENESS

 Self-forgiveness can be defined as “a willingness to abandon self–resentment in

the face of one’s own acknowledged objective wrong, while fostering compassion,
generosity, and love toward oneself” (Enright, 1996, p. 115).

Thus, self-forgiveness is understood as having three components:

 Experiencing and letting go of negative emotions directed at oneself: Prolonged

anger, shame, remorse, and other negative emotions associated with an offense,
can become toxic. Therefore, one needs to release them.
 But not before you have experienced them.
 As that would be suppression, ignorance or denial of the emotions and the offense
you are responsible for.
 Thus, you do not excuse yourself of wrongdoing. In fact, you accept responsibility
for it. And move on in a constructive way.
 Fostering positive emotions directed towards oneself: You not only abandon
self-directed negative emotions but also cultivate positive emotions like
compassion, benevolence, and love.
 Accepting responsibility: Self-forgiveness does not mean absolving ourselves of
the blame.
 On the contrary, it means accepting responsibility for the transgression and
showing a willingness to work through it.
 If we interpret our behaviour as only mildly inexcusable, justifiable, as not being
solely our fault or as being harmless, genuine self-forgiveness cannot happen.

Self-Forgiveness versus Interpersonal Forgiveness

Self-forgiveness and interpersonal forgiveness are similar in some ways, but there
are important differences between the two.
Self-forgiveness Difficult to Practice

 Accepting responsibility for a transgression conflicts with two basic human needs:
 Need to maintain moral-social identity - this is related to our need for belonging,
seeing ourselves as good and moral people.
 Need to maintain our sense of agency - to think of ourselves as being in control of
our actions. However, when we commit wrongdoing both these needs come into
conflict with each other.

Taking responsibility is difficult,

 As it is likely to increase unpleasant emotions like shame, guilt, and regret.

Thus, we try to avoid the emotions by shirking responsibility for the
wrongdoing and blaming it on an external entity (person or situation).
 Because doing so also means admitting that our actions went against
acceptable group norms and threatens our inherent need to belong.
 Because the possibility of social rejection, hostility and stigma from the victim
or the community at large can exacerbate feelings of shame. This makes a
person more inclined towards avoiding, rather than accepting, responsibility.
 The Process of Self-Forgiveness

 Self-forgiveness involves a reaffirmation of values. When we hurt someone or

commit an offense, we have gone against a value that we hold.
 For example, maybe our value is to uphold integrity in our actions, but we
cheated in an exam.
 Our action went against our value. Self-forgiveness would involve learning from
the experience, restating/reviving our values and committing to act in accordance
with them in the future.
 In this way, we show our commitment towards shared values, thus, protecting our
social-moral identity.
 At the same time, we preserve our sense of agency since we take charge of our
actions in the future.
 UNIT 6

POSITIVE AFFECT AND POSITIVE EMOTIONS

Emotions, Mood and Affect

 Emotion refers to a specific feeling and is always associated with an object (Cohn
& Fredrickson, 2009).
 According to Plutchik (2001), emotion includes feelings, psychological changes,
impulses to action and specific goal- directed behavior. Thus it is characterized by
three elements: a certain physical arousal, a certain behavior that reveals the
feeling to the outside world, and an inner awareness of the feeling (Ciccarelli &
White, 2018).
 There are primary emotions such as fear, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust, joy,
anticipation and trust; and secondary emotions arising out of the combination of
emotions in terms of types and intensity.
 Emotion is often confused with mood. However, mood is broader than emotion;
refers to a general feeling, not associated with any specific object/event. It is
described as free floating and lasts for a longer time

THEORY OF POSITIVE EMOTIONS

 Barbara Fredrickson has proposed the Broaden-and-Build Theory of

Positive Emotions to explain the mechanism through which positive emotions
have a positive impact.
 Positive emotions elicit more cognitive responses: positive emotions lead
to momentary thought-action repertoires. It leads to more cognitive responses
rather than more physical reactions as in case of negative emotions.
 Broadening effect of positive emotions: As we saw above, positive emotions
are associated with momentary thoughtaction repertoires. This helps broaden the
individual’s repertoire of possible immediate/future actions they will take. Thus
positive emotions broaden our responses, ideas and actions. Negative emotions
limit our thoughts, focusing on the negative emotion only, and leading to a tunnel
vision.
 Positive emotions help build resources : Broadening effect of positive
emotions can lead to building of resources for enhancing the individual’s well-
 being. Positive emotions, of course makes one feel good. But Fredrickson argued
that positive emotions can go beyond this simple outcome and play a crucial role
in building physical, psychological and social resources that help optimal
functioning and well-being.
 Positive emotions can undo the negative emotions: According to
Fredrickson, positive emotions have the ability to offset or negate the impact of
negative emotions. Both positive emotions and negative emotions cannot go
together, e.g., when we are joyful, we cannot be sad or when we are fearful, we
cannot be relaxed. Thus engaging in activities that induce positive emotions can
lead to offset of physiological responses induced by negative emotions such as
increased cardiovascular consequences. This has implications for consciously
engaging in positive emotions to counter the effects of negative emotions.

POSITIVE EMOTIONS AND WELL-BEING

 Positive emotions as explained by the Broaden-and-build theory above have a

positive impact on our physical as well as psychological well-being.
 They help us to flourish and achieve optimal well-being by building up various
resources.
 These resources include physical, psychological and social resources which are
enduring in nature, that is, they last for long and help improve the individual’s
well-being.
 Studies have pointed out that positive emotions are associated with positive
changes in our body and mind, whereas negative emotions are associated with
negative or unhealthy physiological functioning, e.g., reduced physical immunity.
 The influence of positive emotions on our well-being is mainly through physical,
psychological and social resources.
 Positive emotions increase the physical resources such as boosting the immune
system, and keeping the physiological functioning in good condition.

MANAGING EMOTIONS EFFECTIVELY

Emotion-focused Coping

 Emotion-focused coping deals with the emotions associated with the stress. It
tries to reduce the negative emotions by avoiding the situation, or engaging in
 some other distracting activities such as listening to music, playing musical
instrument etc.
 This type of coping focuses on dealing with the emotions generated in the
individual due to the stressful situation.
 On the other hand, problem-focused coping addresses the source of the problem
itself by modifying or removing aspects of problem, e.g., asking for support in
solving a problem, changing one’s schedule to avoid the problem of traffic jam
etc.

Emotional Intelligence

 Emotional intelligence can be defined as perceiving and using emotions

effectively for positive outcomes.
 It includes knowing about one’s own emotions and others’ emotions in
emotion-laden situations.
 Further, it involves being able to handle emotions in oneself and others. Thus
emotional intelligence consists of both cognitive abilities and emotional skills
that together lead to better learning and achievement, better coping and
adjustment, and enhanced well-being.
 Peter Salovey and John Mayer have initially proposed the four-branch ability
model of emotional intelligence comprising of Perceiving emotions, Using
emotions, Understanding emotions, and Managing emotions (Salovey &
Mayer, 1990).
 According to Goleman (1998), “Emotional intelligence (EI) is the capacity for
recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves,
and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships”. It
focuses on knowing about one’s own emotions and learning to regulate them,
and being aware about emotions in others and handling them effectively.

Emotional Storytelling

 Narrating your story, especially related to adverse or traumatic experiences has a

cathartic effect on the person.
 It provides an opportunity to express and process the negative emotions, which
ultimately results in coping and other health benefits. Studies have found that the
narratives can predict health outcomes.
 Research on the benefits of Emotional storytelling was pioneered by Jamie
Pennebaker in 1989 where she reported numerous health benefits for the
emotional storytelling group who expressed their emotional suffering through
writing as compared to the control group.
 Emotional storytelling either through written or oral disclosure of negative
emotions experienced helps the individual to express and release the
emotionrelated stress.
 Instead of inhibiting, it allows a safe space to explore, express and let go of the
emotionally-charged thoughts and feelings.
 It helps people to organize their thoughts, engage in cognitive processing of the
experience, find meaning in their traumas, and reintegrate their social networks.
 Since emotions are influenced by the cultural contexts, it is important to take this
into account in the process of emotional storytelling.
 For instance, collectivistic cultures like India value family harmony more and
avoid emotional confrontations within the family, whereas individualistic culture
of western countries prefer a more direct and aggressive stance.
 Hence the experience and expression of emotions depend on the social cultural
context.

Developing Socioemotional Competencies

 The Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL) is an

evidence-based programme which focuses on enhancement of social and
emotional learning (SEL) among the school children, thereby developing their
socioemotional competencies.
 It follows an integral approach to school education where the academic, social
and emotional aspects are equally taken care of for the optimal learning and
development of children.
 Studies point out a significant relationship between SEL and children’s success in
school and life (Zins & Elias, 2006). In a meta-analysis of 213 school-based
universal interventions for enhancing students’ social and emotional learning
(SEL), Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger (2011) reported
improved social and emotional skills, attitude, behavior, and academic
performance of students from kindergarten up to high school.
 Emotions do have a role in our academic learning as well as personal life and
relationships.
 Given the increasingly complex world in which our children need to learn and
live, socioemotional competencies are the key factor to achieve success and well-
being.
 In addition to achieving academically, they also need to perform equally well in
various other aspects of life. The socio emotional learning can foster an all round
development of children.
 The goals of SEL interventions include fostering of five competencies such as self-
awareness, selfmanagement, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible
decisionmaking (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning,
2005).
 Various techniques and strategies can help us to develop these social and
emotional competencies. For instance, the Mood Meter of Marc Brackett, the
founding director of the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence, measures
emotions by creating four quadrants based on the intersection of pleasantness of
the affect and the energy level of the individual.
 Marc uses colour codes to represent the four
quadrants. Applying this mood meter, one can find
out what emotions one is experiencing based on the
‘x’ axis ranging from unpleasantness to pleasantness
and ‘y’ axis ranging from low energetic to high
energetic. This will help us to self-regulate and
interact effectively with others.

Are Positive Emotions Always Better?

 Positive emotions definitely contribute a lot to our subjective happiness, life

satisfaction, better immunity, success in life, and optimal health and wellbeing.
 However, one word of caution here is about over-emphasizing the role of positive
emotions. Positive emotions cannot always help.
 For instance, in case of a very traumatic event of the death of spouse, war,
terminal illness or a disaster, no amount of inducing positive emotions will take
the stressful experience or trauma away.
 The person needs to experience the negative emotions and process it. However,
positive emotions can help in a relative term, by providing various levels of
support and resources to the individual to deal with the trauma situation/event.
 Given that the other things are equal, people who experience and cultivate
positive emotions may have an edge in terms of the strength of their physical,
psychological and social resources for coping with illness and stress, compared to
people with less frequent positive emotional experiences.
 Thus as the proverb goes, ‘something is better than nothing’ – it is better to have
positive emotions than not having them at all or having negative emotions.
 As research studies indicate, we do better with positive emotions. Hence it is
important to keep a tab on our positive emotions and consciously take steps to
create opportunities and occasions for experiencing and expressing positive
emotions.
 Life’s pleasures lie in small things. We need to notice these and value these to
bring them more often into our lives to enhance our wellbeing.
 UNIT 7

HAPPINESS

CONCEPT OF HAPPINESS

 Many people want a happy and satisfying life. They want a life majorly dominated
by the experience of positive emotions. Such a life Seligman calls as ‘Pleasant life’,
which is characterized by deriving pleasures in life
(signifies fulfilling various needs of the individual).
 However, one can also go beyond this and achieve a
more stable happiness when one focuses on realizing
one’s strengths and potentials, e.g., pursuing music, or
excelling in a sport, engaging in one’s interest in
gardening or swimming etc.
 This gives a ‘Good life’ where make use of strengths and skills to feel capable and
confident.
 Finally, when you go beyond this and use your unique strengths to contribute to
others, devote yourself for a greater cause, it provides you a ‘Meaningful life’.

Hedonic and Eudaimonic Perspective

 Hedonic happiness focuses on personal happiness involving pleasure, joy and

satisfaction, for instance, you enjoyed a good meal at the restaurant, you had fun
with your friends in the party
 Research in Psychology focuses on the concept of Subjective Well-being
(SWB) as a synonym for happiness.
 SWB refers to the subjective evaluation of one’s life, i.e., how does one perceive
and evaluate /judge one’s life. Subjective well-being is defined as consisting of
three components: (a) life satisfaction, (b) presence of positive affect, and (c) a
relative absence of negative affect.
 Eudaimonic happiness refers to a deeper sense of meaning in life. No one will
probably want to be always on the pleasure mode, being happy and cheerful; one
will then miss the variety of emotions that enriches our life, and develops
appreciation for life.
 The eudaimonic happiness involves utilization of individual’s strengths, abilities,
talents, values and skills. Hence it is also called the Psychological Wellbeing
(PWB).
 Hence psychology research focuses more on well-being instead of happiness,
because happiness centres on a limited view of pleasures and life satisfaction. But
a broader concept of well-being adds meaning to our pleasure life and good life to
make it more comprehensive, and leads towards flourishing

MODELS OF HAPPINESS

1. Carol Ryff’s Six-Factor Model of Psychological Well-Being

 According to Carol Ryff, subjective well-being (SWB) focuses on positive
emotions and life satisfaction, but it does not highlight the aspect of positive
functioning.
 She states that well-being and happiness needs to include human strengths,
growth, and striving towards goals.
 Thus it should also include psychological and social functioning such as
autonomy, resilience, purpose, and mental health.
 Ryff has proposed the Six-factor model of Psychological Well-being. These six
factors of self-acceptance, personal growth, positive relations with others,
environmental mastery, autonomy, and purpose in life together contribute to
happiness in one’s life.
2. Corey Keyes’ Dual Continuum Model of Mental Health
 Taking the concept of psychological well-being, Keyes has extended its
application to our mental health and proposed a comprehensive model of mental
health.
 According to Keyes, complete mental health includes emotional well-being,
psychological well-being, and social well-being.
 According to the dual continuum
model by Keyes, mental health is
represented by two dimensions
which gives rise to four categories.

 The horizontal dimension ranges

from presence of mental illness on
the left to absence of mental illness on the right side.
 The vertical dimension ranges from poor mental health at the bottom to good
mental health towards the top of the axis.
 Intersection of these two dimensions/continuum results in four categories:
1. Flourishing - Good mental health and no mental illness is there.
2. Flourishing - Good mental health despite having mental illness.
3. Languishing - Poor mental health and mental illness is there.
4. Languishing - Poor mental health despite having no mental illness.

3. PERMA Model of Seligman

 Developing on the hedonic-eudaimonic aspects of happiness, Seligman (2012)
added further dimensions and proposed the PERMA model of happiness which is
more comprehensive.
 The acronym stands for Positive emotions, Engagement, Positive relationships,
Meaning and Accomplishment, which can be considered as the five major
components contributing our well-being.
o Positive emotion refers to those activities and experiences that give rise to
positive emotions in us such as joy, happiness, pride, contentment, love,
compassion and gratitude. They provide a good feeling, a sense of
satisfaction, help us in savoring good things in life, and improve wellbeing.
o Engagement refers to being involved in an activity to such an extent that it
creates a sense of “flow” in the individual, e.g., you lose track of time when
you are engrossed in reading your favourite author’s novel or playing
guitar which you enjoy so much. It involves utilization of our values,
strengths, and talents. For instance, you are completely focused while
trying to solve a puzzle or playing Sudoku. The challenge needs to be of
 such optimum level that meets your strengths and skills, but is neither too
hard nor too easy for you.
o Relationships refer to inculcating positive relationships characterized by
positive emotions, love, acceptance etc. that contributes to our social
wellbeing. Relationships occupy a major part of our life, which involves our
relationship with our family, partners, friends, colleagues, supervisors etc.
Hence they play a major role in enhancing our well-being.
o Meaning consists of finding a purpose in our life which gives us an
opportunity to use our “signature strengths” to contribute for causes
beyond ourselves. It generates a sense of worth in our life. This makes our
life meaningful and enhances our well-being. For instance, you can
contribute greatly through your profession, creative pursuits, social causes,
and/or religious/spiritual activities. All these help in self-actualization and
achieving meaning in one’s life.
o Accomplishment includes our various achievements, which increase our
positive emotions, self esteem, sense of competence, mastery etc., all of
which contribute to our good mental health. However, our
accomplishments can lead to well-being when these are guided by internal
motivation, i.e., achieving for the sake of it rather than for any external
reward or recognition.

INDIAN PERSPECTIVE ON HAPPINESS

 Ancient Indian texts like the Vedas, Upanishads, and the Bhagwad Gita provide
us lots of insights into the nature and working of human mind, and how it can
contribute to our happiness ‘sukha’, and unhappiness ‘dukha’. In common
parlance, happiness is termed as ‘khushi’.
 These texts provide the social framework and ground rules regarding leading a
good life and enhancing wellbeing in individuals (Kumar, 2003).

Kumar (2003) proposes three perspectives on Indian conception of happiness and

well-being:

(a) Charvaka philosophy: The Indian perspective in ancient times focused on

the pleasure concept of happiness similar to hedonic happiness. It focused on the
life now and advocated to live it to the fullest extent seekig pleasures only and
 avoiding any pain and suffering. This reflected the principle of “Living for the
moment”. However, this approach/conception did not gain popularity at that
time.
(b) Transcendent perspective: This is the ultimate in well-being where it talks
about the state of ‘Ananda’ or pure bliss. The individual transcends the worldly
limitations and enters into the divine world which gives the ultimate happiness –
the blissful state of happiness. Maslow had also extended his theory of Hierarchy
of Needs by proposing the need of transcendence after the self-actualization need,
which can lead to true happiness.
(c) Collectivist perspective:In between the extremes of pleasure approach of
Charvaka and the spiritual approach of transcendence lies the collectivistic
approach followed by a majority of people in India (Kumar, 2003). According to
the collectivistic approach to life espoused by Indian tradition, a life of
moderation, focus on the collective goodness, living for others and other such
human values and principles are advocated for promoting well-being.

FACTORS AFFECTING HAPPINESS

 Research has found lots of benefits of happiness such as good physical health,
boosting immunity, and reducing stress

Money

 The common perception is that if one earns a lot of money, has all the material
comforts, one will be happy.
 It is believed that people with low financial status face difficulty in meeting their
needs and hence are less happy and more stressed with life’s challenges.
 Money is necessary for meeting the needs, and hence may affect our happiness;
but beyond a point, there are other factors (mainly psychological factors) that
determine our happiness and well-being.

Marriage

 Studies also indicate that married people were already happier before marriage.
 So it is the quality of marital relationship that is more important in contributing
to happiness in marriage.
Age

 Adult life is beset with many responsibilities regarding earning, having a family,
raising children, taking care of the older people etc.
 The college years, the stage of young adults, are typically tension-free without any
major responsibility and full of more fun time.

Gender

 Studies shown less than 1% difference in perceived well-being of men and women.
However, there is gender difference in their emotional life, the way emotions are
expressed and experienced
 The demographic variables and the life circumstances have a much weaker
relationship to happiness. This is called the paradox of well-being. Our happiness
and well-being depends on factors beyond the demographic factors.

Culture

 It is an important aspect to be factored in while discussing well-being of

individuals. Research has reported differences in the SWB of people from
individualistic and collectivistic cultures.
 Kitayama and Markus (2000) point out that independence, autonomy, and
agency are the predictors of happiness in the Western culture as compared to the
interconnectedness of self and others in the Eastern culture.

ENHANCING OUR HAPPINESS AND WELL- BEING

 The measures to enhance our happiness can follow a multi-pronged approach. It

needs to take into account various aspects of happiness ranging from positive
emotional experiences, satisfaction of needs to utilization of one’s signature
strengths, values, finding one’s life purpose and cultivating a higher
consciousness.
 The widely cited “Happiness pie-chart” of
Lyubomirsky points out that we need to focus on
our own initiatives and actions impacting our
happiness.
 According to this, 50% of our happiness is
 determined by our genetic factor, 10% is
determined by circumstances; whereas 40% is
influenced by our own intentional activities.
 One can practice the ‘five mantras’ to take care of
different aspects of our happiness and well-being:
proper food, good sleep and adequate exercise
improves our physical health; thinking well which
includes rational thinking and balancing our emotions promote our mental health
and psychological well-being; and relating well refers to good interpersonal
relationship (social well-being) as well as connecting to a higher being (spiritual
well-being).
 UNIT 8

SELF AND RELATED CONCEPTS

CONCEPT OF SELF

 Your concept of self is made up of varied information about yourself, which you
gain from your own experience and also receive from others in your environment.
 When we analyse these various descriptions about ourselves, we can categorize
them into various categories such as those describing our abilities and skills, i.e.,
what can we do (self-concept); those describing us in terms of affective value,
i.e., how do we value or respect ourselves (self-esteem); and those expressing
our belief in ourselves that we are capable of doing things, a sense of personal
control (self-efficacy).

Different Aspects of Self

Our ‘self’ can also be described in terms of personal, social, cognitive, and
behavioural aspects. The personal self is mainly concerned with one’s own self
related to personal aspects, whereas the social self develops in relation with others
and is primarily concerned with family and social relationships (sociocultural
context). Therefore, it is also known as familial or relational self. The self can also
be understood in terms of cognitive and behavioural aspects.

SELF-CONCEPT

 Self-concept is a basic notion about who we are in terms of physically,

emotionally, socially, and spiritually.
 According to Roy Baumeister (1999), self-concept is “the individual’s belief about
himself or herself, including the person’s attributes and who and what the self
is.”
 According to Purkey (1988), self-concept is “the sum of a complex, organized, and
dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person holds
to be true about his or her personal existence”. Let’s understand the important
terms in this definition. According to him, the self-concept is:
 Learned: We are not born with the concept of self (and that is why it is said that
the child is like a blank slate), it is learnt steadily, formed and re-formed by
 significant others and events in our life. Basically a child’s self-image is a learnt
one which is influenced by the feedback given by significant others such as
parents, family, peers and teachers.
 Organized: Our self-concept is organized which is characterized by orderliness
and harmony (Damon and Hart, 1991) that provides consistency to the
personality of an individual. That is why personality is defined as the
individualistic characteristics which is relatively permanent in nature.
 Dynamic: Life is all about ups and downs, success and failure which impacts our
self-concept making it dynamic in nature which changes and develop according to
our experiences and situations. In order to develop a healthy personality, an
individual needs to work constantly on assimilating the new thoughts into old
ones throughout life.

Real Self and Ideal Self

 The ‘self’ has two parts: the Ideal self and the Real self. According to Carl Rogers,
we all visualise ourselves into our ideal self, which we would like to be; whereas
the real self is what we actually are.
 Our real self can be very different from our ideal self. The more the gap or
disparity between what we like to be (ideal self) and what we are (real self), the
more the disharmony within our self.
 That is why Rogers emphasized that we essentially need to work towards
attaining the harmony or consistency between these two selves.
 We achieve harmony or the congruence by making our thoughts and actions of
real self, similar to our ideal self.
 In short, when our self-concept is accurate, we achieve congruence or harmony
within self.

SELF-ESTEEM

 Another important aspect of our self is self-esteem. As a human being, we

constantly evaluate our self or make some judgment about our own value or
worth which is termed as self-esteem.
 People vary in viewing their self-esteem, some have high self-esteem, whereas
others may have low self-esteem.
 Selfesteem reflects a personal psychological characteristic relating to self-
judgment based on one’s values about humans.
 It indicates being aware of one’s value system and an emotional evaluation of
one’s self-worth Children’s self-esteem is formed at least in four areas: academic
competence, social competence, physical/athletic competence, and physical
appearance, which improve with age and experience.
 Rosenberg’s Self-esteem inventory is a most commonly used uni-dimensional
measure of selfesteem.
 Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory is a multi-dimensinal measure of self-esteem
in areas of family, school, peers, and general social activities.

SELF-EFFICACY

 According to Bandura, “self-efficacy is a person’s particular set of beliefs that

determine how well one can execute a plan of action in prospective situations”.
 Self-efficacy is different from self-esteem in the sense that self-esteem refers to
judgments about self-worth whereas self-efficacy refers to judgments about self-
capabilities. However, like we have a general self-esteem and self-esteem related
to specific domains (multi-dimensional self-esteem measures), similarly self-
efficacy can be general/global self-efficacy as well as we have self-efficacy specific
to different domains. There is also collective self-efficacy, which refers to “the
extent to which we believe that we can work together effectively to accomplish our
shared goals”.

Strategies for Enhancing Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is a learned phenomenon. There can be various strategies that can help
develop self-efficacy.

 Self-mastery: One needs to build success by mastering tasks. The sense of

mastery and achievement can help improve belief in our capabilities or
effectiveness.
 Role modelling: Observing others in similar situations who have achieved
success can inspire one to undertake those activities. Observational learning is
also used when we make use of role models to imitate their behaviour.
 Visualization: One can visualize oneself behaving effectively, thereby
generating positive emotions and increasing efficacy expectancies.
 Verbal persuasion: Being persuaded by people who are expert in the field,
powerful, and trustworthy can build self-efficacy in the individual.
 Creating positive emotions and regulating arousal: If we are highly
aroused, it may lead to negative emotions and hamper self-efficacious thinking.
Hence one needs to lower the arousal by engaging in meditation, biofeedback,
relaxation and other techniques. Regulation of negative emotions and creation of
positive emotions will help one to develop selfefficacy.

SELF-REGULATION

 Self-control leads to better adjustment and positive outcome.

 The famous Marshmallow experiment by Walter Mischel is an example of self -
control.
 It depicts self-control in the form of the ability to delay gratification of desires. In
this experiment, small children were given a choice that if they want, they can get
one marshmallow now which is in front of them, or if they wait for a period of
around 15 minutes, the experimenter would get them two marshmallows.
 It was found that those children who could wait and displayed the ability to
control and delay the gratification of their desires, obtained positive outcomes in
their later years in life also).
 Self-control and self-regulation abilities helped them adjust effectively, achieve
better academically and manage stress successfully.
 The self-regulation involves looking at the future goals and accordingly sacrifice
the short-term desires and pleasures, e.g., if one wants to achieve better a
particular body weight, a long-term goal, one needs to follow the health routing in
a disciplined way and forgo the short-term pleasures of eating sweets or fast food.

Self-control Failure

 There are occasions when we fail to exercise self-control. There is inability to

regulate ourselves to follow the planned out steps because of various reasons.
 Excuses are the explanations that we give for our self-control failure when
factors were under our control, but we could not do so.
 Cultural factors related to belief system may also affect our ability to self-
control or failure of self-control.

There are number of psychological techniques to develop self-control:

1. Observe your own behaviour. If you make this a habit, you will notice
and gather necessary information about yourself which may help you to alter,
adapt, or strengthen certain aspects of your ‘self’. You need to be more
observant or mindful of your thoughts, feelings and behaviour.
2. Self-instruction is another essential technique. If you are observant of
yourself, you would find that this technique would be more beneficial. Have
you noticed the self-talk which is going on in our mind constantly? We all
often talk and instruct ourselves to do something and behave the way we want
to. Such instructions are quite effective in self-regulation especially when you
observe yourself to be thinking or doing something negative or destructive.
3. Self-reinforcement. This technique involves rewarding behaviours that
have positive consequences. For example, you may go to play with friends, if
you have finished your assignments. These techniques are quite effective to
develop self-regulation and self-control in people. You can try these
techniques to make yourself better.
 UNIT 9

RESILIENCE

RESILIENCE: BACKGROUND AND EARLY RESEARCH

 In 1998, when Professor Martin Seligman became the President of the American
Psychological Association, he drew attention to the fact that while it is important
to study suffering, understanding how people thrive is also imperative.
 The increasing popularity of the positive psychology movement led by Professor
Seligman, encouraged researchers to shift their attention from why people fail to
why people succeed.
 The idea was to employ a balanced approach that targets alleviation of symptoms
along with enhancing strengths.

Methodological Considerations

 Resilience research follows both quantitative as well as qualitative approach.

Some of the most popularly used resilience measures are Connor–Davidson
Resilience scale (Connor & Davidson, 2003),
 The Resilience Scale by Wagnild & Young (1993), and The Brief Resilience Scale
by Smith et al. (2008).
 However, for an in-depth information about the personal process of adaptation,
qualitative approaches are more useful. Interview, focus group discussions, arts-
based techniques etc. can be used for understanding individual differences and
unique adaptation strategies in the resilience experience.
 Some arts-based techniques explored in resilience research include
dramatization, drawing, painting, and photography.
 Since a major part of the resilience experience is subjective in nature, it is
important to employ methods that investigate personal contexts. Exploration of
cultural and contextual factors is vital in the understanding of resilience.

Four Waves of Resilience Research

Investigators have suggested that resilience research may be understood to have

emerged in four waves. This is elaborated by Wright, Masten and Narayan (2013).
They presented the four waves in resilience research.
EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPT OF RESILIENCE

Resilience, Invincibility and Invulnerability

 In the initial years of resilience research mostly focused on children, those who
functioned well despite adversity were sometimes described as invulnerable and
invincible.
 Later, researchers suggested that such descriptions may not be accurate as it is
realistically impossible for human beings not to be impacted by events occurring
in their life.
 Transitions do have some bearing on emotions and cognitions and consequently
on behaviour.
 However, terms like invulnerable and invincible give the impression that resilient
individuals are unaffected by stressors.
 This is a flawed assumption and thus the terms invincibility and invulnerability
are no longer used synonymously with resilience.

Resilience and Coping

 Another term that is sometimes used synonymously with resilience, is coping.

Although on the surface it might appear that coping and resilience mean the
same, it is not so.
 The essential difference between coping and resilience as reported in psychology
literature is that the idea of coping is largely associated with one’s response to
negative events such as death of a loved one, conflicts in relationships, financial,
professional, or academic setbacks.

Resilience and Other Overlapping Concepts

 A number of related variables such as post-traumatic growth, positive adaptation,
personal growth, and benefit finding are often studied in the aftermath of
adversity.
 However, any positive change following trauma and adversity is not akin to
resilience.
 Resilience is the phenomenon that contributes to these processes and outcomes.
It helps to achieve positive outcomes in situations where growth is unexpected.
 This is the reason investigations have reported associations between resilience
and these variables.

KEY CONCEPTS IN RESILIENCE RESEARCH

 Resilience is described as positive adaptation in response to adversity. Positive

adaptation outcomes such as recovery, well-being and posttraumatic growth may
be observed among individuals with high levels of resilience.
 Adversity refer to any experiences that disrupt the regular course of
development of a system or an individual. Adverse events disturb the individual’s
homeostasis eventually impacting functioning.
 Risk indicates high possibility of an unfavourable outcome. In a given situation,
risk factors are those features which can predict this negative outcome.
 Cumulative risk factor may be a deterrent to healthy adaptation. However, the
presence of several risk factors leads to increased likelihood of unfavorable
outcomes. Likewise, repeated occurrences of the same risk factor are likely to
amplify its impact.
 Proximal risk includes all risk factors which are experienced directly by the
individual. This may be understood in the light of Urie Bronfenbrenner’s
Ecological Systems theory. According to this framework, the microsystem refers
to the immediate environment. Proximal risk factors are usually present in the
microsystem.
 Distal risk factors present within the environment but not within the immediate
surroundings are known as distal risks. These factors impact the person indirectly
through other factors. With reference to Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological
Systems theory, distal risk factors may be present in extended circles such as the
macrosystem.
THEORETICAL MODEL OF RESILIENCE

 Grotberg’s Paradigm of Resilience (1999) was constructed with the aim of

enhancing strengths to deal with adversities that typically tend to result in
depression among the youth.
 This model uses three components namely I have, I am, and I can to present five
blocks of resilience.
 I have includes trusting relationships that provide support.
 I am refers to the building blocks of autonomy and identity which contribute
towards building internal protective factors such as responsibility and self-
esteem.
 I can refers to the building blocks of initiative and industry which contribute
towards building skills such as interpersonal and problem solving skills.

DEBATES AND DISCUSSIONS IN RESILIENCE RESEARCH

Findings from Wave I, II, and III of resilience have led to several pertinent questions.
The debates that followed helped to clarify the concepts further.

Criteria for defining resilience

Researchers have unanimously agreed that resilience must involve two conditions:

 Presence of a significant adversity

 Display of positive adaptation despite the

Resilient individuals also experience trauma and vulnerability

 Resilient individuals experience emotions such as anger, fear, and helplessness
but over time, they are able to discover their protective factors and use them
successfully in adapting to the event.
 The unpredictability of life in general and uncertainties in day-to-day experiences
expose us to vulnerable circumstances.

Resilience is domain-specific

 Researchers have pointed out that resilience is domain specific. Thus, it is

possible to display positive adaptation in one area of life while experiencing
vulnerability in another domain.
 Some individuals who display excellence in their professional or academic lives,
experience anxiety in trying to maintain their success.
 Such domain specificity is observed in case of other psychological concepts, such
as locus of control wherein an individual may be internally controlled in the social
domain and externally controlled in the domain of health.

Resilience as ‘ordinary magic’

 Resilience is described as an experience that is ordinary but magical. Ann Masten,

a pioneer in this field has often referred to the ordinariness of resilience in her
work.
 She posits that resilience is an ordinary rather than an extraordinary
phenomenon.
 This indicates that it is possible for all to experience it. Despite the ordinariness
of the phenomenon, the outcome is perceived as magical.
 This is because resilience makes it possible for individuals to succeed in
circumstances where they are usually expected to fail.
 Masten’s (2001) observation on the ordinariness of resilience provides hope to
at-risk populations. It is now believed that with the help of protective factors,
individuals can discover resilience and display positive adaptation amidst
challenges.
APPLICATION OF RESILIENCE

 Applications of findings from resilience research have helped to improve several

favourable outcomes such as mental health and well-being.
 With progress in understanding and identifying resilience, researchers developed
interest in enhancing it. Wave III researchers started applying the findings
obtained to promote resilient adaptation among vulnerable populations.
 While most of the initial interventions were directed at children and adolescents,
the initiatives now include a variety of samples worldwide including indigenous
populations.
 Some interventions were directed at reducing risk factors while the others
attempted to enhance protective factors.
 At times, detachment from a hostile environment protects the individual from
future harm.
 This was displayed in previous studies on familial abuse where individuals were
able to achieve positive outcomes by distancing themselves from their abusive
family.
 In some cases, however, it is not possible to disconnect from the risk factors
entirely as in situations of bereavement.
 Developing resilience in experiences such as death of a loved one usually involve a
combination of internal and external protective factors that buffer the impact of
the event.
 Interventions should enhance resources as well as the skills required to access
them. Interventions may be applied to different adversities and across
populations, covering a variety of sociodemographic and socioecological contexts.
 Besides, ecological data from multisystemic resilience investigations have
valuable implications in policies pertaining to education, clinical and therapeutic
settings, community and mental health.
 Finally, the study of resilience testifies that human beings have the capacity for
surviving against all odds. One can not only overcome challenges but even thrive
despite uncertainties and vulnerabilities.
 It is therefore crucial to identify the protective factors that can contribute to the
process in different cultures and contexts.
 Thus resilience is a universal phenomenon and awareness and promotion
initiatives can contribute towards building personal and systemic resilience
across contexts.
 UNIT 10

OPTIMISM AND HOPE

OPTIMISM

 Optimism is a cognitive expectancy for desirable events or things to happen in

future. Pessimism denotes expectancy for undesirable outcomes to happen.
 Optimism is also characterized as a disposition or trait, which people are
endowed with in varying degrees.
 It is considered to be a relatively stable and enduring trait, which guides how
people perceive and address particular situations.
 Based on contemporary research, there are two dominant approaches and
theoretical models to optimism: Dispositional Optimism Model by Scheier and
Carver (1985) and Optimism as an Explanatory Style by Seligman (1990).

Dispositional Optimism

 The model proposed by Scheier and Carver is considered to be the most popular
model of optimism, and has relatively stronger construct validity evidence.
 The definition highlights optimism as a general expectancy and does not relate it
to any specific context.
 Being a personality dimension, it differentiates between optimists and pessimists,
where optimist are people who have an orientation towards having positive
expectations and predictions about their life in general, as compared to
pessimists who have a tendency to expect negative future outcomes in life.
 They argued that optimists would have much stronger valued goals, and a higher
persistence to pursue those goals in the face of difficulties using effective coping
mechanisms leading to a higher likelihood of them achieving their goals
 Pessimists being more doubtful and hesitant, have more negative affect.

Learned Optimism

 The theory of optimism as an explanatory style derives from theory of attribution

and theory of learned helplessness (Seligman, 1990).
 Explanatory style is defined as the manner in which an individual explains the
events of his/ her life, making attributions for their causes.
 Attributions can be made on the three dimensions: internality/externality,
unstability/stability and specificity/ globality (Weiner, 1985).
 Internality/externality dimension refers to individuals’ tendency to ascribe either
internal (self, dispositional) or external (people or situational) reasons while
explaining their life events.
 Stability denotes causes that are fixed and stable over time, while unstable causes
are variable and do not remain same over time and context.
 Globality refers to propensity to generalize the causes to all situations, or causes
are specific to situations.

Unrealistic Optimism

 Unrealistic optimism can be defined as a general propensity to anticipate a higher

probability of positive events to happen to self, and a greater likelihood of
negative events occuring to others (Weinstein, 1980).
 The concept is similar to what is called ‘Positive illusions’ (Taylor and Brown,
1988, 1994) which is common among so called mentally healthy, happy, and well-
adjusted people.
 Positive illusions consist of an over exaggerated assessment of one’s abilities, an
amplified sense of control and unrealistic optimism about future.
 People with unrealistic optimism are less likely to think about the possible risks
or hazards involved in a problem situation, and visualize themselves in situations
where they are successfully dealing with the challenge.

DEVELOPMENT OF OPTIMISM

 The presence of optimism as a disposition or explanatory style is dependent on

number of factors, the most important being parental socialization.
 Parents play a very important role in development of optimism through role
modelling and reinforcement of optimistic behaviors (Abramson et al. 2000).
 Parental mental health is a determining factor and it has been shown that there
are higher chances for optimists to belong to families in which none of the
parents are suffering from depression.
 Optimists are more likely to come from families where parents use optimistic
explanatory style and are good role models in that.
 Children who belong to families that have witnessed many traumas and
struggles, display optimism when their families show resilience and healthy
coping strategies.
 This is because parents in such situations encourage children to cope with
stressors and challenges in a positive way and reinforce optimistic behaviors and
perseverance.

BENEFITS OF OPTIMISM

 Optimism has many useful consequences for people ranging from mental health,
healthy psychological functioning, performance to effects of aging etc.
a) Optimism and Academic Performance
Under difficult task condition, students having high or moderately high
expectancies for task performance performed better academically in comparison
to those who had low expectancies.
b) Optimism, Physical Health and Well-being
The likelihood of a strong link between optimism and health is plausible and can
be explained by the self-regulation model, which proposes optimists are likely to
be more focused towards self and goals, which lead to goal attainment for
optimists and avoidance of goals for pessimists. Optimism is believed to result in
better physical health, by lowering experienced stress. Optimists tend to have
higher self-efficacy or perception of control over situations and more positive
thought processes because of which they perceive situations to be manageable
and consequently experience lower level of stress.
c) Optimism and Psychological Well-being
Optimism also contributes to enhanced psychological well-being. Research shows
that people with dispositional optimism are more likely to use reappraisal,
problem focused coping and adaptive emotion focused coping at the time of
stressful situations. Pessimists, on the other hand have a higher tendency to use
avoidant coping strategies like escape avoidance or denial in the face of a
challenge.
HOPE

 Hope involves positive feelings like optimism, but it is also a cognitive-

motivational state that comprises of individual’s beliefs about the self and one’s
actions that shapes attainment of desirable results.
 Snyder (2000) believed hope to be a multi-dimensional concept which can act
both like a stable personality trait and contextual state.
 As a trait, people can have individual differences in the extent to which they
possess the trait.
 People high on hope are thought to use different means to reach their goals, they
have more clarity about the alternate routes and are more likely to have a strong
belief about accomplishing their goals, as compared to people who are low on
hope.
 According to Snyder’s model hope will be
high when it involves goals that are
valued and there is average or above
average probability of realizing the goals
in the face of obstacles that are difficult
but not overwhelming.
 Hope loses its relevance where one is sure
of reaching the goals; and hopelessness
results when it is believed that goals are
not achievable.
 Hopeful thoughts lead to positive emotions and hopelessness results in negative
emotions.
 Snyder pointed out that at any point in time and situation, hope is determined by
the interplay of three factors:
o The extent to which any goal is valued
o The pathways/means and expectancies about the effectiveness of these
pathways in attainment of desirable goals, and
o One’s agency or energy, abilities and self-efficacy in using these pathways
to goals.
DEVELOPMENT OF HOPE

 Although hope is conceptualized both as a trait and state, it has not been found to
have any hereditary component (Snyder, 1994b).
 It is believed to be a cognitive set about goal-directed thinking that is completely
learnt and shaped by the socialization process.
 The elements of hope - the pathway and agency thinking are coached by parents
or caregivers and are visible by the tender age of two in children, although these
thoughts are acquired much before that.
 Agency thoughts in babies is their recognition of their self to be a causal factor in
many cause and effects events in their surroundings.
 Healthy attachment to caregivers which is based on trust is important for
development of hope in children (Snyder, 1994b).
 Threatening environment and traumatic experiences during childhood like loss of
parents have been associated with decrease in hope (Rodriguez-Hanley & Snyder,
2000).

BENEFITS OF HOPE

Hope has been found to have beneficial results in the area of academics, sports,
physical health, adjustment, and psychotherapy.

a) Academic Performance
A number of research investigations involving various student populations have
revealed a link between hope and academic performance. Snyder et al. (1991)
identified the characteristics of high-hope students as self-assured, inspired,
enthusiastic, and driven by their intended goals. Higher Hope Scale scores at the
start of college have been shown to predict better overall grade point averages and
whether students will continue school.
b) Health and Well being
The correlation between hope and psychological functioning has also been
revealed in numerous research studies. Higher levels of hope were associated
with improved mental health in high school students, reduced levels of
depression in undergraduates, and better life satisfaction scores in law school
students. High hope in cancer patients was also associated with reduced
psychological distress in them. Hope had a favorable impact on depressive
 symptoms and dealing with physical handicap. People with higher levels of hope
had lower degree of depression and had stronger social relationships in
comparison to individuals with lower levels of hope.
c) Coping and Adjustment
A large number of studies have investigated the effects of hope on dealing with
stress. Snyder (2000) showed a positive effect of dispositional hope on ability to
cope with problems. People scoring high on hope used coping strategies like
problem-solving, positive cognitive restructuring and support from family,
friends. These people exhibited a higher level of happiness and positive
perceptions of health. Individuals with low hope scores, on the other hand,
displayed coping strategies like wishful thinking, self-criticism and social
withdrawal.
 UNIT 11

FLOW AND MINDFULNESS

FLOW: THE OPTIMAL EXPERIENCE

 The concept of ‘Flow’ originated from the works of Mihály Csíkszentmihályi

(1975, 1990), a Hungarian-American psychologist, and a Professor at Claremont
Graduate University, California, who first recognized and coined the term.
 He studied people from creative field or artists where work is integrated with
leisure like dancers, painters, athletes, etc. based on which he propounded the
concept of flow.
 The flow state was defined as the one where a person is fully engaged or
immersed in the activity they are doing. It is a feeling which is characterized by a
state of concentration, fulfillment, complete absorption, engagement and
competency, and a disregard of the sense of time, ego, bodily needs during the
activity.

Components of Flow Experience

Merging of action and awareness

 The individual is very much aware of his/her actions, but do not reflect on that
awareness itself.
 For example in a chess game, the player has undivided attention on the game on
its every move but is not perceptive of that awareness

Centering of attention

 The flow experience is achieved when one’s attention is undivided and centered
on a single stimulus field.
 This focusing of attention involves keeping out of attention the unnecessary,
irrelevant, or distracting stimuli.
 It is also named as the ‘narrowing of consciousness’.
Loss of ego

 Loss of ego here denotes, a temporary loss of self-consciousness or one’s identity,

and individuality.
 It is a brief forgetfulness of one’s self and becoming one with the activity.

Control of action and environment

 Another element of flow is a feeling of sense of control over one’s actions and
one’s environment.
 It is not as much a feeling of mastery, as it is a state of not being bothered about
by the likelihood of loss of control.

Demands for action and clear feedback

 The demands for action which results in flow experience have the characteristics
of being clear, consonant or coherent.
 The task is defined clearly and the person is required to do things which are
coherent or compatible with the goals.

Autotelic in nature

 One of the most defining characteristics of flow is it is autotelic in nature meaning

it is self-rewarding and the activity does not require any rewards external to itself.
 Most or all of flow activities like play, dance, games, artistic drawing etc. are
inherently rewarding to the person doing those activities.

Altered sense of time

 We all have experienced at some point or other how time seems to fly very fast
when we are enjoying something, and it seems to standstill in periods of
boredom, agony or stress.
 In the flow, attention is focused on the moment to moment activity, the person is
not at all oriented towards the mental processes that signals the time duration.
 As a result the person fully engaged in an activity feels that time has passed too
quickly (Conti, 2001).
FLOW AND ENGAGEMENT: ARE THEY SAME?

 Kahn (1990) contended engagement to be one of the elements of flow. Schaufeli,

Salanova, Gonzalez-Rokmá and Bakker (2002) suggested that flow is climax
experience of engagement.
 They argued that engagement is a positive psychological state of work that can be
described by vigor, dedication and absorption.
 Engagement can be a reflection of one’s internal motivation at work, it can be
referred to as a more persistent cognitive-affective state, as compared to flow
which can be a specific, transient, peak experience.
 The most common difference cited between the two is temporality. While flow is a
slightly more complex concept and includes various elements, it signifies a
particular, time bound, transient ‘peak’ experience, as compared to a more
consistent, and extensive psychological state such as engagement (Schaufeli et al.,
2002). The absorption dimension of engagement comes very close to flow.

FLOW: AN INDIGENOUS PERSPECTIVE

 The concept of flow has parallels in the Hindu philosophy of Karma Yoga,
underlined in the Hindu’s sacred text Bhagavad Gita.
 Both Flow and Bhagavad Gita propound enjoying the journey or process of work
itself, rather than being focused about the end goal, in order to experience inner
satisfaction and peace.

BENEFITS OF FLOW

 Although flow can be a very personally and internally rewarding experience, it has
broader positive consequences.
 The two direct consequences of flow often discussed in literature are enjoyment
and pleasurable absorption.
 These two in turn can lead to a number of benefits for the person and in the work
context.
 The pleasurable absorption experienced in the leisure and sports activities has
been associated with many crucial outcomes in the work arena like enhanced
interest in task (Csikzsentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1993), positive mood
(Eisenberger et al., 2005), in-role and extra role work behaviors (Demerouti,
 2006), organizational spontaneity (Eisenberger et al., 2005), and overall physical
as well as psychological well-being (Steele, 2006).

MINDFULNESS

 Mindfulness, an attribute of consciousness, plays an important role in improving

the psychological well-being of people.
 One of the major stressors of life for most of the individuals is worrying about
future or getting stuck in the past leading to negative feelings like guilt, regret,
resentment, grievance, anxiety, bitterness etc.
 A healthy state of mind requires one to focus one’s attention in the present.
However, day-dreaming, worries, excessive planning cause individuals to act
mechanically without conscious awareness, thus develop behavioral patterns
which are unhealthy and mindless.
 In simple terms it is construed as the state of being attentive to and aware of what
is going on in the present.
 It helps one to train its mind to stop being bothered about what has happened in
the past or can happen in future and respond effectively to what is happening in
the moment - not only to the events outside, but paying close attention to one’s
inner states like thoughts, sensations, feelings and emotions.
 This can promote well-being by facilitating self-regulatory behavior and positive
mental health.

MEANING OF MINDFULNESS

 The term mindfulness is a translation of the word Sati in Pali language, and has
its roots in Buddhist traditions, though its origin dates back at least as far as the
third millennium B.C.E. as part of the Brahmanic traditions in the Indian
subcontinent, from where emerged the Buddhism (Cousins, 1996, cited in Lomas
et al, 2017 p. 133].
 Mindfulness is generally used to indicate both: (i) a state or quality of mind; and
(ii) a form of meditation that helps one to bring up and nurture this particular
state/quality (Lomas et. al., 2017).
 Mindfulness meditation came to be popular in the western world owing to the
efforts of Kabat-Zinn (1982), who utilized it for a novel “mindfulness-based stress
reduction” (MBSR) programme.
Dimensions of Mindfulness

 Non-judgmental: Witnessing the passing thoughts and the present moment

without evaluating or putting them in any categories.
 Non-striving: Not trying to achieve any specific goals, not getting attached to
desirable outcomes.
 Acceptance: Being open and accepting of things as they are in the present. It does
not indicate passive resignation or unwillingly accepting, but recognizing one’s
experiences with awareness and openness.
 Patience: Having a composed mind to let things unfold at their own pace. Being
patient with ourselves, people around, situations and present moment.
 Trust: Having trust in one’s body, one’s feelings and that whatever is happening
in life it is supposed to be like that
 Openness: Receiving everything as it is happening for the first time. Recognizing
possibilities by being fully in the present moment.
 Letting Go: Not getting attached to any thought, feeling or experience
 Gentleness: Quality of being soft, tender and considerate.
 Generosity: Being and giving in the present with love and compassion without
getting attached to gains in return.
 Empathy: Trying to understand other person feelings, perspective and situation
in the present
 Gratitude: The quality of appreciating and feeling grateful for the present
 Loving-Kindness: The feeling of forgiveness, compassion and unconditional love

BENEFITS OF MINDFULNESS

A. Mindfulness and Well-being

Keyes (2005) regarded well-being as constituting of three domains: emotional
well-being, involving the combination of positive emotions and life satisfaction;
psychological well-being, involving contentment with one’s achievements and
believing in having a larger purpose in life and developing as an person; and
social well-being, including the quality of one’s proclivity toward others. (Howell,
Digdan & Buro, 2010, p. 419).
B. Mindfulness and Physical Health
Research studies indicate that mindfulness meditation results in number of
health benefits like enhanced immune functioning. Randomised control trial
methodology (RCTs, involving comparison of two groups, one who receives the
intervention and the other does not, with randomly distributed participants)
indicate that mindfulness leads to a decrease in varied physiological problems
including chronic pain, fatigue, heart disease, type-2 diabetes, cancer etc. both in
adults and youth. Mindfulness is associated with better heart functioning through
a reduced degree of cigarette smoking, greater physical movement, and a
healthier body mass index
C. Mindfulness and Cognitive Functioning

To be able to function and perform to the fullest capability, one requires optimum
cognitive functioning like attention, memory, thinking, reasoning, decision making,
language etc. When we engage in multitasking, it becomes difficult to carry out
focused attention when it is required. Focused attention is not only important for
better performance but also for one’s sense of psychological wellbeing. Low level of
focused attention can also result in experiencing greater anxiety as our thoughts get
us to worry about the future (Cabrera, 2016). The practice of mindfulness meditation
can help people to pay focused attention to the present moment and enhance their
sense of well-being by reducing stress levels.

D. Mindfulness, Emotional Well-Being and Psychological Health

Mindfulness can help individuals to attain and maintain a positive state of mind, an
acceptance of one’s self and being comfortable with it. Mindfulness as a trait
perspective assumes some people to be more mindful than others; thus people can be
trained to be more mindful. Studies have shown dispositional mindfulness (the
extent to which a person is mindful) to be associated positively with self-esteem, and
self-acceptance. Research has also shown that when mindfulness is improved with
the help of interventions like meditation training, it results in subsequent increase in
well-being

E. Mindfulness and Social Well-being

A healthy relationship with one’s family, society and community is integral to

experience a sense of well-being. Studies have also revealed mindfulness to be
effective in relationship building, and predictive of a higher sense of relatedness and
interpersonal proximity. Many scholars in the field are trying to find the link between
mindfulness and interpersonal behavior and are examining concepts like “mindful
relating”, “mindful responding” in couples, and “mindfulnessbased relationship
enhancement”

MINDFULNESS-BASED INTERVENTIONS

(a) Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)

 MBSR was the first mindfulness-based program for relieving stress and
advancing physical-mental health and well-being of individuals.
 It involves an 8-week course structured in a group format in order for
participants to learn and benefit from their collective experience.
 It is designed to be both educationbased and experience-based, combining
conventional Buddhist mindfulness meditation techniques (where participants
learn to center their focus on the breathing and moving it towards a heightened
awareness of other objects of attention like sensations, feelings, thoughts), simple
yogic and muscle stretching exercises, practices like the ‘body scan’, whereby
participants concentrate on their bodily parts with mindful awareness and journal
tasks to help them integrate mindfulness into daily practice (Kabat-Zinn, 2003).

Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT)

 MBCT has its roots in the collective-based, eight-week programme MBSR, but
was developed by Zindel Segal, Mark Williams and John Teasdale (2002) to be
used by individuals who were suffering from or had experienced multiple
incidence of depression in their lives.
 It combines characteristics of cognitive therapy with mindfulness practices.
MBCT is different from cognitive therapy as it involves non-judgmental
acceptance of one’s thoughts and emotions, instead of making an attempt to
assess or modify the content of thoughts.
 This idea of perceiving the mind as a place of ‘being’ rather than ‘doing’ reduces
rumination and helps depression-prone individuals to prevent relapse.
Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT)

 Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) was given by Marsha Linehan, as a cognitive

behavioural and mindfulness-based therapy for Borderline Personality Disorder
(BPD).
 It was the first psychotherapy propounded to be effective in successfully treating
BPD in controlled clinical trials.
 The essential dialect is between the contradictory forces of change and
acceptance, i.e., accepting the things as they are, at the same time working
towards their improvement.
 In DBT mindfulness is learnt as a skill set with the help of systematic exercises.
These involve observing, comprehending and engaging in one’s present moment
experience in a non-judgmental, singular focus and effective way. DBT trains one
in how to make use of the ‘wise mind’ – the latent ability to have clear awareness
of one’s thoughts and feelings.
 DBT currently has a substantial research support and is regarded as one of the
most effective therapy for BPD as evident from the documented success rates.

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)

 Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) is a psychological intervention,

based on observations and experience, which aims to improve ‘psychological
flexibility’ in individuals by combining acceptance and mindfulness strategies,
with commitment and behaviour change strategies.
 It is regarded by American Psychological Association as an empirically validated
intervention for treating depression.
 ‘Psychological flexibility’ here means complete engagement with the present
moment having full consciousness and, based on what the situation entails,
modifying or persisting with the behavior aligning with the person’s preferred
values.
 The therapy draws heavily from cognitive-behavioral framework but diverge in its
dominant application of mindfulness exercises to help individuals in attaining
flexibility.
 UNIT 12

STRESS MANAGEMENT AND POST TRAUMATIC GROWTH

CONCEPT OF STRESS

 The concept of ‘stress’ was first introduced by Hans Selye in 1936. It is derived
from the Latin word “stringere” which means ‘to tighten’, denoting force, strain,
or strong efforts and pressure with reference to an object or person.
 According to Beck (1967), stress refers to any force which physically or
psychologically strains the coping mechanism of an organism.
 Stress is defined as “nonspecific response of the body to any demand (Selye,
1956). Hans Selye who is known as the ‘father of stress research’, states that when
we do not get any specific response to the stimulus that creates tension in our
body and mind, it is called as stress.
 Stress can be of two types – positive stress and negative stress.
 Positive stress is good stress or eustress (Truxillo et al. (2015), e.g., stress arising
out of job promotion, getting married or moving to a new city; whereas negative
stress is known as distress (Schafer (1998, p. 8), e.g., stress resulting from a
cyclone which damaged your house or suffering from a severe illness.

Stressors are broadly categorized into four types such as, physical or physiological,
psychological, environmental, and socio - cultural.

 Physical stressors include such stimuli as injury, infection, immobilization,

malnutrition, inadequate living space etc.
 Psychological stressors include such stimuli as threats to self esteem, failure
in an intellectual task, interaction with a hostile person, frustration, conflicts,
poor health, poor financial conditions, life crisis and so on.
 Environmental stressors include such stimuli as crowding, loud noise,
extreme temperature, air pollution, sensory deprivation, environmental overload
or under load, etc.
 Socio-cultural stressors include such stimuli as social isolation, cultural
deprivation, social disadvantages, poor socio-economic status, disturbed family,
undesired socio-cultural activities, low social status.
General Adaptation Syndrome Model of Stress

 Hans Selye, the recognized father of stress research talks about General
Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) to explain the process of stress reaction.
 The GAS has three stages: Alarm, Resistance, and Exhaustion. In the
alarm stage, the external stimulus/ stressor activates the internal stress system of
the body.
 There are a number of physiological and chemical reactions, such as increased
pituitary and adrenaline secretions; noticeable increases in respiration, heart
rate, and blood pressure; and a heightening of the senses.
 If the stressor continues, then the GAS moves into the resistance stage, during
which the body calls upon the needed organ or system to deal with the stresses.
 However, while there may be a great deal of resistance to one stressor during the
second stage, there may be little, if any, resistance to, unrelated stressors.
 This helps explain why a person going through an emotional string may be
particularly vulnerable to other illness or disease.
 Finally, if the stressors persist over a longer period of time, the reserves of the
adaptive mechanisms during the second stage may become drained and
exhaustion sets in.
 Besides the physiologically oriented approach to stress represented by the classic
GAS model which remains a vital dimension of modern stress research and stress
management, attention is also being given to the psychological (e.g., mood
changes, negative emotions, and feeling of helplessness), and the behavioral (e.g.,
directly confronting the stressor or attempting to obtain information about the
stressor) dimensions of stress.
 All three dimensions (physiological, psychological and behavioral) are important
in the understanding of stress and coping strategies to manage stress.

Diathesis-Stress Model

 This model of stress (Rubinstein, 1986) explains the occurrence of stress as the
outcome of a dynamic interaction between the hereditary factors and the
environmental factors.
 Thus there is a biological predisposition, for instance for getting high blood
pressure or blood sugar, which makes the person vulnerable.
 However, the manifestation of this will depend on the environmental factors or
the stressors in the life of the person.
 Similarly, the person may be prone to getting irritable/anxious, but this will
interact with the environmental stressors for the person, that will act as the
precipitating factors, to actually get anxious.
 Hence this is also known as the vulnerability-stress model.

STRATEGIES/TECHNIQUES FOR MANAGEMENT OF STRESS

 Management of stress requires identifying the stress and the stressors, i.e., the
factors causing stress; and also assessing the level of stress.
 Identification of stress requires one to identify the various signs and symptoms of
stress, which can be physical/physiological, emotional, and behavioural.
Identification of Stress
 Physical signs: changes in heart beat, blood pressure, body weight, diabetes,
sleep problem, stomach upset, aches, headache, frequent cold or infections,
muscle tension, changes in menstrual cycle and libido.
 Psychological signs: difficulty in concentration, and troubles in remembering
and recalling, worries.
 Emotional signs: being angry, moody, irritable, sad, anxious or frustrated.
 Behavioral signs: poor self-care, not having time for the things you enjoy or
taking to drugs and alcohol to cope, smoking, overeating, gambling, excessive
internet use.

Strategies Focusing on Physical Aspect and Breathing

Physical exercise

 Regular physical exercise is beneficial for physical health as well as mental health.
Aerobics, walking, jugging, swimming, riding bicycles, playing soft balls, and
tennis etc. can help in dealing with excessive stress levels.
 These forms of physical exercise increase heart capacities, lower act-rest heart
rate, provide a mental diversion from work pressures and offer a means to “Let
off steam” ( Kiely & Hadgson, 1990).
Relaxation Technique

 Jacobson Progressive Muscle Relaxation (JPMR) is a very comprehensive

relaxation technique which is based on the principle that stress and relaxation
cannot occur together as these are manifestations of sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous system respectively which reciprocally inhibit each
other.
 The technique mainly starts with breathing in, holding the breath and letting go
while contracting and relaxing 16 muscle groups such as arms, hands, shoulders,
neck, forehead-eyes-scalp, jaws - mouth, chest - trunk, stomach, lower back,
buttocks, thigh, foot-calf (Ghosh 2015).

Yoga and Meditation

 The main aim of Yoga is self-realization (Balaji, 2012). It is a way of life which
enables one to gain inner awareness and develop a higher consciousness to attain
‘Mokshya’.
 Yoga as a practice originated in India and the term yoga is derived from Sanskrit
word ‘yuj’, meaning ‘to unite’, which indicates a union of consciousness and body.
 At the practice level, yoga includes Asana (bodily postures), Pranayam
(breathing exercises) and Dhyana (meditation).
 There are various types of yoga such as Karma yoga, Jnana yoga and Bhakti yoga
– mentioned in the Bhagvad Gita, which refer to the path of action, path of
knowledge, and the path of devotion respectively.
 Ashtanga yoga of Maharshi Patanjali talks about the eight limbs or steps in the
path to self-realization.
 Meditation (‘Dhyana’ in Sanskrit language) aims at quietening our mind to gain
inner awareness and spiritual enlightenment.
 It also helps manage stress and enhances one’s health and well-being.

Biofeedback:

 Biofeedback provides feedback about the physiological changes that occur in

stressful situations.
 According to Ghosh (2015, p. 179), biofeedback is “a technique of making
unconscious or involuntary bodily processes (as heartbeat or brainwaves)
 perceptible to the senses (as by the use of an oscilloscope) in order to manipulate
them by conscious mental control”.
 Awareness of such physiological chages as heart rate, breathing, blood pressure
etc.
 will enable the individual to consciously regulate them (by engaging in deep
breathing, relaxation exercises, changing our thoughts etc.), and reduce stressful
experience.

Strategies Focusing on Cognitive Processes

Cognitive Restructuring:

 This is explained in the ABC triangle given below. Thus cognitive restructuring
requires one to restructure or modify one’s thinking patterns.
 Based on this, Aaron Beck (1967) has developed the Cognitive behavior
therapy (CBT), which focuses on modifying the irrational thinking patterns of
the individual, resulting in adaptive behavior and stress reduction.

Positive Attitude:

 Positive attitude refers to having an attitude that good things will happen, that
one would be able to deal with a challenge or an adverse situation.
 Thus it involves thinking in a positive way, and having positive emotions towards
the stressful situation.
 Positive attitude involves looking at things/situations/events/ people and
focusing on what positive or good is present rather than looking at the negative or
absence side.
 Thus it involves characteristics of optimism, hope, divergent thinking, and
resilience.
 Positive attitude makes one confident, results in problem solving, reduces stress,
and increases the inner strength of the individual.

Expressing Gratitude:

 Gratitude refers to ‘The quality of being thankful or grateful’. It involves showing

appreciation for something.
 Expressing gratitude also fosters positive attitude in the individual as it reduces
our attention on the negative things in our life.
 If you think about our traditions and culture, our festivals and rituals offer
occasions for showing our gratitude towards nature, other people, and our
ancestors.
 We need to recognize and consciously focus on cultivating an attitude of
gratitude.

Coping Strategies:

 Coping can be described as deliberate efforts directed towards decreasing the

negative effects of stressful situations.
 An adaptive coping style helps reduce stress whereas, maladaptive coping has
negative impacts on physical and psychological health of the individual.
 Problem-focused coping tries to address the problem itself, that is, removing the
cause of the stress. For instance, you switch on the fan if you are feeling too hot.
 However, emotion-focused coping deals with the emotions arising out of the
stressful experience, e.g., you felt hurt by your friend’s behaviour and you tried to
manage your hurt feeling by distracting yourself in some other activity.
 Acceptance oriented coping focuses on developing a sense of acceptance for the
stressful situation where the things ar not under control of the individual, e.g.,
accepting the loss and damage of house and other properties due to the cyclone.

Strategies Focusing on Affective Processes

Emotional Intelligence:

 Awareness of emotions in oneself and in others plays a crucial role in managing

our stress.
 In addition to the thinking component of stress, we need to pay attention to the
affective component of stress.
 Knowing about the emotions will help us in changing our thinking and behavior
so that it results in adaptive behavior.
 Thus thinking and emotions need to be integrated which is called as Emotional
intelligence (Goleman, 1995).
 The five components of EI, according to Goleman, consist of self-awareness,
empathy, self-regulation, motivation, and social skills.
 Emotional intelligence basically involves developing awareness about emotions in
oneself and in others, and managing emotions.

Positive Visualization:

 Positive visualization involves the use of imagination to visualize about a future

outcome which we desire, but may not be able to achieve at the present moment.
 It can be called as mental exercise that helps one to reach the desired goal.
 Visualization is not just thinking and planning about a certain thing, but it
requires vivid imagination involving all the senses.
 It includes the cognitive as well as affective
processes related to the desired object/thing.
 When we repeatedly visualize something,
paying attention to the minute details, and
attaching all our senses with it, our brain
gets the signal and gets motivated to engage
in selective attention, goal-directed thinking
and divergent thinking.
 Further, effective visualization requires us to be self-aware, knowing our
strengths, beliefs, and values so that we know what we really want to achieve.

Strategies Focusing on Behaviour

Engaging in Leisure Activities:

 Leisure activities are those that we engage in to relax, reduce our stress, and feel
good about ourselves.
 These are pleasurable activities done voluntarily such as playing games, drawing,
pursuing one’s hobbies, socializing, being with nature, and so on.
 Research focuses on leisure as a coping resource which has ample benefits for our
physical as well as mental health.
 Usually leisure time is thought of as a wastage of time and/or given less time for
it.
 However, leisure time has manifold benefits and can help us engage in work and
other activities with new vigour.

Connecting with People:

 Connecting with people is an important tool to reduce stress. When we connect

and interact with others, it releases the stress and anxiety within.
 It results in catharsis which reduces the stress in the individual. Feeling
connected with others helps one to get the necessary social support, increases
their confidence, and generates a feeling of trust.
 Connection with our family and relatives, friends, neighbours, and the
community is a great asset in managing our stress.
 It provides us the support and has a positive impact on our physical and mental
health.
 Even if the person is not present physically, still the perceived social connection
has lots of benefits. It provides a feeling of confidence, comfort, and assurance
that someone is there to provide you with help and support.

Stress Management Strategies at the Organizational Level

Communicating Effectively:

 Communication is an important interpersonal skill at the organizational level. It

helps in conveying things clearly and avoids conflicts and misunderstanding.
 It can thus reduce stress and improve relationship. Main aspects of effective
communication are : active listening, being open to feedback, paying attention to
nonverbal behavior, removing barriers to effective communication, providing
personal space, and being assertive.

Resolving Conflicts:

 Conflict resolution denotes ways in which conflict can be dealt with or resolved.
One of the conflict resolution strategies include avoiding.
 This denotes withdrawal from conflict. Though, in this case the actual conflict
may not resolve.
 But individuals may use this when they feel that confrontation or engaging in
conflict is not worthwhile and the discomfort that they may experience while in
conflict is much more than when they avoid it.
 Another strategy can be competing. This is used by individuals who engage in
conflict necessarily to win. This is a win- lose situation. Individuals using this may
display assertiveness but not cooperation.
 Next can be accommodating. In this case, the individual is cooperative and not
assertive. Though, this again may not be healthy as one of the parties may just
give in and as such the conflict remains unresolved. This is a lose-win strategy.
 Similarly collaborating also can be one strategy where individuals are assertive as
well as cooperative and the parties may come up with an agreed solution to
resolve the conflict. This can also be termed as win-win strategy.
 Compromising also help in conflict resolution, where each of the party will
compromise in some way. Thus, there is partial cooperation and assertiveness.
And though, the parties may not be completely satisfied, they are not dissatisfied
as well. individuals who are able to resolve conflicts are often excellent mediators,
rational, and able to manage difficult personalities from a place of empathy.

Problem Solving:

 Problem solving involves finding solution to a problem at hand. It can be

explained as a mental process that includes analysis of the problem in order to
find a solution for it.
 Problems can be categorized into routine and non-routine problems and well-
defined and ill-defined or poorly defined problems.
 The steps in problem solving include identification of problem, brainstorming for
ideas and solutions, selecting a solution and implementing the plan of action and
reflecting on the effectiveness of the solution.
 Strategies of problem solving include trial and error, heuristics, algorithm and
insight-oriented methods.
POST TRAUMATIC GROWTH

 Post Traumatic Growth (PTG) refers to the psychological growth that occurs
following an adversity.
 term post-traumatic growth refers to the adaptation and accommodation of the
individual to any crisis or traumatic situation and coming out of this by coping to
the situation in a positive manner.
 Post-Traumatic Growth (PTG) and Post-Traumatic Depreciation (PTD) can be
defined, respectively, as positive and negative changes in the after effects of
trauma.
 These changes can be in the following domains such as personal strength, relating
to others, new possibilities, appreciation of life, spiritual and existential change.
 Post-traumatic growth is an important positive psychology construct that needs
to be differentiated from resilience that is much talked about in the field of
positive psychology.
 UNIT 13

YOGA AND MEDITATION

WHAT IS YOGA

 Yoga literally means to yoke, from the Sanskrit root ‘yuj’, which means to join and
refers to experiencing oneness with the supreme consciousness.
 First, yoga means all those techniques people practice to find release from their
existential suffering and achieve consciousness.
 Second, yoga refers to a specific school of Indian philosophy given by Patanjali in
his text Yogasutra.
 The three major Yogic paths or the trimarga of bhakti, jnana, and karma
yoga, is a standard method to categorise these multiple styles and systems. These
three pathways are discussed next (Agrawal & Cornelissen, 2021).
 Bhakti yoga: The yogic path of ‘bhakti’ focuses on the cultivation of emotions
around the Divine and supposedly results in bliss when one achieves oneness
with one’s preferred form of God. In the process, one lets go of ego and desire-
based lifestyle. This path may seem to be familiar and probably most accessible.
Thus, one may note a large number of bhakti saints revered in different parts of
the country.
 Jnana yoga: The Jnanayoga path is that of cognitive realisation of the oneness
of consciousness, which may later be experienced first-hand and experientially.
Here again, one may drop one’s biases and note the reality as it is, thus removing
many sources of pain and suffering.
 Karma yoga: This path, most famously described in the Bhagavad Gita, is
associated with the proper use of one’s volition or willpower. This path’s core is
working without desires (nishkama karma) and not being attached to specific
outcomes, thereby finding inner freedom. One does work with one’s utmost
capacities, skillfully, and with an attitude of fulfilling one’s duties for the larger
good of the world. Even when one engages in one’s regular affairs, this path too
can lead to ultimate freedom.
PATANJALI’S YOGA

 The text Yogasutra as codified by Patanjali is a millennia old text from India, and
evidence from archaeology, various other texts, and oral tradition indicate that
this yogic system is probably more than 5000 years old.
 It describes yoga philosophy, steps and outcomes, and has many ancient and
modern commentaries written on it.
 There are 195 Sanskrit verses (known as Sutras) in Patanjali Yogasutra,
categorised in 4 chapters (Pada) to explain profound ideas in the philosophy of
mind and its applications.
 Patanjali Yogasutra begins by providing a definition of yoga as the process of
silencing the mind, by stopping the waves of mental activities known as Chitta-
vrittis which include things like misconceptions, future imaginations, and
memory of past.
 The mind of a yogi, which is a calm and silent mind can be achieved through: (a)
constant practice (Abhyasa), (b) and detachment (Vairagya). Certain other
helpful psychological aids are also mentioned: ((i) Faith (Shraddha), (ii) Courage
and strength (Virya), (iii) Memory and learning (Smriti), and (iv) Wisdom
associated with higher states (Samadhi Prajna). The role of motivation and effort
has further been emphasised.

Klesha model of suffering

a) Avidya - which is the primary ignorance of our true Self, and it is described to be
an error where one believes the non-eternal to be everlasting, the impure as pure,
misunderstands suffering as happiness, and non-self to be the Self.
b) Asmita - it is developed next when one misunderstands the mind to be our true
Self.
c) Raga - it is the attachment to pleasure.
d) Dwesha - it is the aversion to pain.
e) Abhinivesha - the desire for living and fear of death is the fifth affliction.

Overcoming Klesha
 To overcome these afflictions and to avoid future suffering, one needs to realise
the true Self as separate from the material world, made up of Triguna, i.e., the
principles of Sattva/ light, Rajas/ movement and Tamas/ inertia.
 One can overcome afflictions by the practice of Kriyayoga, i.e., practicing
selfstudy (svadhyaya), disciplined endurance (tapa) and surrender to Supreme
Consciousness (Ishvara-pranidhana).
 These steps are also part of Niyama, one of the eight limbs of Ashtanga yoga.

The Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali

 The most famous contribution of Patanjali is his comprehensive system of

Ashtanga yoga (the eight-limb). It not only purifies the mind, but also helps in
experiencing the state of deepest absorption or samadhi.
1. Yamas: The five yamas emphasise ethics in one’s relations to the outer
world, not only in actions but also in speech and thoughts. These yamas are:
i. Non-harming (Ahimsa)
ii. Truthfulness (Satya)
iii. Non-stealing (Asteya)
iv. Following the highest truth (Brahmacharya), and
v. Non-possessiveness (Aparigraha)
2. Niyamas: The five Niyamas are focused on our relationship to ourselves.
These are:
i. Purity of body and mind (Saucha)
ii. Contentment (Santosha)
iii. Highest discipline (Tapa)
iv. Study and analysis of oneself (Svadhyaya), and
v. Surrender to the Divine (Ishwara Pranidhana)

WHAT IS MEDITATION

 Meditation is an English term with Latin roots (meditari; to think, reflect or

contemplate) and indicate ‘deep exploration of mind’ (Goleman & Davidson,
2017).
 It is considered a ‘technique to control the mind’ (Rao & Paranjpe, 2016) by
controlling our attention and awareness (Walsh & Shapiro, 2006).
 The process of meditation goes from attending to an object (Dharana), sustaining
this attention in an unbroken manner (Dhyana) to complete absorption into it
(Samadhi).
 Another term Bhavana is also used in Patanjali Yogasutra for cultivating maitri,
mudita, karuna and upeksha.
 Meditation aims towards a higher state of consciousness. As by-products of this
process, healing and developing special powers are noted.
 The various definitions of meditation may not fully capture its essence due to the
limitations of language.
 The US Department of Health and Human Services reached a similar conclusion
regarding challenges in developing a taxonomy of meditation.
 Using expert consensus, (Cardoso, deSouza, Camano, & Leite, 2004) tried to
capture the meaning of meditation through five core criteria based upon its
process and outcomes, to overcome some of these limitations.
 These were - it is done by oneself, using a technique, by relaxing the body, and the
analytic mind, while focusing on oneself.
 Other relevant aspects of meditation were found to be - a spiritual-philosophical
context, mental silence and possibility of an altered consciousness.

MAJOR CATEGORIES OF MEDITATION

a) Concentrative Meditation: In this category of meditation, we focus all

attention on a single point / object / idea/ image / sound. This meditation
process is described in Dharana-Dhyana stages of Patanjali’s ashtanga yoga,
where we develop an unbroken flow of attention towards a single point. The
process also includes removing attention from other distractions, as done in
pratyahara stage. It also includes noticing when one has got distracted internally,
by one’s own thoughts and bringing attention back to the focus of attention.
b) Mindfulness Meditation: This ancient meditation from India was
rediscovered and popularised through his teachings by Buddha. In this category
of meditation, we try to keep an open and curious attitude towards whatever is
happening in the body or mind. We remain aware of our thoughts, feelings and
sensations in the present moment. When we notice these without any judgment
or need for control, we can then let them go.
c) Transcendental Meditation: Maharshi Mahesh Yogi is acknowledged to be
the founder of this meditation technique, who developed it in 1958. Here we may
start with silently reciting a mantra, which is usually a short, monosyllabic sound.
However, in the process of meditating, we are supposed to transcend it or go
beyond it.

Other Forms of Meditations

 Japa/ Mantra Meditation: here we repeat a sacred word or phrase (mantra),

either silently or with sound, for a pre-decided number of rounds or for a specific
duration of time. This has components of Dhyana or concentrative meditation.
The focus of attention is on the meaning of the mantra and its sound, and
ignoring both external and internal distractions.
 Yoga Nidra, Shavasana: In these types of meditations, we sequentially relax
our bodies. Additionally, there may be specific visualization included. In Yoga
Nidra, one also attempts to develop a witnessing quality.
 Other Common Meditation Practices: A few other commonly practiced
meditations are related to body or breath, such as scanning the body for various
sensations or focusing attention on one’s breathing. Another type of meditation is
related to Kundalini, where one tries to awaken and uplift the psycho-spiritual
energy in one’s body. Yogasana when done mindfully with rhythmic breaths is a
type of movement meditation, and other such types are the Chinese practices of
Tai Chi and Qi Gong. It may be noted that this is not an exhaustive list, and many
other meditation techniques may also be practised by people worldwide.
However, most meditations may have some or other processes given above, or
even a combination of them (Hussain & Bhushan, 2010).

BENEFITS OF MEDITATION

 There has been an explosion of research on meditation since 1970, using both
psychological and physiological measures.
 These studies have been done in advanced meditations with many years of
practice and novice, beginner meditators.
 Similarly, it has been explored both in healthy populations and those suffering
from mental or physical illnesses.
 In a review of the research (Hussain & Bhushan, 2010), meditation leads to
multiple effects on the autonomic nervous system, slowing heart rate, decreased
oxygen use, and lowered blood pressure.
 Other common findings related to meditation are increased alpha waves in the
brain correlated with deep relaxation and theta waves associated with peace and
blissful feeling, along with reduced activity in the brain’s emotional centres.
 Improved attention, perceptual abilities, learning, memory, emotional maturity,
and resilience also seem to be present.

MODERN PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS INTEGRATING

MEDITATION

 Due to various benefits, meditation has increasingly been integrated with

counselling and psychotherapy over the last few decades.
 It began with Benson’s relaxation response and became popular with Jon Kabat-
Zinn’s Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction Program.
 Subsequently, an entire trend of integrating meditation with modern psychology
started, with examples like MindfulnessBased Cognitive Therapy, Mindfulness-
Based Relapse Prevention etc. (Fjorback & Walach, 2012).
 The classic Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Program is conducted in a group
format across eight weeks.
 One needs to engage in daily individual meditation and other homework for at
least 30 minutes and a weekly group meeting of 2.5 hours.
 In India too there has been a lot of research and application of yoga and
meditation in the health setting (Kumar, Bhide, Arasappa, Varambally, &
Gangadhar, 2021).
 Given the variety of meditation-contemplation and philosophical systems
available in the country with both experts in these systems as well as a population
open to these systems, one may find rich literature in this area.
 Sattva Enhancement Therapy and Sattva Cultivation Program is one such module
developed at National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences, Bengaluru
which integrated yoga psychology and meditation for improving mental health
(Agrawal, 2021).
 It is also important to remember that at the core of these traditions lies the belief
that one can live a life with inner freedom, and it needs to be experienced first
hand and personally.
 UNIT 14

APPLICATIONS OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE–I

POSITIVE SCHOOLING

 Schooling can be considered as the foundation of a child’s life. The type of school,
nature of the teachers in the school, interaction with the school staff, experience
acquired at school – all influence the development of the child.
 A positive school experience facilitates learning, achievement, skill acquisition
and personality development in children; whereas a negative experience at school
hampers proper development of children and leaves them inadequate in their
knowledge and skills.

How do we achieve this positive schooling experience? There are three dimensions to
positive schooling:

 Physical dimension: It includes proper infrastructure in the classroom and

also in the school, proper facilities such as good laboratories, playground,
availability of clean drinking water, sufficient toilets for all, provisions for
children with disabilities and so on. School should have clean and green space
and an inviting, stimulating ambience.
 Psychological dimension: It needs to provide opportunities to promote the
cognitive capabilities and psychological well-being of children. Use of innovative
teaching methods can sustain the interest of children in learning and lead to
creativity in them. Proper disciplinary practices will help children develop self -
regulation and promote their mental health.
 Socio-emotional dimension: The school climate needs to feel warm and
welcoming. Schooling needs to develop self-awareness in terms of their emotions,
attitudes, beliefs and values; and interpersonal skills. It provides various support
services to take care of the emotional and mental health needs of children.
A Whole School Approach

 It proposes to adopt whole school thinking where everyone in school thinks and
acts in terms of ensuring a positive school climate. Promoting mental health and
well-being is everyone’s concern.
 As Weare (2015) puts it, well-being and mental health is “everyone’s business” in
an authentic whole school approach.
 A whole school thinking needs to engage the whole school community and start
with a positive and universal focus on well-being (Weare, 2015). It is
characterized by the following main aspects:
o Engaging students in different aspects of schooling such as learning,
voicing their opinions, decision-making
o Explicitly teaching social and emotional skills, attitudes and values to
students Engaging well-trained teachers and conducting periodic training
of teachers to update their knowledge and skills
o Providing support services and interventions to help students facing
difficulties, disabilities or any hardship
o Engaging parents and families in school activities
o Engaging specialist staff to cater to specific needs of students with
“difficulties”, follow a teamwork approach, and have provisions for referral
service.

CHALLENGES IN INDIAN SCHOOLS

 School education emphasizes more on cognitive development while neglecting

the social-emotional learning and mental health related aspects.
 Krathwohl’s taxonomy of affective domain of learning highlights the need for
focusing on the affective/emotional aspects in any learning context.
 As pointed out by Kuboja and Ngussa (2015), affective knowledge significantly
impacts our cognitive learning. If the child does not see a “need to learn”, then
there will be lack of involvement and lack of motivation to learn.
 There are a number of other challenges faced by our schools which include lack of
infrastructure, lack of facilities, lack of space, student teacher ratio, insufficient
number of teachers, disrespect for teachers, bullying, problem behavior, low
attendance in school, drop out from school, and lack of parent involvement.
 Further, it is an exam-driven system with disproportionate focus on marks. The
school curriculum lacks in practical application and relating to context of the
students.
 Although with the implementation of the National Policy on Education (2020),
learning is expected to have more relevance for students as it will involve
multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches.

APPLYING POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY TO SCHOOLS

 Positive psychology with its focus on bringing out the best in human beings can
transform the school experience of children and enable them to achieve success
and well-being.
 Children and adolescents today are facing lots of stress and anxiety due to the
changing nature of the society, increasing use of media and technology, and
decreasing value systems.

Components of Positive Schooling

 When we apply positive psychology in the school context, we need to ensure that
the foundation of the positive schooling is based on care, trust, and inclusivity.
 Snyder, Lopez, and Pedrotti (2011) have advocated six components of a
positive schoolhouse: foundation level of this house consists of care, trust,
and respect for diversity; first floor consists of plans, and motivation; the second
floor consists of goals; third floor consists of hope; and the roof indicates
contributions to the society. All these six parts together form the structure of the
positive schoolhouse.

Theoretical Models of Positive Schooling

 Two important models among others that inform positive schooling are the
Values in Action (VIA) Classification of Strengths (Peterson & Seligman, 2004),
and the PERMA model of well-being (Seligman, 2011).
 The VIA classification can be considered similar to the classification system of
mental disorders that we have such as, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)
and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD).
 The PERMA model of well-being is given by Seligman (2011) which talks
about five pillars of well-being indicated by the acronym PERMA – Positive
emotions, Engagement, Relationship, Meaning, and Achievement.
 Positive schooling needs to focus on creating opportunities for the child to engage
in each of these aspects.
 Positive emotions refer to the feel good emotions such as happiness, pride, joy
etc.
 Engagement refers to being involved and immersed in an activity so much that
you are in a flow and do not notice the time pass by. Mostly, when one uses one’s
strengths while doing an activity, one feels engaged and in flow.
 Relationships refer to having positive and authentic relationship with others
which acts as an important source of happiness and fulfillment.
 Meaning indicates deriving a meaning and purpose in whatever we do. Living a
meaningful or purposeful life is what makes us go beyond our limited existence
and look at a greater perspective.
 Achievement indicates excelling in any field/aspect or experiencing a sense of
success.

Positive Interventions

 Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs) are characterised as “programs,

practices, treatment methods, or activities aimed at cultivating positive feelings,
cognition, and behaviour” (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).
 Examples of programmes that have been used effectively for meeting the various
objectives of positive schooling include “Bounce Back” programme on resilience
(Noble & McGrath, 2008); Hope-based intervention programme (Marques,
 Lopez, & Pais-Ribeiro, 2011); Positive psychology at school, a school-based
intervention programme (Shoshani & Steinmetz, 2013); The Happy Schools
Project by the UNESCO in Bangkok (UNESCO, 2016); Improving positive
emotions programme (Sanghani, Upadhyay & Sharma, 2013); Promotion of
mental health and psychological well-being programme of NIMHANS (Vranda,
2015); and Happiness curriculum programme by the Government of Delhi.

POSITIVE PARENTING

 Parents always try to give their best for

the proper development of their
children. They want their child to be
happy, healthy, and be successful.
 However, along with having the
intention to see our children flourish, it
is also important to know the strategies
and know-how of achieving that goal.
 Positive parenting refers to the use of
positive psychology principles and
techniques in child rearing practices.
 Thus instead of focusing on what is
wrong in the child, it emphasizes what is
right and good in the child. It also
focuses on the parents themselves –
being self-aware, being mindful, and
learning to see the larger goal of
parenting.
 Listening to the child, understanding the
needs of the child and being a good role
model will help the child feel loved and
confident.
 Four parenting styles namely, authoritarian, authoritative/democratic,
permissive, and negligent/indifferent parenting (Baumrind, 1971; Maccoby &
Martin, 1983).
Mindfulness in Parenting

 Mindfulness refers to awareness of any object, stimulus or experience in the

present moment without passing any judgment on it.
 As stated by Kabat-Zinn (2003, p.145), mindfulness refers to the moment-to-
moment awareness that occurs when we pay attention, on purpose, in the present
moment, and with a non-judgmental attitude towards any stimulus/ experience.
 Usually, we are not aware of our thoughts, emotions and how they impact our
behavior in the present moment.
 There is a habitual pattern, which we may not notice in a given situation. We
function in an autopilot mode.
 Parents need to notice their own thoughts and emotions while interacting with
their child so that they can regulate their behavior for an effective response rather
than reacting to the child.
 Mindfulness helps one to engage in self-regulation (Brown, Ryan, & Creswell
2007).
 Mindful parenting is defined as parents’ abilities to pay attention to their child
and their parenting in a way that is intentional, present-centered, and
nonjudgmental (Kabat-Zinn & Kabat-Zinn, 1997).
 A model of mindful parenting developed by Duncan, Coatsworth & Greenberg
(2009) focuses on mindfulness in the social context of the parent-child
relationship.
 It included the following five dimensions of mindful parenting: (a) listening with
full attention; (b) nonjudgmental acceptance of self and child; (c) emotional
awareness of self and child; (d) self-regulation in the parenting relationship; and
(e) compassion for self and child.
 Various studies have pointed out the benefits of mindful parenting. Parents with
an authoritative or democratic style of parenting reflect mindfulness in their
approach.
 They take cognizance of their own thoughts and emotions in the specific
situation, empathize with the child’s needs, and take action keeping in mind the
larger parenting goals.
WAYS TO PRACTICE POSITIVE PARENTING

 Safe and Stimulating Environment: Create a safe base for the child in which
they can explore, learn and grow. Children need to feel secure so that they can
develop properly. A secure attachment and strong emotional bonds will help the
child deal with any type of developmental challenges. Positive parenting also
ensures to provide such an environment that is stimulating enough for the
optimal development of the child.
 Realistic Expectations: Parents need to have realistic expectations from their
child. It is important to remember that children have their own life and they are
not mere extensions of parents.
 Positive Discipline: Positive parenting does not use discipline in the commonly
used sense, that is, it does not use it in a negative sense such as shouting, physical
punishment, threatening, shaming, blaming etc.
 Rather, it uses positive discipline which includes clear and open communication,
behaving in an assertive manner, and at the same time understanding the needs
of the child and using positive reinforcement.
 Parents exhibit mindfulness in listening to their child and also being aware of the
impact of child’s behavior on themselves.
 Positive discipline as the name suggests, emphasizes the positive aspects of
behavior. It states that there is no bad child, only bad behavior and good
behavior.
 Thus it clearly outlines the good and appropriate behaviours for the child and also
the consequences for showing good or bad behavior. It combines firmness with
loving and empathetic behaviour towards the child.
 Self Care: The main focus in parenting is usually the child. However, parents
also deserve the focus equally.
 Parents need to take care of themselves so that they can be self-aware and
regulate their emotions.
 It will also help them be empathetic, kind and compassionate towards their own
self. Parenting is a round the clock responsibility.
 Parents will always do their best to serve their child’s interests. They need to take
a break for their own sake so that they can meet their child’s needs better.
 UNIT 15

APPLICATIONS OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE–II

CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS

Close relationships are characterized by high levels of:

 Trust: no threat felt with self - disclosure

 Knowledge: mutual understanding of each other’s preferences
 Care: concern and responsibility for each other
 Interdependence: intertwined lives
 Commitment: dedication towards the relationship during good and bad times
 Intimacy: emotional connection and sharing of thoughts, feelings, etc.

Understanding Love

Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love

 A good index of positive functioning in romantically inclined couples was

postulated by Sternberg in the Triangular Theory of Love (Sternberg, 1986).
 According to this theory, a relationship
has three major components: intimacy,
passion, and decision/commitment.
 A number of combinations of these
components gives rise to different
experiences (eg. romantic love is
composed of passion and intimacy),
different importance levels (eg.
admiration for a successful person in your community—infatuation), in different
points in time of our life (eg. a young adult looking for a partner— companionate
love).
 When all the components are expressed, it composes an ideal relationship, the
absence of which may result in an unsatisfactory relationship.
Lee’s Theory of Love
 Lee’s (1977) understanding of love styles was compared to a color wheel, in which
love existed in many styles such as primary, secondary, and even tertiary.
 There are three primary styles: Eros (passionate, romantic love), Ludus (playful
love), Storge (friendship love).
 The secondary styles are a combination of two primary styles: Pragma (practical,
rational love; a combination of Storge and Ludus), Mania (obsessive or addictive
love; a combination of Eros and Ludus), and Agape (altruistic/selfless or
unconditional love; a combination of Eros and Storge).

Understanding Adult Attachment Security

 Attachment is described as a psychological connectedness between human beings

(Bowlby, 1979).
 It has four main characteristics: (a) maintaining proximity with the person, (b)
feeling safe with the person, (c) returning for security to the person, and (d)
anxiety in the absence of the person.
 Observations of Ainsworth (1979) in infant
caregiver relationship correlate with attachment
styles in adults—secure, avoidant, and fearful
avoidant. On similar lines, Hazan and Shaver
(1987) explored attachment in romantic
relationships.
 It was also suggested that adult relationships work
just like children-caregiver relationship, and these
 childhood representations are reflected in the choice of relational experiences.
Brennan, Clark & Shaver (1998) findings suggest that there are two elementary
dimensions of adult).
 One dimension is ‘attachment related anxiety’ and the other is ‘attachment
related avoidance’.
 High scorers in case of anxiety prone attachment are typically worried about
responsiveness, availability, and attentiveness of their partner.
 Low scorers tend to be secure about their partner’s responsiveness. Similarly,
avoidant type attachment is bipolar indicating that high scorers are poorly
adjusted and aloof, compared to low scorers who enjoy the closeness of
relationships.
 An individual scoring low on both these dimensions would be identified as a
secure adult in relationships.

Understanding Friendships

 Friendship is a “voluntary interdependence between two persons over time that is

intended to facilitate socio-emotional goals of the participants, and may involve
varying types and degrees of companionship, intimacy, affection and mutual
assistance” (Hays, 1988).

Oswald (2017) documented four important factors that help to maintain friendships:

o Emphatic happiness— Sharing of good news or positive events

o Availability of social support
o Non-judgemental acceptance
o Quality and quantity of time spent in company

APPLYING POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS

1. Spotting strengths
 Positive psychology urges us to practice the contrary, i.e. to spot strengths in our
relationships. Linley (2008) has defined strength as ‘‘a pre-existing capacity for
a particular way of behaving, thinking, or feeling that is authentic and
energizing to the user, and enables optimal functioning, development and
performance.’’
 Kashdan et al (2018) in their research study involving couples in romantic
relationships reported that partner strength perceptions predicted better daily
relationship satisfaction.
2. Strengths and Fulfilled Dreams Genogram
 Adapted from the family genogram technique (McGoldrick and Gerson, 1985),
this technique is a visual diagram of significant relationships. It reconstructs
positive characteristics and achievements.
 This helps to materialise the unacknowledged traits and past experiences.
Further, it may be used constructively in framing positive inquiry.

3. The Sound Relationship House

 The Sound Relationship House is a metaphorical house of a secure relationship.
Based on decades of research on divorced and sustained marriages, Dr. John
Gottman and Dr. Julie Schwartz Gottman developed the Gottman model (2013).
 They spotted the Four Apocalyptic Horses (a Biblical reference) of marriage that
could destruct a marriage.

They are

 Criticism
 Defensiveness
 Contempt

Stonewalling, or withdrawing from interaction

 These factors are accountable for an obstructed communication pattern which
has to be negated to achieve a flourishing relationship.
 The Sound Relationship House helps to ascertain a developable skill essential to a
healthy relationship.
 Each floor of the house gradually builds into a concrete structure symbolic of a
flourishing relationship.

 Gottman also categorized marital conflict into two kinds: (a) resolvable conflicts,
which eventually get solved over time, and (b) perpetual conflicts, which are the
ones that always exist and require crisis management.
 Positive therapy sourced on this concept was seen to be effective in improving
marital adjustment and couples’ intimacy in 16 couples who were part of a semi
experimental study.
 Similar effectiveness of this therapy was reported in a study of 106 gay and
lesbian couples.

CONTEXT OF FAMILY

 “Familism”, a term used by Bardis (1959) and Sabogal et. al. (1987) connotes a
strong identification with nuclear and extended kin enmeshed with high
cooperation and affiliation.
 Familism typically consists of social norms, personal attitudes, and behaviour
measured by the extent of endorsement of its central components which are:
 o A sense of responsibility towards the family
o Primary emotional support sourced in family
o Interconnectedness among family members
o Considering the opinion of family members during important decisions
o Being considerate of own behaviour to maintain family honour
o Willingly choosing family preferences over individual preferences

CONCEPT OF AGING

Meaning and Types of Aging

 From a biological perspective, aging is deterioration at the cellular and
molecular level in the body.
 Scientific research in this framework has been able to discover ways that alleviate
physical pain or increase longevity.
 The sociocultural factors also determine our mindset about aging. In few
cultures like Japan and India, people of older age are treated with respect and
seen as a symbol of wisdom, while in individualistic societies aging is undesirable
and sometimes viewed as a liability.
 Aging is viewed in terms of psychological changes when we refer to people as
‘being in a mood’, being slow, or being forgetful, or being emotionally needy.
 Gerontological studies have classified age types that are dependent on factors
others than biological aging. Primary aging is understood mostly as biological
aging whereas secondary aging is a byproduct of ‘disuse, abuse, and disease’—
factors that are under personal control of an individual.

Successful Aging

 The term ‘successful aging’ was made popular by Rowe and Kahn (1998) who
defined it based on three factors: a) no disability or disease, b) high cognitive and
physical abilities, c) meaningful socioemotional interaction with others.
 Importantly, they did not reduce aging to simply being a by-product of genetic
factors but rather extended it as a combination of biology and lifestyle.
APPLYING POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FOR SUCCESSFUL AGING

 Positive aging is defined by Havighurst (1963) as incremental longevity and

satisfaction from life. Ryff (1982) similarly defined successful aging as positive
optimal functioning in developmental progress across the life span.

Reducing Ageism

 The negative stereotypes about age are socially constructed such as young people
cannot be leaders, old people cannot be active, etc.
 This eventually translates to devaluation in the society, prejudiced behaviour,
unfair treatment and discrimination based on age.
 This not only has its own negative implications in mental and physical health of
the individual (Stephan, Sutin, & Terraciano, 2015) but also reflects in perceived
change in ‘subjective age’ because of the age related cues and information.
 Levy (2018) has proposed a PEACE model expected to reduce ageism through
positive education about ageing and contact experiences.
 Education about aging with positive older role models would help one appreciate
getting older and dispel myths related to it.
 Positive contact experiences will help integrate the relations between generations
through mutual cooperation, like working together on a social project.
Productive aging

 Productive aging is referred to when older people work to enhance their own
welfare or that of the communities and society at large (Bass, Caro & Chen, 1993;
Ranzijn, 2002).
 Productivity includes goods or services that otherwise would have been charged
for.
 However, it extends to unpaid work, such as intangible contributions like passing
on wisdom, guidance, knowledge, and expertise.
 The idea is to disable the notion of utility confined to capitalistic services and
goods.

Accepting Death Anxiety

 Just talking about death is scary. Inevitably

there is a lot of associated taboo with the
concept of death, and causes apprehension or
dread.
 Occasionally it is normal to feel this, but it
feels more close to reality as we get older.
Especially during old age the apprehension
may develop into an emotional difficulty.
 Wong and Tomer (2011) has suggested that accepting death anxiety as a
paradoxical reality is valuable as it enhances resilience, meaning of life, and
flourishing.
 Positive attitude and meaning centered acceptance about death can contribute to
well-being (Neimeyer, 2005).

Positive health

 Subjective aging can have various psychological and affective implications of

cognition resulting in loneliness, anxiety, fear, depression, disability, and pain.
 This could increase the stress burden, challenge sleep patterns, cause a
motivation, disability, and increase chronic pain.
 Positive intervention help to minimise outcomes like decreasing coping ability,
increased risk of injury, lack of self care, dependence on pain killers, opoid usage,
etc.
 In the framework of positive psychology, several studies have confirmed that
positive psychology can create a fruitful liaison with health management. One
such use is the practice of optimism (Smith & Bryant, 2019).
 Similarly mindfulness meditation has been efficacious in managing lower back
pain, insomnia, poor sleep quality by helping to foster strategies for stress
reduction and slowing biological aging process in the elderly (Hazlett-Stevens et
al, 2019; Black & Slavich, 2016).
 Other positive mechanisms such as creativity (Fox, 2013), hope (Wippold &
Roncoroni, 2020), humor (Morse et al, 2018), self compassion (Kim & Ko, 2018),
spirituality and religion have been found effective in buffering dementia (Agli,
Bailly, & Ferrand, 2015) and positively cope with aging effects.

Positive emotions

 Learning from the socio emotional selectivity theory, positivity bias in the form of
maximisation of feelings of contentment, serenity and happiness helps to regulate
emotions while overlooking criticism.
 So surrounding oneself with enjoyment, jovial people, and cherishing ordinary
everyday experiences (going to a movie, dinner with family and friends) would
invariably enhance wellbeing and life satisfaction.
 In a study of happiness and longevity in Catholic nuns, it was found that even at
80 years of age the most cheerful nuns (based on diary entries at a younger age)
had survival rate of 75% compared to 40 % for the least cheerful group of nuns
(Danner, Snowdon, & Friesen, 2001).
 Conversely, it has been seen that lower level of happiness has been associated
with dementia, lesser social support, dependence, and loneliness (Baltes, &
Smith, 2003).

Active lifestyle

 Staying active doesn’t quite mean to remain physically engaged. Active lifestyle
requires adequate and regular challenge and stimulation that results in a sense of
 fulfilment such as playing card games or regular and enjoyable interaction with
people.
 No one activity is found to be superior to the other to ward off cognitive
impairment (Carlson et al, 2011).
 A study of 397 elderly Koreans aged 65 and over found that only active leisure
activities help the elderly to enjoy their old age by increasing their physical health
compared to passive leisure activities that are enjoyed alone which may impede a
socially-healthy aging process (Chul-Ho, Johnson, & Chulhwan, 2020).
 This study maintained that there was no difference in the forms of leisure
activities.

Religious or spiritual engagement

 Spirituality or religious activity guides the elderly to tap into an active inner
resource and increases coping strategies.
 A quasi experimental study of 60 elderly residents in Indonesia experienced a
higher quality of life after being subject to a purposefully designed religious
intervention (Prammesona & Taneepanichskul, 2018).

Music therapy

 A very common activity like listening to music could have manifold benefits and
is known to boost positive emotions in elderly.
 Music provides people of connecting in their self identity, maintaining wellbeing,
enhancing and expressing spirituality.
 It also helps to maintain positive self esteem, competence, independence, and
avoid loneliness.
 UNIT 16

APPLICATIONS OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE-III

PSYCHOLOGICAL CAPITAL (PSYCAP)

 PsyCap has been formally defined as: “an individual’s positive psychological state
of development and is characterized by:
(1) having confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to
succeed at challenging tasks;
(2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the
future;
(3) persevering towards goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to goals
(hope) in order to succeed; and
(4) when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and
even beyond (resiliency) to attain success
 The four components of PsyCap, also acronymed as ‘HERO’
a) Hope: Hope is defined as a positive motivational state comprising of agency
(goal-directed energy), and pathways (planning to meet goals). People who
are high on hope are likely to have self-directed determination, energy, and
high control over the situation, which would result in the generation of
alternate pathways to reach the desired goal.
b) Self-efficacy: Self-efficacy is one’s conviction about their ability to mobilize
the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to
successfully perform a specific task within a given context. Self-efficacy leads
to enhanced confidence, performance and employee engagement (Pati &
Kumar, 2010).
c) Resilience: Resilience is defined as the capacity to rebound or bounce back
from adversity, conflict, failure, or even positive events, progress, and
increased responsibility (Luthans, 2007). Resilient people have a greater
sense of reality as they are open to new experiences, are flexible to changing
demands, and show more emotional stability when faced with adversity
d) Optimism: Optimism is concerned with the interpretation of events/things
in our lives, and therefore, optimism is defined as an attributional style and is
associated with positive outcomes. However, optimism has to be balanced,
 realistic, and flexible. An over optimistic explanatory will have undesirable
side effects or even dangerous implications because it may lead to higher risks
and underestimation of potential dangers.

FLOW

 Flow is a state of consciousness where people become immersed in an activity and

enjoy it intensely (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997).
 There are three essential components of flow: absorption, enjoyment, and
intrinsic motivation.
 flow can be considered as a short-term peak experience that has integrated
components of absorption, work enjoyment, and intrinsic work motivation
(Bakker 2005).
 Employees in a flow state are fascinated by the tasks they perform, and the
intrinsic aspects of the tasks in themselves are enough to motivate them.
 Flow also refers to one’s intense involvement with the task which would result in
high levels of focus, confidence, and performance (Harris et al. 2017).

MEANINGFUL WORK

 Meaningfulness of work predicts positive workplace outcomes including

organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behaviors, employee
engagement, and job satisfaction (Rosso et al., 2010).
 Meaningful work is defined as workplace characteristics that facilitate the
attainment or maintenance of one or more dimensions of meaning (Fairlie, 2011).
 It is considered as a psychological need that helps to strengthen an individual’s
self-esteem and personal agency (Bailey et al., 2019).
 meaningful work helps achieve a sense of calling and enjoying benefits such as
enhanced motivation, productivity, and well-being.
 Employees who feel their work is meaningful report greater well-being and view
their work as more central and important to their self (Martel and Pessi, 2018).
 a lack of meaningful work has long been recognized as a primary source of
alienation, anxiety, emotional exhaustion, burnout, and boredom in the
organization.
EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT

 Employee engagement refers to an employee’s psychological investment in the

organization.
 However, Harter et al. (2003) felt that employee engagement is not merely
psychological but it is a combination of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral
attachment with the organization.
 According to Gallup (2017), employees’ engagement is the involvement and
enthusiasm of employees in their work and workplace.
 Based on the Gallup Employee Engagement Survey Analysis Tool (ESAT,
Corporate Leadership Council, 2009), engagement can be divided into two
components i.e., emotional and rational engagement.
 Emotional engagement is defined as “the extent to which employees value,
enjoy, and believe in their jobs, managers, teams or organizations”, while
rational engagement has been defined as “the extent to which employees
believe that managers, teams, or organizations have their self-interest in mind
(financial, developmental, or professional)”

WELL-BEING

 There are at least three conceptualizations of well-being: hedonic,

eudaimonic, and social framework.
 The hedonic framework is based on positive affect/ negative affect and life-
satisfaction constructs. According to the hedonic framework, happiness is
cognitive (how satisfied one is from life?) and affective (positive affect versus
negative affect) evaluation of one’s life.
 The eudaimonic framework emphasizes optimal functioning and is measured in
terms of selfacceptance, purpose in life, environmental mastery, positive
relationships, personal growth, and autonomy.
 Social well-being is the third kind of well-being (Keyes,1998) that includes social
coherence, social acceptance, social actualization, social contribution, and social
integration. It reflects how we are functioning with others and how well we are
contributing to the social realm of society.
POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY INTERVENTIONS AT WORK

 Positive Psychology Interventions at work (PPIs at work) are interventions that

explicitly apply the theory and scholarship of positive work and organization
psychologies to guide, plan, design, and/or implement the interventions to
improve personal as well as organizational level outcomes.

Various positive psychology interventions using the strengths of employees

1) Psychological Capital Interventions

PsyCap is the synergistic combination of hope, self-efficacy, resilience, and
optimism (indicated by the acronym HERO). PsyCap resources are malleable,
open to development, and integral to human resource practices. PsyCap
interventions are associated with a variety of work outcomes, including improved
job performance, engagement, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Not only
physical intervention, but even web-based interventions can also develop four
PsyCap resources.
2) Job Crafting Interventions
Job crafting is a proactive process at work in which employees can redesign their
jobs so that they have some control over their work. Job crafting will help
employees to have an optimal fit between job demands and personal resources
such as personal needs, abilities, and strengths. Job crafting interventions have
been found to improve performance, well-being, and work engagement.
3) Employee Strengths Interventions
Character strengths are natural strengths of human being can be defined as trait-
like, measurable qualities that manifest in ways of thinking, feeling, and
behaving. Employees’ strengths interventions apply the theory of character
strengths to the identification, development, and use of strengths for employees.
Values in Action (VIA) inventory was created by Peterson and Seligman (2004)
that can be used to identify and describe the optimal human character strengths.
4) Employee Gratitude Interventions
Gratitude in the workplace is “noticing and appreciating the positive ‘in one’s
work life’ specifically and not in the generic world (Wood et al. 2010). Therefore,
employee gratitude interventions are activities that aim to increase the practice of
gratitude in the workplace. Researchers have used both paper-pencil and web-
 based gratitude interventions at work. Wood et al. (2010) felt that gratitude
interventions are a robust strategy for improving employee job well-being. The
effect of gratitude interventions for desirable work outcomes was found to be
strongest as compared to other interventions such as psychological capital
interventions or job crafting or well‐being interventions (Donaldson, Lee, &
Donaldson, 2019).
5) Employee Well-Being Interventions
Employee well-being involves both generic well-being and work-specific well-
being as discussed. In the context of work, Seligman’s wellbeing theory known as
PERMA (i.e., positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and
accomplishment) has been used widely. Employee wellbeing interventions have
been shown to reduce employee absenteeism and turnover intentions, as well as
improve job satisfaction (Boehm & Lyubomirsky 2008; Layous et al. 2013).