Module 3

SYLLABUS
Location Awareness in Pervasive Computing
Network-centric approaches: Cell of Origin
(COO), Angle of Arrival (AOA), E-OTD (Enhanced
Observed Time Difference), Time of Arrival (TOA).
Handset-centric Approaches: GPS (Global Position
System) Services, GPS Architecture, Algorithms,
DGPS. Hybrid Methods: GPS & Cell ID. Indoor
Locations: Location Based on 802.11, Localization
Accuracy Applications & Services, challenges.
Location Awareness in
Pervasive Computing
 Location Awareness in Pervasive Computing
• Location awareness is one of the most important forms of
context awareness in pervasive computing.
• It enables computing systems to detect, interpret, and respond to
a user’s physical position, thereby delivering personalized,
adaptive, and proactive services.
• In pervasive environments, users are mobile, devices are
heterogeneous, and services must follow the user seamlessly.
• Location awareness acts as a foundation context, upon which
other contexts such as activity, time, and social interaction are
inferred.
 Location Awareness in Pervasive Computing
• Location awareness refers to the capability of a system to
determine the geographic or symbolic position of users, devices,
or objects and to adapt system behaviour based on that location.
• According to pervasive computing principles:
• Location is treated as context information.
• It may be absolute (latitude/longitude) or relative (near, inside,
next to).
• It supports context-driven decision making.
 Location Awareness in Pervasive Computing
Approaches
• Network-Centric Approach - In network-centric approaches, the
communication network itself plays a central role in acquiring,
processing, and distributing location information.
• Instead of relying only on local sensors or device intelligence,
network infrastructure and network services are used to infer
and manage location context.
 Location Awareness in Pervasive Computing
Approaches
• Handset-Centric Approach - The handset-centric approach
places the primary responsibility of location sensing,
computation, and context interpretation on the user’s mobile
device (handset), such as a smartphone or wearable.
• Unlike network-centric approaches, this method relies mainly
on on-device sensors and processing, making the handset an
intelligent, autonomous unit.
 Location Awareness in Pervasive Computing
Approaches
• Hybrid- In pervasive computing, no single localization approach is
sufficient for all environments.
• Network-centric approaches scale well but depend on
infrastructure.
• Accuracy is generally lower than handset-centric approaches.
• Privacy and Security Concerns - Users have limited control
over location sharing.
• Delay - Not ideal for time-critical services.
 Location Awareness in Pervasive Computing
Approaches - Hybrid
• Handset-centric approaches offer high accuracy but drain device
energy.
• Limited Indoor Performance.
• Makes the device heavier, bulkier, and more expensive to
build.
 Location Awareness in Pervasive Computing
Approaches - Hybrid
• To overcome these limitations, Hybrid approaches combine both
handset-centric and network-centric techniques to provide
accurate, scalable, energy-efficient, and robust location
awareness.
Network-centric approaches
 Cell of Origin (COO)
• COO (also called as Cell ID) is a network-centric positioning
technique that identifies a mobile device's location based on the
known geographical position of the cellular base station or "cell"
it is currently communicating with.
• It is considered the simplest localization method because it
utilizes the existing network infrastructure and does not require
hardware upgrades to the mobile handset.
 Cell of Origin (COO)
• Developers often use COO as the default positioning method for
"always-on" applications.
• Since GPS drains batteries rapidly, an application might use Cell
ID to track general movements and only activate the power-
hungry GPS when the user requires high-precision navigation.
 Cell of Origin (COO)
How Cell of Origin (COO) Works
• The location of a mobile terminal is determined by identifying the
specific Base Transceiver Station (BTS) that serves the device.
• This is expressed through four primary network parameters:
• Mobile Country Code (MCC): Identifies the country of the
subscriber.
• Mobile Network Code (MNC): Identifies the specific cellular
operator.
• Location Area Code (LAC): Identifies a cluster of cells within a
network.
• Cell ID: The unique numeric identification assigned to an
individual cell tower.
 Cell of Origin (COO)
How Cell of Origin (COO) Works
The Network Infrastructure View
• The mobile network maintains location data through two primary
databases: the Home Location Register (HLR) and the Visitor
Location Register (VLR).
• When a mobile user moves between areas, the cell notifies the
VLR, which then informs the HLR of the user's new location area.
• If a call or data request is made, the network uses a process called
paging to pinpoint the exact cell the device is in.
 Cell of Origin (COO)
How Cell of Origin (COO) Works
• Paging is a specific type of network query used to locate the exact
cellular base station (cell) a mobile device is currently using.
• This process is typically triggered when the network receives an
incoming call or a data request intended for that specific device.
• Tracking the Location Area: The mobile network does not
constantly track a device at the individual cell level to save
resources.
• Instead, it tracks the device within a Location Area, which is a
cluster of multiple cells.
 Cell of Origin (COO)
How Cell of Origin (COO) Works
• The HLR/VLR Query: When someone attempts to contact a user,
the network queries the Home Location Register (HLR) to find the
current location of the user.
• The Paging Signal: Once the general location area is identified,
the network broadcasts a paging message across all the base
stations within that specific location area.
• Device Response: The mobile device "listens" for this page and
responds to the network, which then pinpoints the exact cell
where the device is located to complete the connection.
 Cell of Origin (COO)
How Cell of Origin (COO) Works
• By forcing the device to identify its serving cell, the network can
provide a location fix based on the known coordinates of that
specific tower.
 Cell of Origin (COO)
Accuracy and Performance
• The precision of COO is entirely dependent on the physical size of
the cell serving the user.
• Urban Environments: Cells are small and densely packed, often
leading to higher accuracy, sometimes within a range of 150
meters or less.
• Rural Environments: Cells are much larger to cover vast
distances, often resulting in accuracy errors of several kilometers
(up to 35 km).
 Cell of Origin (COO)
Accuracy and City Rural
Performance
• Comparison of
Accuracy: In a city
like New York, the
radius of a Cell ID fix
may cover only a few
blocks, whereas in a
rural town, the
radius expands to
cover the entire
municipality.
 Cell of Origin (COO)
Advantages Disadvantages
Energy Efficient: It has no significant Low Precision: Accuracy is measured in
impact on battery life because it kilometers rather than meters in most
relies on standard network signals. rural settings.

Universal Availability: It is available Database Reliance: Requires access to

on the vast majority of handsets, proprietary or crowd-sourced Cell ID
including low-end feature phones. databases to map IDs to coordinates.

Indoor Coverage: Unlike GPS, it Inconsistent: Accuracy varies wildly

works indoors as long as the device between high-density urban areas and
has a network signal. sparse rural regions.
 Cell of Origin (COO)
Examples and Applications
1. Google Maps for Mobile
• Google utilizes its own massive Cell ID database to locate users.
• By capturing the ID of a user’s serving cell and cross-referencing it
with their mapped database, they can provide an approximate
location fix almost instantly, even without a GPS signal.
 Cell of Origin (COO)
Examples and Applications
2. OpenCellID Project
• Since mobile operators often keep their tower locations private
for commercial reasons, the OpenCellID movement uses crowd-
sourcing to build an open database.
• Users contribute location data and cell IDs to create a free
resource that developers can access via public APIs.
 Cell of Origin (COO)
Examples and Applications
• Weather Apps: "Current Location: New York" (City-level accuracy
is sufficient).
• Emergency Routing: Sending emergency calls to the right local
authorities.
• Presence Detection: A smart home system detecting that you
have left your "Home Cell" and arming the security system.
Angle of Arrival (AOA)
 Angle of Arrival (AOA)
• Angle of Arrival (AOA) is a network-centric location sensing
technique used in pervasive computing and cellular systems to
estimate the direction from which a signal arrives at a receiver.
• By determining the arrival angle of signals from a mobile
device at multiple base stations, the user’s location can be
computed using geometric triangulation.

• AOA is widely studied in cellular networks, wireless sensor

networks, and smart antenna systems.
• At least two base stations are required for 2-D positioning.
• More base stations improve accuracy.
 Angle of Arrival (AOA)
How AOA Works in Location-Aware Systems
In a typical AOA-based system:
• Multiple Base Stations (or Antennas) are placed at known,
fixed locations.
• The mobile device emits a signal (such as a radio frequency
signal, Wi-Fi, or Bluetooth signal).
• Base stations or antennas receive the signal and measure the
Angle of Arrival (AOA), which is the angle at which the signal
arrives relative to a reference direction, typically the positive x-
axis or y-axis.
• The location of the device is determined by combining the AOA
measurements from different base stations.
 Angle of Arrival (AOA)
Key Principles of AOA
• Angle of Arrival (AOA): The AOA is the angle between the
incoming signal and a predefined reference axis (usually the
positive x-axis or y-axis).
• Line of Bearing (LOB): The direction of the signal relative to the
base station is known as the line of bearing. It represents a line
extending from the base station in the direction of the signal’s
arrival.
• Triangulation: The intersection of lines of bearing from multiple
base stations determines the position of the mobile device.
 Angle of Arrival (AOA)
Geometry of AOA-Based Location Estimation
• Assume there are two base stations, BS1 and BS2, located at
known coordinates, and a mobile device sends a signal that both
stations receive. Each base station measures the AOA of the
incoming signal.
1. Base Station 1 (BS1) measures the AOA as θ₁, which can be
represented as a line extending in the direction of the mobile
device.
2. Base Station 2 (BS2) measures the AOA as θ₂, producing
another line of bearing.
• The intersection of these two lines gives the (x, y) coordinates of
the mobile device.
 Angle of Arrival (AOA)
AOA System Model (Mathematics)
1. Base Station Coordinates
• 𝑥1, 𝑦1 for BS1
• 𝑥2, 𝑦2 for BS2

2. Angle Measurements (positive x-axis as reference)

• θ1 from BS1
• θ2 from BS2
 Angle of Arrival (AOA)
AOA System Model (Mathematics)
3. Equations of Lines of Bearing
• Each base station measures the AOA, which is translated into a
line equation.
• Equation for BS1 (Angle θ1 ​)
• The slope of the line of bearing from BS1 is: m1 = tan(θ1)

• The line equation from BS1 is: 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = m1(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏)

or equivalently: 𝒚 = m1(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏) + 𝒚𝟏

 Angle of Arrival (AOA)
AOA System Model (Mathematics)
• Equation for BS2 (Angle θ2 ​)
• Similarly, for BS2 : m2 = tan(θ2)

• The line equation from BS2 is: 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟐 = m2(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐)

or equivalently: 𝒚 = m2(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐) + 𝒚𝟐

 Angle of Arrival (AOA)
AOA System Model (Mathematics)
4. Finding the Intersection
• To find the location of the mobile device, we solve the system of
two linear equations:
𝒚 = m1(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏) + 𝒚𝟏
𝒚 = m2(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐) + 𝒚𝟐

• By equating the two expressions for 𝒚, we can solve for 𝒙 and 𝒚,

which gives the position of the mobile device.
 Angle of Arrival (AOA)
Example of AOA Calculation
• Let’s assume we have the following setup:
• Base Station 1 (BS1) is at (0,0) meters and measures an AOA of
30°.
• Base Station 2 (BS2) is at (1000,0) meters and measures an
AOA of 60°.
 Angle of Arrival (AOA)
Example of AOA Calculation
1. For BS1:
• The slope m1 = tan(30°) = 0.577

• The line equation from BS1: 𝒚 = 0.577𝒙

• 2. For BS2:
• The slope m2 = tan(60°) = 1.732
• The line equation from BS2: 𝒚 = 1.732 (𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎)
• or equivalently: 𝒚 = 1.732 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐
Solution (𝒙, 𝒚) = (1500, 866.03) meters
 Angle of Arrival (AOA)
Advantages of AOA in Location-Aware Systems
• High Accuracy: AOA can provide very precise location estimates,
especially in environments where multiple base stations are
available.
• No Need for Distance Measurements: Unlike techniques such as
Time of Arrival (TOA) or Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA), AOA
does not require precise distance measurements or
synchronization between base stations.
• Effective in Line-of-Sight (LoS) Conditions: AOA works best in
environments where the mobile device has a clear line of sight to
the base stations (e.g., outdoor environments, open spaces).
 Angle of Arrival (AOA)
Limitations of AOA
• Line-of-Sight Dependency: AOA is highly dependent on clear,
unobstructed line-of-sight between the mobile device and the
base stations. In environments with obstacles (e.g., indoors,
urban canyons), AOA accuracy can degrade.
• Multiple Antennas Required: To measure the angle accurately,
multiple antennas or a rotating antenna system are often
required at the base stations, which adds complexity to the
system.
• Multipath Interference: Signals can reflect off walls, buildings, or
other surfaces, causing multiple signal paths that distort angle
measurements and reduce accuracy.
 Angle of Arrival (AOA)
Applications of AOA
• Indoor Positioning: AOA is commonly used in indoor positioning
systems, where GPS signals are weak or unavailable.
• Wireless Networks: AOA helps in the placement and optimization
of wireless networks by determining the position of devices
relative to base stations or access points.
• Augmented Reality (AR): In AR systems, AOA can help determine
the precise position of the user for better interaction with virtual
objects.
• Tracking Systems: AOA is used in tracking applications (e.g., asset
tracking, personnel tracking) where precise location information
is needed.
E-OTD (Enhanced Observed
Time Difference)
 E-OTD (Enhanced Observed Time Difference)
• Enhanced Observed Time Difference (E-OTD) is a network-
assisted, handset-based localization technique used primarily in
GSM cellular networks to estimate the position of a mobile
device.
• It works by measuring the difference in arrival times of signals
transmitted from multiple base stations at the mobile handset.
• E-OTD was developed to support location-based services (LBS)
and emergency services in environments where GPS may be
unreliable.
 E-OTD (Enhanced Observed Time Difference)
• E-OTD is a positioning technique in which a mobile device
measures the observed time difference between signals received
from multiple base stations, and the network uses these
measurements to compute the device’s location.

• When a mobile terminal receives at least three signals, the time

differences can be calculated.
• The location is then estimated as the intersection of hyperbolic
curves.
 E-OTD (Enhanced Observed Time Difference)
LMU (Location Measurement Unit)
• Base stations are not perfectly synchronized.
• To fix the clock issue, the network installs a specialized device
called an LMU at fixed locations (often co-located with cell
towers).
• Role of LMU: The LMU knows its own fixed location perfectly.
• It listens to the signals from all nearby towers constantly.
• Calculation: Because it knows exactly how far away the towers
are, it can calculate the exact clock drift (synchronization error)
of each tower in real-time.
• The LMU corrects theses timing errors.
 E-OTD (Enhanced Observed Time Difference)
How E-OTD Works
1. Multiple base stations transmit synchronized signals.
2. The mobile station (MS) measures arrival times.
3. The Observed Time Difference (OTD) between signals is
calculated.
4. Measurements are sent to the Location Server.
5. The network corrects timing errors using Location
Measurement Units (LMUs).
6. Each time difference defines a hyperbola. The intersection of
hyperbolas gives the mobile’s position
7. The device location is then computed.
 E-OTD (Enhanced Observed Time Difference)
Mathematical Concept
Let:
𝑡1 , 𝑡2 =signal arrival times from BTS1 and BTS2
Δ𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
Then:
Δ𝑑 = 𝑐 ⋅ Δ𝑡
where 𝑐 is the speed of light.
Each Δ𝑑 defines a hyperbola.
Intersection of multiple hyperbolas → device location.
 E-OTD (Enhanced Observed Time Difference)
Numerical Example
Given (Base Station coordinates)
• Let three GSM base stations be at known coordinates:
• BTS1 at (0,0) m
• BTS2 at (1000,0)m
• BTS3 at (0,1000)m
• The handset measures Observed Time Difference relative to
BTS1:
• Δ𝑡21 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 1.02075 𝜇𝑠
• Δ𝑡31 = 𝑡3 − 𝑡1 = 0.56940 𝜇𝑠
 E-OTD (Enhanced Observed Time Difference)
Numerical Example
• Take speed of light:
𝑐 = 3 × 108 m/s
• Step 1: Convert time difference to distance difference
• Δ𝑑 = 𝑐 ⋅ Δ𝑡
So,
• Δ𝑑21 = 3 × 108 × 1.02075 × 10−6 ≈ 306.226 m
• Δ𝑑31 = 3 × 108 × 0.56940 × 10−6 ≈ 170.820 m
 E-OTD (Enhanced Observed Time Difference)
Numerical Example
• Step 2: Write the E-OTD (hyperbolic) equations
• Let the mobile be at 𝑥, 𝑦 .

• Distances to base stations:

• 𝑑1 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
• 𝑑2 = (𝑥 − 1000)2 +𝑦 2
• 𝑑3 = 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 1000)2
 E-OTD (Enhanced Observed Time Difference)
Numerical Example
• E-OTD gives:
• 𝑑2 − 𝑑1 = Δ𝑑21 = 306.226
• 𝑑3 − 𝑑1 = Δ𝑑31 = 170.820

• Step 3: Solve (result)

• Solving these two equations gives the handset position:
• 𝑥 = 300 m , 𝑦 = 400 m
• Final location:
• 𝑥, 𝑦 = 300, 400 meters
Time of Arrival (TOA)
 Time of Arrival (TOA)
• Time of Arrival (TOA) is a positioning method in which the
absolute time taken by a signal to travel from a transmitter to a
receiver is measured and converted into distance to estimate
location.

• The basic physics behind TOA is simple:

Distance = Speed x Time
Speed(c): The speed of light (3×108 m/s).
 Time of Arrival (TOA)
Basic Principle
• A signal is transmitted at a known time 𝑡0
• It is received at time 𝑡𝑟
• Propagation time 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑟 − 𝑡0
• Distance is computed using:
𝑑 =𝑐⋅𝑡
where 𝑐 is the speed of light (radio signals).
 Time of Arrival (TOA)
Positioning Mechanism (Trilateration)
• A single TOA measurement only tells you how far away the user
is, effectively placing them somewhere on a circle (in 2D) or a
sphere (in 3D) around the station.
• To pinpoint the exact location, Trilateration is used.
• 1 Tower: The user is on a circle of radius d1 around Tower A.
• 2 Tower: The user is at one of the two points where the circles
from Tower A and Tower B intersect.
• 3 Tower: The user is at the single point where circles from Tower
A, B, and C all intersect.
 Time of Arrival (TOA)
Synchronization Requirement
• TOA demands nanosecond-level clock synchronization.
• Any clock offset introduces large distance errors.
• Example: 1 µs timing error → 300 m position error.

Line of Sight (LOS)

• Requires a clear path.
• If the signal bounces off a wall (Multipath), the travel time
increases, making the distance appear longer than it really is.
 Time of Arrival (TOA)
Advantages of TOA
• High Accuracy: Precise distance estimation.
• Simple Calculations: Uses circles and trilateration.
• Widely Used: Foundation of GPS.
• Scalable: Works over large areas.
 Time of Arrival (TOA)
Problem 1 (Basic : Distance from time)
• A base station sends a signal at 𝑡0 .
• A mobile receives it at 𝑡𝑟 .
• The measured propagation time is:
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑟 − 𝑡0 = 3.5 𝜇𝑠
• Find the distance between the base station and the mobile.
Take 𝑐 = 3 × 108 m/s.
 Time of Arrival (TOA)
Solution
• Convert microseconds to seconds:
3.5 𝜇𝑠 = 3.5 × 10−6 𝑠
• Distance:
𝑑 = 𝑐 × 𝑡 = 3 × 108 × 3.5 × 10−6
= 10.5 × 102
= 1050 m
The distance between the base station and the mobile is 1050
meters (or 1.05 km).
 Time of Arrival (TOA)
Problem 2 (TOA Trilateration: Find 𝑥, 𝑦 )
Three base stations are located at:
• 𝐵𝑆1 (0,0)
• 𝐵𝑆2 (1000,0)
• 𝐵𝑆3 (0,1000)
• A mobile measures the TOA distances (after converting from
time) as:
• 𝑑1 = 500 m
• 𝑑2 = 806.226 m
• 𝑑3 = 670.820 m
• Find the mobile location 𝑥, 𝑦 .
 Time of Arrival (TOA)
Solution
• Use circle equations:
• From 𝐵𝑆1 :
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑑12 = 5002 = 250000 −− − 1
• From 𝐵𝑆2 :
2
൫𝑥 − 1000) + 𝑦 2 = 806.2262 ≈ 650000 −− − 2
• Expand (equation (2)):
𝑥 2 − 2000𝑥 + 1000000 + 𝑦 2 = 650000
 Time of Arrival (TOA)
• From equation (1): 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 250000
• Substitute:
250000 − 2000𝑥 + 1000000 = 650000

1250000 − 2000𝑥 = 650000

−2000𝑥 = −600000

𝑥 = 300
 Time of Arrival (TOA)
• Now use equation (1):
3002 + 𝑦 2 = 250000

90000 + 𝑦 2 = 250000

𝑦 2 = 160000

𝑦 = ±400
• So from two base stations, the two possible solutions are:
(300, 400) and (300, −400)
 Time of Arrival (TOA)
Use the third base station BS3 to remove ambiguity
• Equation for 𝐵𝑆3 (0,1000):
2
𝑥 + ൫𝑦 − 1000) = 𝑑32 ≈ 450000 −−− − 3
2

• We already have 𝑥 = 300. Test both 𝑦 values.

Case A: 𝑦 = 400
3002 + 400 − 1000 2 = 90000 + −600 2

= 90000 + 360000 = 450000

Matches 𝑑32 = 450000.

So 300, 400 is valid.

 Time of Arrival (TOA)
Case B: 𝑦 = −400
3002 + −400 − 1000 2 = 90000 + −1400 2

= 90000 + 1960000 = 2050000

• Does not match.

• So Answer: 𝑥, 𝑦 = (300, 400) m

Handset-centric Approaches
GPS (Global Positioning System)
 GPS (Global Positioning System)
• The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based
positioning technology used to determine the absolute
geographical location of a receiver on Earth.
• Originally developed by the U.S. military in the 1970s(operational
since 1995).
• It provides:
• Precise location (latitude, longitude, altitude)
• Velocity
• Time synchronization
 GPS (Global Positioning System)
• Core Mechanism: Trilateration and Timing
• GPS is fundamentally a Time of Arrival (TOA) system that relies
on a constellation of approximately 31 satellites orbiting the Earth
at programmed altitudes.
• Distance Calculation: The GPS receiver calculates its distance
from a satellite by measuring the time a radio signal takes to
travel from the satellite to the device.
• The formula used is d = time × signal propagation speed.
• Requirement: An unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS
satellites.
 GPS (Global Positioning System)
• Trilateration: By determining the distance from multiple satellites, the
receiver can narrow its position:
• One Satellite: Narrows position to a large area on the Earth's
surface.
• Two Satellites: Narrows position to the region where two spheres
overlap.
• Three Satellites: Provides a 2D position (longitude and latitude)
where three spheres intersect.
• In practice, because the receiver clock has an unknown offset, a
fourth satellite is required to solve for both position and clock
correction.
• Four or More Satellites: Enhances precision and allows for the
determination of elevation or altitude.
 GPS (Global Positioning System)
Technical Performance and Challenges
• While GPS is the most accurate positioning technology available
to general consumers, it faces several operational hurdles in
pervasive environments:
• Accuracy: Under optimal conditions, GPS can pinpoint a
location with a precision of 4 to 40 meters.
• Time To First Fix (TTFF): When a device is first turned on (a
"cold start"), the GPS chip must scan the sky for orbit and clock
data, which can take anywhere from 30 seconds to several
minutes.
 GPS (Global Positioning System)
Technical Performance and Challenges
• Signal Blockage: GPS requires a clear line of sight to satellites.
• Consequently, it is often ineffective indoors, in tunnels, or in
"urban canyons" where signals bounce off tall glass
buildings (multipath deflection).
• Power Consumption: Running a GPS chip is energy-intensive
and can rapidly deplete the battery of a mobile device.
• Vulnerable to jamming/spoofing:
• Jamming - Broadcasting strong radio signals on GPS
frequencies to block GPS reception.
• Spoofing -Transmitting fake GPS signals to mislead receivers.
 GPS (Global Positioning System)
Technical Performance and Challenges
• Signal Weakness: Signals travel approximately 20,200 km.
• Extremely low power on reaching Earth and hence easily blocked by
buildings, tree etc.
• Ionospheric Delay: Upper atmosphere slows GPS signals.
• Tropospheric Delay: Lower atmosphere affects signal speed.
• Depends on: Temperature, Humidity and Pressure.
• Orbital Errors - Small satellite orbit deviations due to gravity.
• Limited Indoor Performance - GPS performs poorly inside
buildings and Underground.
 GPS (Global Position System)
• It is widely used in:
• Smartphones
• Vehicles
• Aviation
• Marine navigation
• Emergency services
• IoT and pervasive computing systems
 GPS (Global Position System)
Applications in Pervasive Computing
GPS facilitates a diverse range of services across various sectors:
• Transportation: Used for vehicle tracking, fleet management, and
real-time traffic reporting. For example, the Shanghai Grid project
used GPS on over 4,000 taxis and 2,000 buses to compute road
congestion status.
• Environmental Monitoring: Sensors equipped with GPS were
dropped by helicopter onto Mount St. Helens to monitor volcanic
deformation.
 GPS (Global Position System)
Applications in Pervasive Computing
• Leisure and Social Networking: Powers applications like Google
Latitude, which allows users to see friends on a map, and
location-based games like Geocaching and GPS Mission.
• Smart Environments: Enables personal devices, such as digital
cameras, to automatically "geotag" photos with the exact location
and time they were taken.
 GPS (Global Position System)
Summary of Attributes
Feature Description
Accuracy High (4m – 40m).

Coverage Global, but limited to outdoor environments.

Cost Free to the user (hardware cost only).

Significant battery drain and poor indoor

Primary Limitation
performance.
 GPS (Global Position System)
Basic Principle of GPS
• GPS works using Time of Arrival (TOA) and trilateration.
Core Idea:
• Satellites transmit signals with precise timestamps.
• GPS receiver measures signal arrival time.
• Distance is calculated:
𝑑 = 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑡receive − 𝑡transmit
• Multiple distance measurements determine position.

• Each satellite defines a sphere (3D case).

 GPS (Global Position System)
GPS System Segments(Architecture)
• The architecture of the Global Positioning System (GPS) is divided
into three main operational components, known as segments.
• Working together, these segments ensure that the system
provides accurate positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT)
globally.

A) Space Segment - This segment consists of the constellation of

GPS satellites orbiting the Earth, transmitting radio signals to
users.
 GPS (Global Position System)
GPS System Segments(Architecture)
• The Constellation: The baseline design requires a minimum
of 24 operational satellites.
• However, the US Space Force typically flies around 31 to 32
active satellites to ensure overlapping coverage and have
backups ready.
• Orbit Type: They operate in Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) at
an altitude of approximately 20,200 km
• Orbital Planes: The satellites are arranged into 6 equally
spaced orbital planes surrounding the Earth.
• Each plane is tilted at an angle of 55 degrees from the
equator.
 GPS (Global Position System)
GPS System Segments(Architecture)
• Orbital Speed: A satellite completes one orbit exactly twice
a day (an orbital period of roughly 11 hours and 58
minutes).
• Purpose of this Design: This specific "birdcage" formation
guarantees that a user anywhere on the surface of the Earth
will have a clear line of sight to at least 4 to 6 satellites at
any given moment, which is the minimum required to
calculate a 3D position and correct clock errors.
GPS (Global Position System)
B) Control Segment
• The Control Segment is the "brain" of the operation. It
consists of a global network of ground facilities that track
the satellites, monitor their transmissions, perform
analyses, and send commands and data back up to the
constellation.
GPS (Global Position System)
B) Control Segment
• It is comprised of three main sub-components:
• Monitor Stations: There are over a dozen monitoring
stations spread across the globe (e.g., Hawaii,
Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Colorado
Springs).
• They passively track the satellites as they pass
overhead, collecting atmospheric data, orbital data,
and navigation signals, which they feed back to the
Master Control Station.
GPS (Global Position System)
• Master Control Station (MCS): Located at Schriever
Space Force Base in Colorado, USA (with an alternate
backup site in California).
• The MCS is the central processing hub.
• It takes the data from the monitor stations,
calculates exact satellite orbits and clock drift
errors, and formats this into updated navigation
messages.
• It is responsible for:
• Monitoring satellite health.
• Correct orbit errors.
• Maintain atomic clock synchronization.
GPS (Global Position System)
• Ground Antennas: These are large radar dishes used
to physically transmit (upload) the corrected
navigation messages, clock updates, and command
telemetry back up to the satellites.
• The satellites then broadcast this freshly corrected
data down to users.
GPS (Global Position System)
C) User Segment – The User Segment consists of the GPS
receiver equipment used by both the military and civilians
to receive the satellite signals and calculate location and
time.
• Passive Operation: GPS receivers are strictly passive.
• They only listen to the radio signals coming from
the satellites; they do not transmit anything back.
• Because of this, an unlimited number of users can
use GPS simultaneously without overloading the
system.
GPS (Global Position System)
• Hardware: A receiver basically consists of an antenna
tuned to the GPS frequencies (L-band), a highly
stable clock (usually a quartz crystal oscillator), and a
computer processor to decode the signal.
• The Calculation: The receiver's processor decodes
the time the signal was sent and the satellite's exact
position in space.
• By collecting this data from at least 4 satellites, the
receiver uses the mathematical process of
Trilateration to solve for its exact Latitude,
Longitude, Altitude, and Time.
GPS (Global Position System)
• Applications: This segment covers everything from
the GPS chip in your smartphone and the navigation
system in a commercial airliner, to precision
agriculture tractors and military smart weapons.
 GPS (Global Position System)
Why 4 Satellites are Required
• 2D Position
• 3 satellites → location
• 4th satellite → clock correction
• 3D Position
• Need at least 4 satellites
• GPS receivers do not have atomic clocks: So one extra
equation is required to solve for: 𝑥 , 𝑦, 𝑧, Clock bias 𝑏
 GPS (Global Position System)
Mathematical Model
• Distance equation:

𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 2 + 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 2 + 𝑧 − 𝑧𝑖 2 = 𝑐 𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑟

(x,y,z) - unknown coordinates of the receiver.

(xi​, yi, zi​) - known coordinates of the i-th satellite at the
transmission time.
𝑏 − Clock bias
• With 4 satellites, solve 4 equations for: (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑏)
 GPS (Global Position System)
Frequency
• Civilian users
• L1 frequency (1575.42 MHz)
• Approximately 4–10 meters accuracy.

• Military
• L1 frequency and L2 Frequency(1227.60 MHz)
• Accuracy - 1–3 meters
 GPS (Global Position System)
GNSS(Global Navigation Satellite Systems) Systems
System Country Status Satellites Coverage
GPS USA Operational 31+ Global
GLONASS Russia Operational 24+ Global
Galileo EU Operational 24+ Global
BeiDou China Operational 35+ Global
Regional (Asia-
QZSS Japan Operational 4+
Pacific)
Regional
NavIC/IRNSS India Operational 7
(India)
 GPS (Global Position System) - Services
1. The Core Functions: PNT (Positioning, Navigation, and Timing)

• Positioning (Where am I?):

• The ability to accurately and precisely determine one's location
and orientation in 2D (Latitude and Longitude) or 3D space
(Latitude, Longitude, and Altitude).
• Use Cases: Surveying, mapping, tracking assets, and basic
smartphone location.
 GPS (Global Position System) - Services
• Navigation (How do I get there?):
• The ability to find your current location and move toward a
chosen destination by adjusting direction and speed.
• Use Cases: Turn-by-turn driving directions, aircraft routing,
maritime autopilot systems.
 GPS (Global Position System) - Services
• Timing (What time is it exactly?):
• The ability to obtain and maintain accurate and precise time
synchronized to a global standard such as Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC) anywhere in the world.
• GPS satellites act as flying atomic clocks.
• Use Cases: It synchronizes cellular networks (like LTE/5G base
stations), financial networks (timestamping high-frequency
stock trades), and global power grids.
 GPS (Global Position System) - Services
2. The Two Levels of Service
There are two distinct types of services from the GPS
satellites, designed for different types of users.
A. Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
• This is the civilian service. It is free, unencrypted, and available
to anyone globally who has a GPS receiver (like your
smartphone or car).
• Accuracy: Typically provides accuracy within 4 to 10 meters
under open skies.
 GPS (Global Position System) - Services
B. Precise Positioning Service (PPS)
• This is the military and authorized government service. It is
highly secure, encrypted, and designed to withstand jamming
and spoofing.
• Frequency: Broadcast simultaneously on both L1 and L2
frequencies.
• Using two frequencies allows military receivers to perfectly
calculate and remove the error caused by the Earth's
ionosphere.
• Accuracy: Extremely high.
• Access: Requires special cryptographic keys loaded into
authorized receivers to decode the signal.
 GPS (Global Position System) - Services
4. Augmentation Services (Enhancing GPS)
Since standard GPS can lose accuracy due to atmospheric
effects and obstructions, augmentation systems are used to
enhance its performance.
• DGPS (Differential GPS): Ground-based stations calculate GPS
errors and broadcast corrections locally over radio waves.
• SBAS (Satellite-Based Augmentation System): Systems like
WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System in the US) or EGNOS
(in Europe) use ground stations to calculate errors, send the
corrections to a geostationary satellite, which then broadcasts
the fix down to user devices (crucial for aviation).
GPS (Global Position System) - Services
• A-GPS (Assisted GPS): Used in mobile phones.
• The cellular network downloads the satellite orbital data via
Wi-Fi or 4G/5G and feeds it to the phone's GPS chip,
drastically reducing the "Time to First Fix" (TTFF) from
minutes to seconds.
DGPS
 DGPS (Differential GPS )
• Differential GPS (DGPS) is an enhancement to the standard
Global Positioning System that significantly improves location
accuracy, taking it from the nominal 5–10 meter range of
standard GPS down to 1–3 meters.

• It works by correcting errors in standard GPS signals using a

reference ground station at a known location.
• Since GPS errors are similar for receivers close together, a
reference station can measure errors and share corrections with
nearby users to cancel out common errors.
 DGPS (Differential GPS )
Standard GPS calculations are subject to several environmental and
systemic errors that degrade accuracy:
• Ionospheric and Tropospheric Delays: As satellite signals pass
through the Earth's atmosphere, they are refracted and slowed
down, causing the receiver to calculate the distance incorrectly.
• Orbital Errors: Slight inaccuracies in the satellite's broadcasted
orbit position.
• Satellite Clock Drift: Minor synchronization errors in the
satellite's atomic clocks.
 DGPS (Differential GPS )
Basic Principle of DGPS
• DGPS uses a reference station placed at a precisely known
location.
• Reference station receives GPS signals.
• It calculates its position using normal GPS.
• It compares calculated position with its true known position.
• The difference = error.
• Correction information is broadcast to nearby users.
• User receivers apply corrections.
Reference Ground Station
 DGPS (Differential GPS )
Errors DGPS CANNOT eliminate:
• Multipath: If the signal bounces off a nearby building right next
to the Mobile User, the Base Station cannot know or correct for
this because it is a highly localized event.
• Receiver Noise: Internal hardware noise specific to the device's
own circuitry.
Hybrid Methods
 Hybrid Methods
• Hybrid positioning is a technique that combines multiple
positioning technologies—typically GPS, Cell ID, and Wi-Fi—to
deliver a location fix that is more reliable, accurate, and cost-
efficient than any single method used alone.
• In pervasive computing, this approach is essential for providing a
seamless user experience across diverse environments.
Hybrid Methods: GPS & Cell ID.
 Hybrid Methods: GPS & Cell ID.
• The combination of GPS and Cell ID is a common hybrid strategy
used to balance the high precision of satellite navigation with the
energy efficiency and indoor availability of cellular networks.
• Battery Management: A major drawback of GPS is its high power
consumption, which can rapidly deplete a mobile device's battery.
• To mitigate this, developers often program applications to use
Cell ID as the default positioning method for general tracking and
only activate the energy-intensive GPS chip when high-precision
navigation is required.
 Hybrid Methods: GPS & Cell ID.
• Indoor and Outdoor Coverage: While GPS provides accuracy
within 4 to 40 meters, it requires a clear line of sight to satellites
and generally fails indoors or in "urban canyons".
• Cell ID, however, works anywhere there is a network signal,
including inside buildings.
• A hybrid system can switch between these methods to maintain a
continuous location fix as a user moves from an outdoor
environment into a covered area.
 Hybrid Methods: GPS & Cell ID.
Assisted GPS (A-GPS): The Primary Hybrid Implementation.
• Assisted GPS (A-GPS) is the most widespread example of a hybrid
method that blends GPS technology with cellular network
infrastructure.
• Mechanism: In this hybrid model, cellular network towers are
equipped with GPS receivers that constantly download and
compute ephemeris data (satellite orbit and clock info).
• When a mobile device needs its location, the network "assists" by
sending this data to the handset via the cellular link.
 Hybrid Methods: GPS & Cell ID.
Assisted GPS (A-GPS): The Primary Hybrid Implementation.
• Performance Improvements: By providing this assistance data,
the hybrid approach shortcuts the satellite correlation process,
reducing the Time To First Fix (TTFF) from several minutes (a "cold
start") to just a few seconds.
• Indoor Accuracy: While standard GPS is ineffective indoors, A-GPS
can often provide a location fix in covered environments with an
accuracy of roughly 20 meters.
 Hybrid Methods: GPS & Cell ID.
Emergency Services: When you dial emergency services, the
phone uses this hybrid method to instantly send a coarse location
(Cell ID) while simultaneously locking onto GPS to send a refined,
highly accurate location seconds later.
 Hybrid Methods: GPS & Cell ID.
Development and Platform Support
• Hybrid methods have become the standard for modern mobile
development, particularly on high-end platforms.
• Smartphones: iPhones and Android phones use hybrid
positioning by default. Their built-in system automatically
switches between GPS, Wi-Fi, and cellular methods using
standard APIs.
 Hybrid Methods: GPS & Cell ID.
Development and Platform Support
• Standard and Feature Phones: On JME/Java platforms,
developers often have to manually implement hybrid solutions—
combining GPS or A-GPS with Cell ID—because relying on a single
technology often fails to meet user expectations for battery life
and availability.
• Reference Databases: To support these hybrid systems, major
companies like Google and Nokia have built massive reference
databases of Cell IDs and Wi-Fi hotspots, often by capturing
location data from their users to correlate these identifiers with
precise coordinates.
 Hybrid Methods: GPS & Cell ID.
Advantages of Hybrid Methods
• Improved indoor availability.
• Faster startup time.
• Better urban performance.
• Reduced battery drain.
• Higher reliability.
 Hybrid Methods: GPS & Cell ID.
Summary of Hybrid Performance Attributes:
Hybrid (GPS & Cell
Attribute GPS Only Cell ID Only
ID)
Low (kilometers
High to Medium
Accuracy High (4m–40m) in rural, 150
(meters)
meters in urban)
Indoor Use Poor/None Good Good

Battery Impact High Low Optimized/Variable

Slow (cold start) at
Fix Speed Instant Fast (A-GPS)
beginning stage.
Indoor Locations: Location
Based on 802.11
 Location Based on 802.11
• Location Based on 802.11, commonly known as Wi-Fi Positioning
Systems (WPS), is a positioning technique that utilizes the radio
signals emitted by wireless routers to determine the geographical
location of a Wi-Fi-enabled device.
• This method has become a prominent alternative and
supplement to GPS, particularly for indoor environments where
satellite signals are often blocked.
 Location Based on 802.11
Core Mechanism and Operation
• The fundamental operation of 802.11-based positioning involves
three primary steps:
• Signal Scanning: When a user turns on location services, the
device searches for nearby Wi-Fi access points.
• Identification: The system identifies the unique ID of the
wireless transmissions from these access points.
• It is a common misconception that encrypted or password-
protected networks cannot be used; the system only
requires the broadcast ID, not access to the network data
itself.
 Location Based on 802.11
Core Mechanism and Operation

• Database Cross-Referencing: The software captures several

signals and compares them against a global reference database
(such as those maintained by Skyhook Wireless or Google) that
contains the precise geographic coordinates of millions of
mapped Wi-Fi hotspots.
• In some systems, location computation and databases are
stored locally on the device.
 Location Based on 802.11
Technical Principles and Implementation
• 802.11 positioning relies on the same geometric principles as cell
tower triangulation:
• Trilateration/Lateration: The system calculates location by
measuring the distance from at least three known reference
points (access points).
• Received Signal Strength (RSS): Distance is typically estimated by
measuring the attenuation of the radio frequency signal.
• By knowing the signal's transmission strength and how it weakens
over distance, the receiver can infer its proximity to the access
point.
 Location Based on 802.11
Technical Principles and Implementation
• Database Cross-Referencing: The device checks the Wi-Fi
networks against a database. If the location of the access point is
known, the system can estimate the user’s position.

• Signal Processing: Accuracy varies based on the signal processing

algorithms used and the density of access nodes, with some
systems achieving precision between 1 to 7 meters.
RSS - Received Signal Strength
 Location Based on 802.11
Accuracy and Performance
• The effectiveness of WPS is highly dependent on the density of
the Wi-Fi environment:
• Urban Environments: High density leads to remarkable
accuracy, often providing a location fix with a precision of 10
to 20 meters.
• Indoor Advantage: Because it does not require a line-of-sight
to satellites, it is the primary method for indoor positioning in
covered areas.
• Fix Speed: WPS provides fast positioning compared to the
"cold start" times required by standard GPS.
 Location Based on 802.11
Advantages Disadvantages
Indoor Functionality: Works inside Battery Impact: While more efficient
buildings and "urban canyons" where than GPS, active Wi-Fi scanning can still
GPS fails. lead to rapid battery drainage.
Database Maintenance: Requires
Urban Precision: Highly accurate in
service providers to constantly update
densely populated areas with many Wi-
hotspot databases as routers are moved
Fi broadcasts.
or replaced.
No Extra User Cost: Access to Wi-Fi Hardware Dependency: Only available
hotspot databases for positioning is on devices equipped with a Wi-Fi radio,
typically provided free of charge to the which mostly limits it to smartphones
subscriber. and laptops.
 Location Based on 802.11
Security Applications: Location-Aware Authentication
• Beyond simple navigation, 802.11 location data is used for
Context-Sensitive Security:
• Access Permission: The system can allow network access only
to devices that are within a certain distance of a wireless
access point.
• Transparent Access Control: This allows businesses, such as
coffee shops, to offer free Wi-Fi exclusively to customers
physically on their premises without requiring complex
passwords or subscriptions.
 Location Based on 802.11
Security Applications: Location-Aware Authentication

• Resource Protection: In corporate environments, access to

sensitive data can be restricted to users within a physical
threshold area to prevent unauthorized remote access.
Indoor Locations: Applications &
Services, challenges.
 Indoor Locations: Applications & Services
A. Wayfinding & Navigation (Indoor)
• Airports & Transit: Guiding passengers from security checkpoints
to specific gates or baggage claims.
• Hospitals: Helping patients and visitors find specific wards, clinics,
or doctors' offices.
• Retail/Malls: Turn-by-turn walking directions to a specific store or
product shelf.
• Corporate Campuses: Helping employees find conference rooms,
cabins, cafeteria etc.
 Indoor Locations: Applications & Services
B. Asset Tracking & Management
Locating physical items in real-time to improve efficiency.
• Healthcare: Tracking high-value mobile equipment (e.g., infusion
pumps, wheelchairs, defibrillators) that often gets "lost" in large
hospitals.
• Warehousing & Logistics: Tracking forklifts, pallets, and inventory
in real-time to optimize storage and retrieval paths.
• Manufacturing: Monitoring the flow of parts through an
assembly line to identify bottlenecks.
 Indoor Locations: Applications & Services
C. Context-Aware Marketing (Proximity Services)
Triggering actions on a user's device based on their precise
location.
• Geofencing: Sending a "50% off" coupon to a customer's phone
the moment they walk into the shoe department.
• Museums & Galleries: displaying information about a painting or
playing an audio guide track automatically when a visitor stands
in front of it.
 Indoor Locations: Applications & Services
D. Safety & Emergency Services
• Evacuation Routing: Dynamic exit signs that change based on
where a fire is located, guiding people away from danger.
• Indoor positioning systems track firefighters inside smoke-filled
buildings, enabling commanders to monitor their location and
respond quickly in emergencies.
• Indoor localization helps emergency teams know the caller’s
exact room and floor.
 Indoor Locations: Challenges
A. Physical Challenges
• Multipath Propagation: This is the single biggest problem. Radio
signals bounce off walls, floors, ceilings, and furniture.
• Result: The receiver hears multiple copies of the same signal
arriving at different times (echoes).

• NLOS (Non-Line-of-Sight): Indoor transmitters (Wi-Fi

routers/Beacons) are often blocked by concrete walls, metal
elevator shafts, or even human bodies.
• Result: Signal strength drops instantly, making the device think
it is far away when it is actually close.
 Indoor Locations: Challenges
A. Physical Challenges
• Dynamic Environments: A room full of people absorbs
significantly more signal than an empty room.
• A system calibrated at night (empty) might fail during the day
(crowded).
 Indoor Locations: Challenges
B. Infrastructure & Cost Challenges
• No Pre-existing Infrastructure: Indoor localization requires the
building owner to buy and install hardware (Bluetooth Beacons,
extra Wi-Fi points, etc).
• Maintenance: Battery-powered beacons die every 1-2 years and
must be replaced.
• Fingerprinting Labour: Systems that use "Fingerprinting" (Radio
Maps) require tedious manual surveying.
• If you move a shelf or renovate a wall, you must re-survey the
entire area.
 Indoor Locations: Challenges
C. Device Heterogeneity
• Wi-Fi and Bluetooth signals may vary because smartphones have
different antenna sensitivity.
• Example: Standing in the exact same spot, a Samsung phone
might read a signal as -60dBm, while a Pixel phone reads it as -
65dBm.
• This 5dBm difference can lead to a 5-10 meter error in
location estimation unless complex calibration software is
used.
 Indoor Locations: challenges
D. Privacy Concerns
• Passive Tracking: The ability to track users' movements within
their private homes or offices raises significant fears regarding
systematic and secret recording of personal behaviour.

• Employees may feel uncomfortable being tracked to the

bathroom or breakroom.
• This raises significant legal and ethical compliance issues.