Calculus I – Logic Exercises

Exercise 1.4.14 – 1.4.24

Duong Thao Ngoc
MSV: 2857010007

Exercise 1.4.14
(a) (∀x ∈ R)(x2 > 0)

• Statement is False.
• Reason: If x = 0, then x2 = 0, which isn’t greater than 0.
• Negation: (∃x ∈ R)(x2 ≤ 0).

(b) (∃x ∈ R)(x2 > 0)

• Statement is True.
• Reason: With x = 1 we have x2 = 1 > 0.
• Negation: (∀x ∈ R)(x2 ≤ 0).

(c) (∃x ∈ R)(x2 < x)

• Statement is True.
• Reason: With x = 12 , then x2 = ( 12 )2 = 14 . We have 1
4
< 12 .
• Negation: (∀x ∈ R)(x2 ≥ x).

(d) (∀x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ R)(x + 2y = 0)

• Statement is True.
• Reason: For all x ∈ R, we always have y = − x2 such that x + 2y = 0.
• Negation: (∃x ∈ R)(∀y ∈ R)(x + 2y ̸= 0).

(e) (∃y ∈ R)(∀x ∈ R)(x + 2y = 0)

• Statement is False.
• Reason: The left-hand side depends on x, so it cannot equal a single constant
(which would have to be 0) for all x.
• Negation: (∀y ∈ R)(∃x ∈ R)(x + 2y ̸= 0).

(f) (∀x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ R)(xy = 0)

• Statement is True.
• Reason: With y = 0, we always have x ∈ R such that xy = 0.
• Negation: (∃x ∈ R)(∀y ∈ R)(xy ̸= 0).

(g) (∀x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ R)(xy = 1)

• Statement is False.
• Reason: With x = 0, there isn’t any value of y satisfying xy = 1, since xy always
equals 0.
• Negation: (∃x ∈ R)(∀y ∈ R)(xy ̸= 1).

(h) (∃x ∈ R)(∀y ∈ R)(xy = 1)

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 • Statement is False.
• Reason: One fixed number x cannot satisfy xy = 1 for all y (the left-hand side
varies with y).
• Negation: (∀x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ R)(xy ̸= 1).

(i) (∀x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ R)(xy = x)

• Statement is True.
• Reason: For all x ∈ R, we always have y = 1 such that xy = x.
• Negation: (∃x ∈ R)(∀y ∈ R)(xy ̸= x).

(d) (∀x ∈ R)(∀y ∈ R)(∃z ∈ R)(xz = y)

• Statement is False.
• Reason: When x = 0 and y ̸= 0, there is no z that satisfies xz = y.
• Negation: (∃x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ R)(∀z ∈ R)(xz ̸= y).

Exercise 1.4.15
(a) (∃x ∈ R)(∀y ∈ R)(∃z ∈ R)(x + y = z)

• Statement is True.
• Reason: Given any x and y, we can always choose z = x + y ∈ R.
• Negation: (∀x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ R)(∀z ∈ R)(x + y ̸= z).

(b) (∃x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ R)(∀z ∈ R)(x + y = z)

• Statement is False.
• Reason: If x and y are fixed numbers, x + y is a fixed number. It cannot equal
every real z.
• Negation: (∀x ∈ R)(∀y ∈ R)(∃z ∈ R)(x + y ̸= z).

(c) (∀x ∈ R)(∀y ∈ R)(∃z ∈ R)(y − z = x)

• Statement is True.
• Reason: Given x and y, we always have z = y − x ∈ R.
• Negation: (∃x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ R)(∀z ∈ R)(y − z ̸= x).

(e) (∃x ∈ R)(∀y ∈ R)(∃z ∈ R)(z > y =⇒ z > x + y)

• Statement is True.
• Reason: We can choose a fixed x, say x = 1. Given any y, we always find z > y
such that z > x + y. (e.g., z = x + y + 1).
• Negation: (∀x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ R)(∀z ∈ R)(¬(z > y) ∨ ¬(z > x + y)) or (∀x ∈
R)(∃y ∈ R)(∀z ∈ R)(z > y ∧ z ≤ x + y).

(f) (∀x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ R)(∃z ∈ R)(z > y =⇒ z > x + y)

• Statement is True.
• Reason: For any fixed x, we only need to find y to complete the implication and
make the implication true. The implication P =⇒ Q is true whenever P is false.
So we can take y = z.
• Negation: (∃x ∈ R)(∀y ∈ R)(∀z ∈ R)(z > y ∧ z ≤ x + y).

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Exercise 1.4.16
(a) Injective and Not Injective

• A function f : A → B is injective if: (∀x ∈ A)(∀y ∈ A)(f (x) = f (y) =⇒ x =

y).
• A function f : A → B is not injective if: (∃x ∈ A)(∃y ∈ A)(f (x) = f (y)∧x ̸= y).

(b) Even and Not Even

• A function f : D → R is even if: (∀x ∈ D)(f (−x) = f (x)).

• A function f : D → R is not even if: (∃x ∈ D)(f (−x) ̸= f (x)).

(c) Increasing and Not Increasing

• A function f : D → R is called increasing if: (∀x ∈ D)(∀y ∈ D)(x ≤ y =⇒

f (x) ≤ f (y)).
• A function f : D → R is called not increasing if: (∃x ∈ D)(∃y ∈ D)(x ≤
y ∧ f (x) > f (y)).

(d) Strictly Increasing and Not Strictly Increasing

• A function f : D → R is called strictly increasing if: (∀x ∈ D)(∀y ∈ D)(x <

y =⇒ f (x) < f (y)).
• A function f : D → R is called not strictly increasing if: (∃x ∈ D)(∃y ∈
D)(x < y ∧ f (x) ≥ f (y)).

(e) Bounded and Not Bounded

• A function f : D → R is called bounded if: (∃M ∈ R)(∀x ∈ D)(|f (x)| ≤ M ).

• A function f : D → R is called not bounded if: (∀M ∈ R)(∃x ∈ D)(|f (x)| >
M ).

(f) Lipschitz and Not Lipschitz

• A function f : D → R is called Lipschitz if: (∃L ∈ R)(∀x ∈ D)(∀y ∈ D)(|f (x) −

f (y)| ≤ L|x − y|).
• A function f : D → R is called not Lipschitz if: (∀L ∈ R)(∃x ∈ D)(∃y ∈
D)(|f (x) − f (y)| > L|x − y|).

(g) Continuous at x0 and Not Continuous at x0

• A function f : D → R is called continuous at x0 ∈ D if: (∀ε > 0)(∃δ > 0)(∀x ∈

D)(|x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (x0 )| < ε).
• A function f : D → R is called not continuous at x0 ∈ D if: (∃ε > 0)(∀δ >
0)(∃x ∈ D)(|x − x0 | < δ ∧ |f (x) − f (x0 )| ≥ ε).

(h) Uniformly Continuous and Not Uniformly Continuous

• A function f : D → R is called uniformly continuous on D if: (∀ε > 0)(∃δ >

0)(∀x ∈ D)(∀y ∈ D)(|x − y| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (y)| < ε).
• A function f : D → R is called not uniformly continuous on D if: (∃ε >
0)(∀δ > 0)(∃x ∈ D)(∃y ∈ D)(|x − y| < δ ∧ |f (x) − f (y)| ≥ ε).

(i) Limit of a function

• A number L is the limit of a function f : D → R as x tends to x0 if:

(∀ε > 0)(∃δ > 0)(∀x ∈ D)(0 < |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε)

• A number L is not the limit of a function f : D → R as x tends to x0 if:

(∃ε > 0)(∀δ > 0)(∃x ∈ D)(0 < |x − x0 | < δ ∧ |f (x) − L| ≥ ε)

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Exercise 1.4.17: Relations on Sets
(a) X = R, xRy ⇐⇒ x ≤ y

• Reflexive: x ≤ x. True. R is reflexive.

• Symmetric: x ≤ y =⇒ y ≤ x. This is false (e.g., 1 ≤ 2 but 2 ̸≤ 1). R is not
symmetric.
• Transitive: x ≤ y and y ≤ z =⇒ x ≤ z. True. R is transitive.
• Conclusion: R is reflexive and transitive, but not symmetric. Hence, R is not
an equivalence relation.

(b) X = R, xRy ⇐⇒ |x| = |y|

• Reflexive: |x| = |x|. True. R is reflexive.

• Symmetric: If |x| = |y|, then |y| = |x|. True. R is symmetric.
• Transitive: If |x| = |y| and |y| = |z|, then |x| = |z|. True. R is transitive.
• Conclusion: R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Hence, R is an equiva-
lence relation.

(c) X = Z, xRy ⇐⇒ x | y

• Reflexive: For every x ∈ Z, x | x. True. R is reflexive.

• Symmetric: It requires x | y =⇒ y | x. Take an example: 2 | 4 is true but 4 | 2
is false. R is not symmetric.
• Transitive: If x | y and y | z, then x | z. True. R is transitive.
• Conclusion: R is reflexive and transitive, but not symmetric. Hence, R is not
an equivalence relation.

(d) X = R, xRy ⇐⇒ x2 = y 2

• Reflexive: For all x, x2 = x2 . True. R is reflexive.

• Symmetric: If x2 = y 2 , then y 2 = x2 . True. R is symmetric.
• Transitive: If x2 = y 2 and y 2 = z 2 , then x2 = z 2 . True. R is transitive.
• Conclusion: R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Hence, R is an equiva-
lence relation.

Exercise 1.4.18
On the set of integers Z, define a relation R by xRy ⇐⇒ 2 | (x + y) for all x, y ∈ Z.

(a) Find five distinct numbers y such that 2Ry ⇐⇒ 2 | (2 + y). We need to find
values of y such that 2 + y is even, thus y is also even. Choose five numbers:

• y = 0: 2 + 0 = 2 is divisible by 2.
• y = 2: 2 + 2 = 4 is divisible by 2.
• y = 4: 2 + 4 = 6 is divisible by 2.
• y = 6: 2 + 6 = 8 is divisible by 2.
• y = 8: 2 + 8 = 10 is divisible by 2.

Therefore, each of these numbers is related by R to the number 2.

(b) Find the equivalence class [1].

[1] = {y ∈ Z | 2 | (1 + y)}

Suppose y ∈ [1], then (1 + y) is even, which means y must be odd. Therefore:

[1] = {. . . , −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . } = the set of all odd integers.

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 (c) Prove that R is an equivalence relation on Z.
• Reflexive: For every x ∈ Z we have x + x = 2x, which is divisible by 2. Thus,
xRx and R is reflexive.
• Symmetric: If xRy, then 2 | (x + y). Since x + y = y + x, 2 | (y + x). Thus,
yRx, and R is symmetric.
• Transitive: If xRy and yRz, then 2 | (x + y) and 2 | (y + z).
(x + y) + (y + z) = x + 2y + z = (x + z) + 2y
Since 2 | (x + y) and 2 | (y + z), then 2 | ((x + y) + (y + z)). Since 2 | 2y, we must
have 2 | (x + z). Thus, xRz, and R is transitive.
Conclusion: We’ve shown that R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Hence, R is
an equivalence relation.
(d) Determine the quotient set Z/R. From (b) we know that [1] is the set of all odd
integers. Similarly, for x = 0:
[0] = {y ∈ Z | 2 | (0 + y)} = {y ∈ Z | y is even}
The set of all even integers. Let x ∈ Z. If x is even, then [x] = [0]. If x is odd, then
[x] = [1]. Therefore, there are two equivalence classes. Hence, the quotient set is:
Z/R = {[0], [1]}

Exercise 1.4.19
Let ∼ be a relation on Q defined by a ∼ b ⇐⇒ a − b ∈ Z for all a, b ∈ Q.
(a) Prove that ∼ is an equivalence relation on Q.
• Reflexive: For every a ∈ Q, a − a = 0 ∈ Z. Thus, a ∼ a, and ∼ is reflexive.
• Symmetric: If a ∼ b, then a − b ∈ Z. Let a − b = k where k ∈ Z. Then
b − a = −k. Since −k ∈ Z, b ∼ a. Thus, ∼ is symmetric.
• Transitive: If a ∼ b and b ∼ c, then a − b ∈ Z and b − c ∈ Z. Let a − b = k and
b − c = l where k, l ∈ Z. Then a − c = (a − b) + (b − c) = k + l. Since k + l ∈ Z,
a ∼ c. Thus, ∼ is transitive.
Conclusion: We’ve shown that R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Hence, R is
an equivalence relation.
(b) Prove that [ 75 ] = {m + 5
7
| m ∈ Z}.
• Assume x ∈ [ 75 ]. By definition, x ∈ Q and x − 5
7
∈ Z. Therefore, there exists
m ∈ Z such that x − 75 = m.
5
⇐⇒ x = m +
7
Thus, [ 57 ] ⊆ {m + 5
7
| m ∈ Z}. (1)
• Assume y ∈ {m + 57 | m ∈ Z}. We have y = m + 75 for some m ∈ Z. Thus,
y − 57 = m. Since m ∈ Z, y ∼ 75 . Therefore, y ∈ [ 57 ]. Thus, {m + 75 | m ∈ Z} ⊆ [ 75 ].
(2)
Conclusion: From (1) and (2), we are allowed to conclude that [ 57 ] = {m + 5
7
| m ∈ Z}.
(c) If a ∈ Z, find the equivalence class of a.
Let a ∈ Z. By definition we have:
[a] = {x ∈ Q | x − a ∈ Z}
If x ∈ [a], then x − a = k for some k ∈ Z. Thus x = a + k. Since a ∈ Z and k ∈ Z,
x ∈ Z. Therefore, [a] ⊆ Z. Conversely, with b ∈ Z, we have b − a ∈ Z (since b and a
are integers). Thus b ∼ a, so b ∈ [a]. Therefore, Z ⊆ [a]. Conclusion: From what
we’ve shown, [a] = Z.

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 (d) If a ∈ Z, prove that there exists a bijection from [a] onto [ 57 ]. Since [a] = Z
(from part c) and [ 57 ] = {m + 75 | m ∈ Z}, we need to prove that there exists a bijection
from Z onto {m + 57 | m ∈ Z}. Define the function f : Z → [ 57 ] by:

5
f (m) = m +
7
• Injective: Suppose f (m1 ) = f (m2 ). Then m1 + 57 = m2 + 57 . Subtracting 5
7
from
both sides gives m1 = m2 . Thus f is injective.
• Surjective: By the definition of [ 57 ], every element y ∈ [ 57 ] is of the form m + 57
for some m ∈ Z. Thus, for every y ∈ [ 75 ], there exists an element m ∈ Z such that
f (m) = y. Thus f is surjective.

Hence, f is a bijection from [a] onto [ 57 ].

Exercise 1.4.20
On R define a relation ∼ by x ∼ y ⇐⇒ x − y ∈ Q for all x, y ∈ R.

(a) Prove that ∼ is an equivalence relation on R.

• Reflexive: For every x ∈ R, x − x = 0. Since 0 ∈ Q, x ∼ x. Thus, ∼ is reflexive.

• Symmetric: If x ∼ y, then x − y ∈ Q. If x − y = r ∈ Q, then y − x = −r. Since
−r ∈ Q, y ∼ x. Thus, ∼ is symmetric.
• Transitive: If x ∼ y and y ∼ z, then x − y ∈ Q and y − z ∈ Q. Let x − y = r1
and y − z = r2 where r1 , r2 ∈ Q. Then x − z = (x − y) + (y − z) = r1 + r2 . Since
r1 + r2 ∈ Q, x ∼ z. Thus, ∼ is transitive.

Conclusion: We’ve shown that R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Hence, R is

an equivalence relation.
√
(b) Find five distinct elements of the equivalence class of 2. By definition:
√ √
[ 2] = {x ∈ R | x − 2 ∈ Q}
√ √
This means x − 2 is a rational number, r. Thus x = r + 2. Let’s take rational
numbers r = 0, 1, 21 , 23 , 34 :
√ √
• x=0+ 2= 2
√
• x=1+ 2
√
• x = 21 + 2
√
• x = 32 + 2
√
• x = 43 + 2
√
Therefore, each of these are elements of [ 2].

(c) If a ∈ Q, find the equivalence class of a. Let a ∈ Q. By definition we have:

[a] = {x ∈ R | x − a ∈ Q}

If x ∈ [a], then x − a = r for some r ∈ Q. Thus x = a + r. Since a ∈ Q and r ∈ Q,

x ∈ Q. Thus, [a] ⊆ Q. Conversely, with b ∈ Q, we have b − a ∈ Q (since b and a are
rational). Thus b ∼ a, so b ∈ [a]. Therefore, Q ⊆ [a]. Conclusion: From what we’ve
shown, [a] = Q.
√ √
(d) Prove that [ 2] = {r + 2 | r ∈ Q}.

Proof.
√ √ √ √
Show
√ [ 2] ⊆ {r + 2 | r ∈ Q}: Let x
√ ∈ [ 2]. By definition,
√ x − 2 ∈ Q. Let
x − 2 = r, where r ∈ Q. Then x = r + 2. Thus x ∈ {r + 2 | r ∈ Q}.

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 √ √ √ √
Show {r + 2 | r√∈ Q} ⊆ [ 2]: Let y ∈ {r +
√ 2 | r ∈ Q}. Then
√ y = r + 2 for some
r ∈ Q. Then y − 2 = r. Since r ∈ Q, y ∼ 2. Thus y ∈ [ 2].
√ √
From both inclusions, we conclude that [ 2] = {r + 2 | r ∈ Q}.
√
(e) If a ∈ Q, prove that√ there exists√ a bijection from [a] to [ 2]. Since [a] = Q
(from part c) and [ 2] = {r √ + 2 | r ∈ Q}, we need to prove that√there exists a
bijection from Q onto {r + 2 | r ∈ Q}. Define the function g : Q → [ 2] by:
√
g(r) = r + 2
√ √ √
• Injective: Suppose g(r1 ) = g(r2 ). Then r1 + 2 = r2 + 2. Subtracting 2
from both sides gives r1 = r2 . Thus g is injective.
√
• Surjective: By √ element y ∈ [ 2] is
the definition established in part (d), every√
of the form r + 2 for some r ∈ Q. Thus, for every y ∈ [ 2], there exists an
element r ∈ Q such that g(r) = y. Thus g is surjective.
√
Hence, g is a bijection from [a] onto [ 2].

Exercise 1.4.21
• Equivalence relation:

– Reflexive: For all x ∈ Z, x2 − x2 = 0, which is divisible by 4. Thus x2 ≡ x2

(mod 4), so xRx. Hence, R is reflexive.
– Symmetric: If xRy, then x2 ≡ y 2 (mod 4). This is equivalent to y 2 ≡ x2
(mod 4). Thus yRx. Hence, R is symmetric.
– Transitive: If xRy and yRz, then x2 ≡ y 2 (mod 4) and y 2 ≡ z 2 (mod 4). This
implies x2 ≡ z 2 (mod 4). Thus xRz. Hence, R is transitive.

Conclusion: R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, hence R is an equivalence

relation on Z.

• Quotient set: The possible remainders when dividing x2 by 4 are 0 or 1 (from Exercise
1.4.11(c)).

– x is even (x ≡ 0 or 2 (mod 4)) =⇒ x2 ≡ 0 (mod 4).

– x is odd (x ≡ 1 or 3 (mod 4)) =⇒ x2 ≡ 1 (mod 4).

The equivalence classes are:

– [0] = {x ∈ Z | x2 ≡ 0 (mod 4)} = the set of all even integers.

– [1] = {x ∈ Z | x2 ≡ 1 (mod 4)} = the set of all odd integers.

Hence, the quotient set is Z/R = {[0], [1]}.

Exercise 1.4.22
(a) Prove that R is an equivalence relation on R2 .

• Reflexive: For all (a, b) ∈ R2 : b − a2 = b − a2 . Thus (a, b)R(a, b). R is reflexive.

• Symmetric: If (a, b)R(c, d), then b − a2 = d − c2 . This implies d − c2 = b − a2 .
Thus (c, d)R(a, b). R is symmetric.
• Transitive: If (a, b)R(c, d) and (c, d)R(e, f ), then b − a2 = d − c2 and d − c2 =
f − e2 . This implies b − a2 = f − e2 . Thus (a, b)R(e, f ). R is transitive.

Conclusion: R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Hence, R is an equivalence

relation on R2 .

(b) Find the equivalence classes [(0, 0)] and [(4, 2)]. The equivalence class [(a, b)] is
the set of all (x, y) ∈ R2 such that (x, y)R(a, b), which means y − x2 = b − a2 .

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 • For [(0, 0)]: b − a2 = 0 − 02 = 0.

[(0, 0)] = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | y − x2 = 0} = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | y = x2 }

This is the set of points on the parabola y = x2 .

• For [(4, 2)]: b − a2 = 2 − 42 = 2 − 16 = −14.

[(1, 2)] = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | y − x2 = 2 − 12 } = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | y − x2 = 1}

Exercise 1.4.23
(a) Does (3, 6) bear the relation R to (7, 10)? We check the condition a + d = b + c:

3 + 10 = 13 and 6 + 7 = 13

Since 13 = 13, (3, 6)R(7, 10) is True.

(b) Does (1, 1) bear the relation R to (3, 5)? We check the condition a + d = b + c:

1 + 5 = 6 and 1 + 3 = 4

Since 6 ̸= 4, (1, 1) doesn’t bear the relation R to (3, 5).

(c) Prove that R is an equivalence relation on X.

• Reflexive: For (a, b) ∈ X: a + b = b + a. Thus (a, b)R(a, b). R is reflexive.

• Symmetric: If (a, b)R(c, d), then a+d = b+c. This is equivalent to c+b = d+a.
Thus (c, d)R(a, b). R is symmetric.
• Transitive: If (a, b)R(c, d) and (c, d)R(e, f ), then a + d = b + c and c + f = d + e.
We rearrange the equations: a − b = c − d and c − d = e − f . This implies
a − b = e − f , or a + f = b + e. Thus (a, b)R(e, f ). R is transitive.

Conclusion: R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Hence, R is an equivalence

relation. (Note: This relation essentially groups pairs (a, b) based on the difference
a − b).

(d) List five elements in each of the following equivalence classes:

• [(1, 1)]: a + d = b + c =⇒ a + d = 1 + c.

[(1, 1)] = {(a, b) ∈ X | a − b = 1 − 1 = 0} = {(a, a) | a ∈ N}

Five elements: (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5).
• [(2, 1)]: a + d = b + c =⇒ a + d = 1 + c.

[(2, 1)] = {(a, b) ∈ X | a − b = 2 − 1 = 1} = {(2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 3), (5, 4), (6, 5)}

(The image has (0, 1) which is not in N × N if N = {1, 2, . . . }).

• [(1, 2)]: a + d = b + c =⇒ a + d = 2 + c.

[(1, 2)] = {(a, b) ∈ X | a − b = 1 − 2 = −1} = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5), (5, 6)}

(The image has (0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), . . . which are not in N × N).
• [(5, 12)]: a + d = b + c =⇒ a + d = 12 + c.

[(5, 12)] = {(a, b) ∈ X | a−b = 5−12 = −7} = {(1, 8), (2, 9), (3, 10), (4, 11), (5, 12)}

(Assuming N = {1, 2, 3, . . . }).

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Exercise 1.4.24
(a) Does (1, 5) bear the relation R to (−3, 15)? We check the condition ad = bc:

1 · (−15) = −15 and 5 · (−3) = −15

Since −15 = −15, (1, 5)R(−3, 15) is True.

(b) Does (−1, 4) bear the relation R to (2, 3)? We check the condition ad = bc:

(−1) · 3 = −3 and 4 · 2 = 8

Since −3 ̸= 8, (−1, 4) doesn’t bear the relation R to (2, 3).

(c) Prove that R is an equivalence relation on X.

• Reflexive: For (a, b) ∈ X: ab = ba. Thus (a, b)R(a, b). R is reflexive.

• Symmetric: If (a, b)R(c, d), then ad = bc. This implies cb = da. Thus
(c, d)R(a, b). R is symmetric.
• Transitive: If (a, b)R(c, d) and (c, d)R(e, f ), then ad = bc and cf = de. Since
b ̸= 0 and d ̸= 0, we can write ab = dc and dc = fe . This implies ab = fe , or af = be.
Thus (a, b)R(e, f ). R is transitive.

Conclusion: R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Hence, R is an equivalence

relation on X. (Note: This relation partitions X into sets of pairs that represent the
same rational number ab ).

(d) List five elements in each of the following equivalence classes:

• [(1, 1)]: a
b
= 1
1
= 1. a = b.

[(1, 1)] = {(a, b) ∈ X | a = b}

Five elements: (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (−1, −1), (4, 4).
• [(0, 1)]: a
b
= 0
1
= 0. a = 0.

[(0, 1)] = {(a, b) ∈ X | a = 0}

Five elements: (0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (0, −1), (0, 4).
• [(2, 1)]: a
b
= 2
1
= 2. a = 2b.

[(2, 1)] = {(a, b) ∈ X | a = 2b}

Five elements: (2, 1), (4, 2), (6, 3), (−2, −1), (8, 4).
• [(2, 3)]: a
b
= 23 . 3a = 2b.

[(2, 3)] = {(a, b) ∈ X | 3a = 2b}

Five elements: (2, 3), (4, 6), (6, 9), (−2, −3), (8, 12).