Textile Testing
Linear Density or Count of Yarn
• Definition: Fineness of yarn expressed as linear density or yarn count.
• Purpose: Helps determine yarn thickness and weight per unit length.
Systems for Yarn Count
1. Direct System (Weight per unit length)
• Tex: Weight in grams of 1000 m (1 km) yarn.
• Denier: Weight in grams of 9000 m (9 km) yarn.
• lb/spindle: Weight in pounds of 1 spindle (14,400 yards) yarn.
2. Indirect System (Length per unit weight)
• English Count (Ne): Number of 840 yd yarns in 1 lb.
• Metric Count (Nm): Number of 1 km yarns in 1 kg.
• French Count (Nf): Number of 1 km yarns in 0.5 kg.
Determination of Yarn Count
• Method: Measure weight of a known length of yarn.
• Tool: Wrap-reel used to take precise lengths.
• Balance: Quadrant balance or Beesley’s balance; accuracy 0.001 mg.
• Requirement for spinners: Maintain average count and count variation within control.
Count Variation (C.V. %)
• Measures variation in weight of a lea.
• Depends on number of samples and length considered.
• Adequate number of leas must be tested.
• Yarn is conditioned in standard atmosphere before weighing.
• Minimum samples: 20 per count, 2 per machine.
Abrasion Resistance
What is Abrasion?
• Physical destruction of fibres, yarns, or fabrics due to rubbing.
• Caused by friction between fabric and body, other fabrics, or surfaces.
When Does Abrasion Occur?
• During wearing, due to contact with body or other surfaces.
• During washing, when fabrics rub against each other.
Effects of Abrasion on Fabric
• Formation of pills on the surface.
• Color fading.
• Change in appearance.
• Reduced strength and weight.
Fabrics/Areas Most Affected
• Neck, collar, cuff, pockets.
• Carpets, bed sheets, socks, sweaters.
Types of Abrasion
1. Plane/Flat Abrasion: Flat surface rubbing (e.g., bed sheet, body-contact areas).
2. Flex Abrasion: Rubbing with bending or folding (e.g., knee area).
3. Edge Abrasion: Occurs at folds, hems, pleats, cuffs, collars, pocket edges.
Abrasion Resistance
• Definition: Ability of a fabric to resist damage from abrasion.
• Effect: Fibres with poor resistance wear down, weaken, and show wear signs.
• Good resistance: Nylon, wool.
• Low resistance: Cotton.
Factors Affecting Abrasion Resistance
1. Fibre Properties
• Fibre type, length, fineness.
2. Yarn Properties
• Yarn count, twist, hairiness, structure.
3. Fabric Properties
• Fabric structure, knit/woven type.
• GSM (weight), thickness, thread density, crimp.
Test Methods
• Instrument: Martindale Abrasion & Pilling Device.
• Specimens: 4 pieces, 38 mm diameter, mounted on holders with foam backing.
• Abradant: Emery paper or standard abrasive fabric.
• Pressure: Standard weight to give 12 kPa (or 9 kPa if specified).
• Procedure: Abrade until two threads break; record cycles to breakdown for each specimen.
• Assessment: Average cycles of all four specimens reported.
Principle of Measurement
• Weight or Strength Loss:
[
\text{Loss (%)} = \frac{A - B}{A} \times 100
]
Where:
• (A) = weight/strength before abrasion
• (B) = weight/strength after abrasion
Points to Consider / Test Factors
• Condition of specimen: Standard testing atmosphere.
• Instrument choice and abrasive motion.
• Direction of abrasion and pressure applied.
• Choice of abradant and backing material.
• Specimen cleanliness and tension.
• End point: When two threads are broken.
Permeability
• Definition: Rate at which gas or liquid passes through a porous medium.
• Fabric permeability: Ability of a textile to allow air, water, or vapor to pass and desorb into a
medium.
• Purpose: Ensures comfort in clothing by allowing air, moisture, and vapor transfer.
Types of Permeability
1. Air permeability – Passage of air through fabric.
2. Moisture permeability – Passage of water:
o Liquid form
o Vapor form
Air Permeability
• Definition (ASTM): Rate of air flow passing perpendicularly through a fabric area under a specified
pressure differential.
• Importance: Critical for apparel comfort; depends on end-use.
• Applications:
o Vacuum cleaner bags
o Airbags
o Parachutes
o Sailcloths
o Industrial filters
o Tents
o Bulletproof & raincoat materials
Measurement of Air Permeability
• Definition: Volume of air (cc) passing through 1 cm² of fabric in 1 second under 1 cm water pressure
head.
• Units: mm/s, cm³/cm²/s, l/m²/s, ft³/ft²/min, m³/m²/h.
• Air resistance: Time for 1 cm³ of air to pass through 1 cm² fabric; reciprocal of air permeability.
• Air porosity: Ratio of air space to total fabric volume:
[
\text{Air porosity (P %)} = \frac{S-F}{S} \times 100
]
Where:
• (S) = total sample volume
• (F) = fibre volume
Measurement Principles
1. Time required for a given volume of air to pass through a fabric area.
2. Pressure differential needed for air at a constant volume rate.
3. Volume flow rate of air through a fabric area under a given pressure. (Most instruments use this)
Instrument Example
• Shirley Air Permeability Tester: Measures air flow through fabric with adjustable flow regions (R1–
R4).
Flow Regions in Woven Fabrics
1. Between warp and weft yarns (Q1)
2. Interaction points of warp & weft (Q2)
3. Through fibers of warp yarn (Q3)
4. Through fibers of weft yarn (Q4)
Factors Affecting Air Permeability
Fabric Properties
• Cloth cover, thickness, weave structure, yarn crimp.
• Fabric finishing can increase or reduce permeability.
Yarn Properties
• Twist factor, fiber properties, yarn density.
Environmental Factors
• High humidity: Fibers swell → reduces pore size → lowers permeability.
• High temperature: Gas molecules move faster → increases permeability.
• Air pressure differential: Non-linear effect on permeability.
Comfort Characteristics
• Higher air permeability → better breathability and comfort.
Yarn Strength and Elongation (Related)
• Determines fabric performance under use or processing.
• Tests include:
1. Single-end strength testing
2. Skein/Lea strength testing