Unit-2( Environment and Ecology BAS-104)

Natural resources are materials and substances found in nature, not made by humans,
that are essential for life and human development. Examples include air, water, soil,
sunlight, minerals, and fossil fuels, which provide basic materials for survival, energy,
food, and various manufactured goods.

Types of Natural Resources

Renewable resources:
• These resources can replenish themselves at a rate comparable to their
consumption.

• Examples: Sunlight, wind, water, and biomass

• Non renewable Resources:
These resources exist in fixed quantities and are consumed much faster than they can
be naturally replaced.
• Examples: Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) and minerals (iron, copper, gold)
•
 Water resource:
water resource, any of the entire range of natural waters that occur on the Earth, regardless of
their state (i.e., vapor, liquid, or solid) and that are of potential use to humans. Of these, the
resources most available for use are the waters of the oceans, rivers, and lakes; other
available water resources include groundwater and deep subsurface waters and glaciers and
permanent snowfields.
Fresh water crisis:

A freshwater shortage is a global issue, with over a billion people lacking access to water and 2.7
billion facing scarcity for at least a month annually

Causes of Freshwater Shortage

Population growth and demand:

growing global population increases the demand for water for drinking, sanitation, and
agriculture.

Agriculture:
Agriculture is the largest consumer of freshwater, and inefficiencies in its use contribute
significantly to scarcity.

Climatic changes:

Altered rainfall patterns, increased droughts, and more extreme weather events exacerbate
water shortages.

Ground water over extraction:

Many aquifers, or underground water reserves, are being depleted faster than they can be
replenished.

Pollution and contamination:

Water bodies are becoming too polluted to use, further reducing the available supply of safe
freshwater.

Poor water management:

Inadequate infrastructure and inefficient management of existing water resources contribute to

shortages.
Effects of overuse of surface water and ground water over exploitation:
Effects on over-utilization of water (or) Consequences of
overdrawing of ground water

The rapid increase in population and industrial growth have increased the demand for water
resources. Due to increase of ground water usage, the
annual extraction of ground water is in far excess than the natural recharge.

Decrease of Ground Water: Due to increased usage of ground water, the ground water level
decreases. The building construction activities are sealing the permeable soil zone, reducing the
area for percolation of rain water and increase in surface runoff.

Ground subsidence: When the groundwater withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the
sediments in the aquifer get compacted, which results in sinking of overlaying land surface. This
process is known as ground subsidence

Problems associated:
1. Structural damage in buildings.
2. Fracture in pipes.
3. Reversing the flow of canals and tidal flooding.
Lowering of water table: Over utilization of ground water in arid and semi-arid regions for
agriculture disturbs the state of equilibrium of the reservoir (disturb the hydrological cycle) in the
region. These causes decrease pressure in aquifers and changes speed and direction of water
flow.
Intrusion of salt water: In coastal area, over- exploitation of ground water would lead to rapid
intrusion of salt water from the sea. So, this Water cannot be used for drinking and agriculture

Earthquake and landslides: Over-utilization of ground water leads to decrease in water level,
which causes earthquake, landslide and femine.

Drying up of wells: As a result of over utilization of ground water, the level of ground water
getting depleted at much faster rates than they can be regenerated. This leads to drying up of dug
wells as well as bore wells

Pollution of water: When the ground water level near the agricultural land decreases, the water,
containing the nitrogen as nitrate fertilizer, percolates rapidly into the ground and pollute the
ground water

Sustainable use of water Resource:

Sustainable use of water resources involves managing freshwater in a way that meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs,
balancing economic, social, and environmental factors. Key strategies include enhancing water
conservation and efficiency through technologies like drip irrigation, managing watersheds,
implementing rainwater harvesting and wastewater reuse, protecting water quality from pollution,
and developing supportive policies and community involvement

Sustainable water management is a comprehensive approach to water use that seeks to maintain
water availability and quality for everyone, now and in the future. It focuses on:
• Balancing Needs:

Ensuring current water demands for drinking, agriculture, and industry are met without
depleting resources for future generations.
• Ecological Protection:
Safeguarding water-related ecosystems and ensuring the overall health of water sources.
• Economic Viability:
Promoting efficient and cost-effective water use practices.
• Social Equity:
Making sure that all members of society have access to clean and reliable wat
Method for sustainable water use:

Methods of sustainable water use:

• Water Conservation:
Minimizing waste through practices like turning off taps, taking shorter showers, and
using water-efficient appliances and landscaping.
 • Efficient Agriculture:
Implementing smart irrigation systems (e.g., drip irrigation), using drought-resistant
crops, and practicing crop rotation to reduce water use in farming.
• Rainwater Harvesting:
Collecting and storing rainwater for future use, reducing reliance on other water sources.
• Wastewater Management:
Treating and reusing wastewater for non-potable uses to reduce the demand on freshwater
supplies.
• Watershed Management:
Protecting and restoring the health of watersheds (the land areas that drain water into
rivers and streams) to maintain water quality and quantity.
• Technological Innovation:
Utilizing advanced tools like smart sensors for irrigation, desalination technologies to
create new freshwater supplies, and water purification systems.
• Policy and Governance:
Creating and enforcing laws and policies that promote sustainable water use and
encourage collaborative, regional water management efforts.
• Community Engagement:
Involving communities in decision-making processes and conservation efforts
Why It's Important
• Essential for Life:

Fresh water is fundamental for all life on Earth.

• Growing Demand:
Increasing global populations and industrial growth lead to higher water consumption,
straining existing supplies.
• Scarcity and Inequality:
Water scarcity is a reality in many parts of the world, and there's a need for more equitable
distribution of water resources.
• Climate Change Resilience:
Sustainable water management helps communities become more resilient to climate
change impacts, such as droughts and floods
 Water Borne or Water induced diseases:

Water-borne diseases are the ones caused by pathogenic microbes spread via contaminated water.

Transmission of these pathogens occurs while using infected water for drinking, food preparation,
and washing clothes, among others. Many developing countries do not have proper water treatment
plants, especially in the rural areas. In some places, the availability of water is so scarce that people
have neither the time nor the money to afford the water purifiers or other water treatment
mechanisms.

Majority of water-borne diseases worldwide mainly affect children due to poor hygiene and weak
immunity. Most of these diseases are life-threatening. The knowledge of the different types of
water-borne diseases has come to the forefront with the advent of globalization over the past few
decades. Several pathogenic microorganisms which were previously unknown, have become the
focus of major research in this field.

Water-Borne Diseases and their Impact

The pathogenic microorganisms, their toxic exudates, and other contaminants together, cause
serious conditions such as cholera, diarrhea, typhoid, amebiasis, hepatitis, gastroenteritis,
giardiasis, campylobacteriosis, scabies, and worm infections

Diarrhea

The most common of all water-borne diseases, diarrhea, mainly affects children below five years
of age. The symptoms include dizziness, dehydration, pale skin, and loss of consciousness in
severe cases. It usually lasts for a couple of weeks and can turn out to be fatal if it goes untreated.

Cholera

It is mainly caused by bacteria named Vibrio cholerae via consumption of contaminated food or
drinking water. The symptoms include diarrhea, vomiting, fever, and abdominal cramps. Cholera
occurs predominantly in children, but can also affect adults. It possesses a mortality rate that is
alarmingly high among the water-borne diseases.

Typhoid
Typhoid fever is caused by Salmonella typhi bacteria transmitted via contaminated water. The
patients typically suffer from prolonged episodes of fever, loss of appetite, nausea, headache,
constipation, and loss of body weight.

Amoebiasis

It is caused by a parasite named Entamoeba histolytica. The protozoan organism is transmitted

by unknowingly consuming cysts (an inactive form of the parasite) in food, and it affects the
intestine. The parasite thrives on contaminated soil and fecal matter. The common symptoms of
amoebiasis include abdominal cramps and watery stools.

Hepatitis A

This condition mainly affects the liver and is caused by Hepatitis A virus. The route of
contamination is usually oral, while it also spreads through physical contact with an infected
person. Hepatitis A patients manifest common symptoms such as fever, nausea, and vomiting,
but can suffer severe complications if they’re not treated in time.

Transmission

Climate change plays a crucial role in the outbreaks of such infections.

Major precipitation events such as heavy rains or snowfall increase the risk of the water-borne
diseases. Several instances of the outbreak of epidemic infections after natural calamities such as
flood have been recorded in history.

The overflowing of sewage treatment plants during floods becomes the immediate risk that needs
to be curbed. On the other hand, drought-affected areas also become high-risk due to the
accumulation of high concentration of pathogens in a limited amount of available water sources.

Fluoride problem in drinking water:

Fluoride in drinking water is a public health strategy used to prevent dental caries (cavities) and is
considered a significant public health achievement, though excessive amounts can cause dental
fluorosis or, in extreme cases, skeletal fluorosis. Naturally occurring in water and added to public
supplies to a recommended level of around 0.7 mg/L, fluoride helps strengthen tooth enamel by
promoting remineralization and inhibiting acid-producing bacteria. While beneficial at optimal
levels, high concentrations can lead to tooth discoloration or pitting (dental fluorosis) and, in very
rare circumstances, bone issues (skeletal fluorosis)

• Natural Occurrence:
Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral found in water and soil.
• Water Fluoridation:
This is the process of adding a controlled amount of fluoride to a public water
supply to prevent tooth decay.
• Recommended Levels:
Public health recommendations, like the one from the United States, suggest a
target fluoride level of 0.7 mg/L to prevent decay without causing discoloration.
• Other Sources:
Fluoride is also present in toothpaste and other dental products.
Benefits
• Cavity Prevention:
Fluoride inhibits the bacteria that cause tooth decay and helps to "rebuild" tooth
enamel through a process called remineralization.
• Public Health Impact:
Water fluoridation is considered one of the most significant public health
successes of the 20th century
Risks & Side Effects
• Dental Fluorosis:
At higher levels, particularly during tooth development (birth to age 4), fluoride
can interfere with enamel formation, causing white spots, streaks, or pitting on
permanent teeth.
• Skeletal Fluorosis:
Very high, long-term exposure to fluoride can lead to the accumulation of
fluoride in bones, a painful condition known as skeletal fluorosis, which can
cause joint stiffness and brittle bones.

Regulatory Standards
 • EPA Standards: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets a
maximum allowable level of 4.0 mg/L to protect against skeletal fluorosis and a
secondary standard of 2.0 mg/L to protect younger children from dental fluorosis.

Arsenic problem in drinking water:

FOREST RESOURCE:

Forests cover almost a third of the Earth's land area, half of which – two million
hectares – is in warm regions. Natural and planted forests have a major social,
economic and ecological impact on a global level, for the planet, and also on a
national and local level for individual countries, firms and people.
Forests are important for many reasons, including:

• They provide habitat for animals and plants. Forests are home to a wide variety
of animals and plants, including many that are endangered.
• They help to regulate the climate. Forests help to regulate the climate by
absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen. They also help to moderate
temperatures and provide shade.
• They protect watersheds. Forests help to protect watersheds by filtering water
and preventing erosion.
• They provide recreation opportunities. Forests are popular places for people to
hike, camp, fish, and hunt.
•
• Types of forest:

There are many different types of forests, each with its own unique characteristics. Some of
the most common types of forests include:

• Temperate forests are found in regions with moderate climates. They are
characterized by trees that lose their leaves in the fall.
• Tropical forests are found in regions with warm climates. They are characterized
by trees that are evergreen.
• Boreal forests are found in regions with cold climates. They are characterized by
trees that are coniferous.

• Functions of forest:

Forests are complex ecosystems that provide a wide range of benefits to the environment
and human societies. These functions can be broadly categorized into three main groups:

1. Ecological Functions

• Climate regulation: Forests play a crucial role in regulating the Earth’s climate by
absorbing carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming.
Trees and other plants use carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, converting it into
oxygen and storing carbon in their tissues.
 • Water regulation: Forests help regulate the water cycle by absorbing and storing
rainwater, reducing runoff and erosion. The root systems of trees and other plants
hold the soil in place, preventing it from being washed away by heavy rains. Forests
also help regulate the flow of water into rivers and streams, reducing the risk of
flooding and droughts.
• Biodiversity conservation: Forests are home to a vast array of plant and animal
species, providing habitat and food sources for a wide range of organisms. Forests
also serve as corridors for wildlife movement, allowing species to disperse and find
new habitats.
• Soil conservation: The root systems of trees and other plants help hold the soil in
place, preventing erosion. Forests also help improve soil fertility by adding organic
matter to the soil and providing nutrients for plants.
• Air purification: Forests help purify the air by removing pollutants such as dust,
smoke, and harmful gases. Trees and other plants absorb these pollutants through
their leaves and release oxygen into the atmosphere.

2. Economic Functions

• Timber and non-timber forest products: Forests provide a source of timber for
construction, furniture, and other wood products. They also provide a variety of
non-timber forest products, such as fruits, nuts, mushrooms, and medicinal plants.
• Tourism and recreation: Forests are popular destinations for tourism and
recreation, such as hiking, camping, fishing, and hunting. These activities can
generate revenue for local communities and support the economy.
• Employment: Forests provide employment opportunities in a variety of sectors,
including forestry, logging, tourism, and recreation.

3. Social and Cultural Functions

• Cultural and spiritual significance: Forests have cultural and spiritual significance
for many societies. They are often seen as sacred places and are used for religious
ceremonies and rituals.
• Recreation and well-being: Forests provide opportunities for recreation and
relaxation, which can improve physical and mental well-being. Spending time in
forests has been shown to reduce stress, improve mood, and boost energy levels.
• Education and research: Forests serve as outdoor classrooms for education and
research on ecology, forestry, and other natural sciences. They also provide
opportunities for scientific research on biodiversity, climate change, and other
environmental issues.

In conclusion, forests provide a wide range of ecological, economic, and social and cultural
functions that are essential for the well-being of both humans and the environment. It is
crucial to recognize the importance of forests and take steps to protect and sustainably
manage them for future generations.

Deforestation:
Deforestation can be defined as the large-scale removal of trees from forests
(or other lands) for the facilitation of human activities. It is a serious
environmental concern since it can result in the loss of biodiversity, damage
to natural habitats, disturbances in the water cycle, and soil erosion.
Deforestation is also a contributor to climate change and global warming.

What are the Human Activities that Cause Deforestation?

The primary anthropogenic activities (human activities) that contribute to
deforestation include:

Causes of Deforestation
Given below are the major causes of deforestation:

• Commercial or Industrial Agriculture

• Construction of new buildings, roads, and other infrastructural facilities
• Increased Population
• Mining is another important factor for the increased cutting down of trees and
forest areas
• The change in climate is one of the main natural causes which has resulted in loss
of forests
• Natural calamities
• Unsustainable forest management

Effects of Deforestation
Deforestation has impacted the environment and livelihood of many.
Discussed below are a few of the main effects of deforestation:

• Loss of habitat for various animal and plant species

• Environmental Disbalance is another side effect of deforestation. Due to the
absence of an ample number of trees and forest areas across the globe, the
environment and the atmosphere is facing severe climatic changes
• A lot of people rely on forests for their livelihood. These people are adversely
affected due to deforestation
• It degrades the quality of soil
• The water cycle gets disturbed

Timber extraction:

Timber extraction is the process of cutting down trees and transporting the wood
from a forest to a location where it can be processed into products like lumber,
furniture, and paper. The practice can use mechanized logging with heavy
machinery or manual, hand-logging techniques. While vital for developing
economies, timber extraction can lead to deforestation, habitat loss, soil erosion,
and biodiversity reduction

Impacts of timber extraction:

• Deforestation and Fragmentation:

The cutting of trees leads to a reduction in forest cover and the breaking up of
large forest areas.

• Habitat Destruction:

Loss of trees harms wildlife, reduces biodiversity, and can contribute to species
extinction.

• Soil Erosion:

Machinery can damage soil structure, making it more prone to erosion.

• Impact on Tribal Communities:

Extraction can displace tribal peoples and disrupt their cultures, as seen in
some regions of India

Practices to avoid Timber extraction:

• Selective Harvesting:

Carefully choosing which trees to cut helps preserve the forest ecosystem.

• Reduced-Impact Logging (RIL):

Techniques designed to minimize damage to residual trees and the forest

environment, maintaining its integrity.

• Regulations and Certifications:

Adhering to regulations and obtaining certifications, like those from the Forest
Stewardship Council (FSC) which follows sustainable forestry principles, can
ensure responsible management.
 • Ecotourism:
A sustainable alternative that uses wooded areas for

Material cycling or Biogeochemical cycling:

“Biogeochemical cycles mainly refer to the movement of nutrients and other
elements between biotic and abiotic factors.”
The term biogeochemical is derived
from “bio” meaning biosphere, “geo” meaning the geological
components and “chemical” meaning the elements that move through a
cycle.

Biogeochemical cycles are basically divided into two types:

• Gaseous cycles – Includes Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and the Water cycle.
• Sedimentary cycles – Includes Sulphur, Phosphorus, Rock cycle, etc.

NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen is one of the very important elements on earth as it is a component of
amino acids, proteins, vitamins, DNA, RNA, etc. Earth’s atmosphere contains around 78%
nitrogen. However, plants and animals cannot use it directly in its elemental form from the
atmosphere. This elemental form of nitrogen is used by plants only after it gets converted into
inorganic nitrogen containing compounds like nitrites (NO2-), nitrates (NO3-), ammonia (NH4 +),
nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO) or inorganic nitrogen (N2). These conversions are done by
various kinds of bacteria and other micro-organisms. Thus, the nitrogen cycle is the process by
which nitrogen is converted in its various chemical forms by biological and physical process.
Nitrogen cycle consists of various steps:

Nitrogen fixation Nitrogen assimilation Ammonification Nitrification Denitrification

Sedimentation

Nitrogen fixation:

Nitrogen fixation is the process by which free nitrogen of atmosphere is converted into
biologically available form of nitrogen. There are four ways for nitrogen fixation,

Physiochemical fixation- during lightning and at the time of electric discharge in clouds, the
nitrogen of atmosphere combines with oxygen and produces different kinds of nitrogen oxides.
These oxides of nitrogen get dissolved in water to form nitrates and other nitrogenous
compounds. This can be summarized as shown here,
N2 + O2 -----> 2NO

2NO + O2 -----> 2NO2

2NO2 + H2O -----> HNO2 + HNO3

3NO2 + H2O -----> 2HNO3 + NO

2HNO2 + CaCO2 -----> Ca(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O

Biological nitrogen fixation-

In this kind of fixation atmospheric nitrogen gets converted into nitrites and nitrates by free-
living bacteria, symbiotic bacteria and by blue green algae. Free living bacteria such as
Azobacter, Clostridium etc. fix nitrogen of atmosphere in the soil by combining the gaseous
nitrogen of atmosphere with the hydrogen that is obtained from respiratory pathway to form
ammonia. Symbiotic bacteria like Rhizobium living in the root nodules of legumes cannot fix the
nitrogen solely. These bacteria invade the roots or leave and stimulate the formation of root
nodules or leaf nodules, which are kind of harmless over growth of cells as a ‘tumour’. The
union of these bacteria and nodule cells are able to fix the atmospheric nitrogen under low
oxygen condition and nitrogenase enzyme reduces nitrogen to ammonia. Certain species of
lichens also have nitrogen-fixing ability.

3. Industrial N-fixation- Under great pressure, at a temperature of 600°C, an iroiron catalyst,

hydrogen and atmospheric nitrogen combine to form ammonia. 4. Combustion of fossil fuels-
Automobile engines and thermal power plants release various nitrogen oxides (NOX).

Nitrogen assimilation: Inorganic nitrogen in form of nitrites, nitrates and ammonia is taken up
by plants from soil. Plants utilize these inorganic nitrogenous compounds to produce organic
nitrogenous compound like amino acids, proteins, enzymes, nucleic acid, chlorophyll etc. Animal
consumes plants and thus they get nitrogenous organic compound in their body.

Ammonification: The dead organic remains of plants and animals as well as excreta of animals
are decomposed by number of microorganisms that convert the organic nitrogen into ammonia.
In decomposition, protein, urea, uric acid etc. of animals get converted into the ammonia in the
presence of ammonifying bacteria such as Bacillus ramosas, Bacillus vulgaris and Bacillus
mycoides. Nitrification: In this step ammonia, which was produced in previous step, get
converted into nitrite and nitrates. Nitromonas and Nitococus bacteria carry out conversion of
ammonia to nitrites. The equation of this reaction is

2NH3 + O2 ---> Nitromonas,

Nitococus -----> 2NO2- + 2H+ + 2H2O + Energy

Denitrification: In this step, denitrifying bacteria like Pseudomonas, Micrococus denitrificans,
Thiobacillus denitrificans etc. converts ammonia, nitrites and nitrate into molecular nitrogen.
The reaction can be summarized as NO3- (Nitrate) -----> NO2- (Nitrite) -----> NO (Nitrous oxide) -
----> N2O (Nitricoxide) -----> N2 (Nitrogen)

Sedimentation: Nitrates present in soil sometimes gets locked up in the rocks. This is called the
sedimentation of nitrogen. During weathering nitrates is released by conversion into nitrogen.
Thus nitrogen is fixed by microbes. Fixed nitrogen is absorbed by plants via food chain. Organic
nitrogen enters into consumers and all dead remains is acted upon by decomposer and again
nitrogen gets back to atmosphere in its molecular form. In this way nitrogen cycle keeps on
operating in cyclic manner

Carbon cycle is the process where carbon compounds are interchanged

among the biosphere, geosphere, pedosphere, hydrosphere, and
atmosphere of the earth.

Carbon Cycle Steps

Following are the major steps involved in the process of the carbon cycle:

1. Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis.

2. These plants are then consumed by animals and carbon gets bioaccumulated
into their bodies.
 3. These animals and plants eventually die, and upon decomposing, carbon is
released back into the atmosphere.
4. Some of the carbon that is not released back into the atmosphere eventually
become fossil fuels.
5. These fossil fuels are then used for man-made activities, which pump more
carbon back into the atmosphere.

Sulpher cycle:

• The sulphur reservoir is in the soil and sediments where it is locked in

organic (coal, oil and peat) and inorganic deposits (pyrite rock and
sulphur rock) in the form of sulphates, sulphides and organic sulphur.
• It is released by weathering of rocks, erosional runoff and decomposition
of organic matter and is carried to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in salt
solution.
• The sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary except two of its
compounds, hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and sulphur dioxide (SO2), which
add a gaseous component.
• Sulphur enters the atmosphere from several sources like volcanic
eruptions, combustion of fossil fuels (coal, diesel etc.), from the
surface of the ocean and gases released by decomposition.
• Atmospheric hydrogen sulphide also gets oxidised into sulphur dioxide.
• Atmospheric sulphur dioxide is carried back to the earth after being
dissolved in rainwater as weak sulphuric acid (acid rain).
• Whatever the source, sulphur in the form of sulphates is taken up by
plants and incorporated through a series of metabolic processes
into sulphur bearing amino acid which is incorporated in the proteins of
autotroph tissues. It then passes through the grazing food chain.
• Sulphur bound in a living organism is carried back to the soil, to the
bottom of ponds and lakes and seas through excretion and
decomposition of dead organic material.