LECTURE NO.

1
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – II

INTRODUCTION
 Environmental Engineering-I  Mostly dealt with W/S and Environment

 W/S  Wastewater (Used Water), Sewage

 Environmental Engineering-I I  Mainly deals with Sewage collection,

treatment & disposal/ reuse.

 IMPORTANCE - Protection of Human Health

(Sewage  > 50 diseases)

Bacterial, Protozoa,

Worm, Viral

- Protection of Environment

(Stream, Land, Air pollution)

BOOKS TO BE CONSULTED
1. WATER SUPPLY AND SEWERAGE
by T.J. McGhee, 6th Edition, McGraw Hill Inc.

2. WASTEWATER ENGINEERING, TREATMENT & REUSE

by Metcalf and Eddy Inc., 4th Ed., McGraw Hill.

3. INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

By Davis and Cornwell, 2nd Edition McGraw Hill.
BASIC TERMS
 SEWAGE: It is the LIQUID WASTE or WASTEWATER produced
as a result of water use.
 SEWER: It is a PIPE or CONDUIT for carrying sewage. It is
generally closed and flow takes place UNDER
GRAVITY. (Atmospheric pressure).
 SEWERAGE: Sewerage is the system of collection of wastewater and
conveying it to the point of disposal with or without
treatment.
SOURCES OF WASTEWATER
1. DOMESTIC: It is the wastewater from houses, offices, other
buildings, hotels and institutions.
2. INDUSTRIAL: It is the liquid waste from industrial processes..
3. STORMWATER: It includes surface runoff generated by rainfall
and the STREET WASH.
COMPONENTS OF WASTEWATER ENGINEERING
1. COLLECTION SYSTEM (Network of sewer pipes)
2. DISPOSAL WORKS (Sewage pumping stations, Outfalls).
3. TREATMENT WORKS. (For rendering wastewater treatment).
TYYPES OF SEWERS
1. SANITARY SEWER
It carries sanitary sewage i.e., wastewater from municipality including
DOMESTIC and INDUSTRIAL wastewaters.
2. STORM SEWER
It carries storm sewage including surface runoff and STREET WASH.
3. COMBINED SEWER
It carries domestic, industrial and storm sewage.
4. HOUSE SEWER
It is the sewer conveying sewage from plumbing system of a building
to common/municipal sewer.
 5. LATERAL SEWER
This sewer carries discharge from house sewers.
6. SUBMAIN SEWER
This sewer receives discharge from two or more laterals.
7. MAIN/TRUNK SEWER
It receives discharge from two or more submains.
8. OUTFALL SEWER
It receives discharge from all collecting system and conveys it to the
point of final disposal.

House Sewer
Submain Submain
House Lateral River
Lateral
TRUNK TRUNK
House Sewer Submain
150 mm dia Main Out fall

Lateral
225 m dia Submain
LECTURE NO. 2
TYPES OF SEWER SYSTEMS
1. SEPARATE SYSTEM
If stormwater is carried SEPARATELY from domestic and
industrial wastewaters, the system is called separate system.
Separate systems are favoured when:
i) There is an immediate need for collection of sanitary sewage
but not for stormwater.
ii) When sanitary sewerage needs treatment but the stormwater
does not.
2. COMBINED SYSTEM
It is the system in which the sewers carry both sanitary and
stormwater.
Combined systems are favoured when:
i) Combined sewage can be disposed off without treatment.
ii) Both sanitary and stormwater need treatment.
iii) Streets are narrow and two separate sewers cannot be laid.
3. PARTIALLY COMBINED SYSTEM
If some portion of storm or surface runoff is allowed to be carried
along with sanitary sewage, the system is known as partially
combined system.
(In urban areas of developing countries, mostly, partially
combined system is employed as it is economical)
INFILTRATION
It is the wastewater that enters sewers through poor joints, cracked pipes,
walls and covers of the manholes.
Infiltration is almost non-existent in dry weather but increases during rainy
season.
Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) Lahore uses the following infiltration
rates for the design of sewer system:
 Sewer Dia Infiltration
225 mm to 600 mm 5% of average sewage flow
(9 Inch) (24 Inch)
>600 mm 10% of average sewage flow.
RELATION OF SEWAGE GENERATION WITH WATER
CONSUMPTION
i) Around 70 – 130%* of water consumed gets into sewers.
* Industries with private source of water discharge their effluent
into municipal sewer; and/or when sewer joints are poor and the
sewer is laid below groundwater table.
ii) General range: 70-90 % of water consumption.
iii) When Infiltration is taken into consideration, then
THE AVERAGE RATE OF SEWAGE FLOW EQUALS THE
AVERAGE RATE OF WATER CONSUMPTION i.e., 100%.
VARIATIONS IN SEWAGE FLOWS
Like W/S, sewage flows also vary with time. The sewers must be able to
accommodate the MAXIMUM RATE OF FLOW AT THE END OF
DESIGN PERIOD. The design of sewers is, therefore, based on this
consideration.
WASA, Lahore considers the following relationship for sewer design.
Average Flow in Sewer Peak Factor to obtain
(m3/day) Qmax. m3/day
2500 4.0
2500 – 5000 3.4
5000 – 10,000 3.1
10,000 – 25,000 2.7
25,000 – 50,000 2.5
50,000 – 100,000 2.3
100,000 – 250,000 2.15
250,000 – 500,000 2.08
> 500,000 2.0
iii) MINIMUM RATE OF SEWAGE FLOW
Generally taken as 50% of Average sewage flow:
 It is used in the design of sewage pump stations.
 It is used to investigate the velocities in sewers during LOW FLOW
period.
DESIGN PERIOD AND USE OF SEWAGE FLOW DATA
1. DESIGN OF SEWER SYSTEM
Period of design is INDEFINITE, as the system is designed to
cater for the maximum development of the area.
 Use Qmax for sewer design.
 Use Qmin to check velocities during low flow.
2. DESIGN OF SEWAGE PUMPING STATION
Design period is usually 10 years.
Rates of flow required are:
Average daily, peak and minimum flow including
INFILTRATION.
3. DESIGN OF SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS
Design period is usually 15 – 20 years.
Rates of flow required are:
Average daily + infiltration.
Peak flow + infiltration.
LECTURE NO. 3
DESIGN OF SEWER SYSTEM
STEPS:
1. Preliminary Investigations.
2. Design Criteria considerations.
3. Actual Design.
4. Preparation of Drawings and BOQ.
1. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS
These consist of the following ACTIVITIES:
i) Obtain MAPS and DRAWINGS that furnish information
about the AREA.

Population density, Water consumption, Soil characteristics,
Natural slope, Disposal point, Groundwater table, Rocks,
Underground structure, Rainfall data, Location of water and
gas pipes, electric conduit, cellars,
MAPS should also show location of:
Streets, Railways, Parks, Buildings, Ponds, Streams etc.
ii) If the maps and the needed information is not available,
conduct a DETAILED SURVEY of the area to do the
needful.
iii) Establish BENCH MARKS throughout the area and make
CONTOUR PROFILES with contour intervals ranging from
250mm to 3 m.
iv) Mark SURFACE ELEVATIONS at street intersections.
v) Make PROFILE of the street through which the sewer is to
run.
vi) Use a Scale ranging from 1 : 1000 to 1 : 3000 for map
making.
2. DESIGN CRITERIA CONSIDERATIONS
i) Design Flow
Find out AVERAGE SEWAGE FLOW on the basis of
WATER CONSUMPTION and the POPULATION at the end
of design period. (i.e., Full development of the area)
a) Sanitary Sewer
 Qdesign = Peak Sewage Flow + Infiltration
b) Partially combined Sewer
Qdesign = 2×Peak Sewage Flow + Infiltration.

WASA Criteria
= 2×Peak Factor×[Link]+Infiltration
ii) Design Equation
MANNING’S FORMULA is used for sewers flowing under
gravity
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V .R S
n
Where
V = Velocity of flow, m/sec.
Area
R = Hydraulic mean depth =
Wetted Parameter
= D/4 when pipe is flowing full or half full.
S = Slope of the sewer.
N = Coefficient of roughness for pipes
(n = 0.013 for RCC pipes)
iii) MINIMUM (SELF CLEANSING) VELOCITY
Sewage should flow at all times with sufficient velocity to
prevent the settlement of solid matter in the sewer.
SELF CLEANSING VELOCITY is the MINIMUM velocity
that ensures NON-SETTLEMENT of suspended matter in the
sewer.
The following minimum (self cleansing) velocities are
generally employed.
Sanitary Sewer – 0.6 m/s [Org. particles, sp. Gr = 1.61]
Storm Sewer – 1.0 m/s [In org. Particles, sp. Gr. 2.65]
Partially combined – 0.7 m/s
MINIMUM VELOCITY MUST BE MAINTAINED ONCE IN
24 HOURS.
iv) MAXIMUM VELOCITY
> 2.4 m/s
 To avoid excessive sewer abrasion
To avoid steep slopes.
v) MINIMUM SEWER SIZE
225 mm for LATERAL [WASA, PHED]

(To avoid chocking of sewer with bigger size objects thrown
through manholes (i.e., bricks, shrubs, shoes, utensils etc.)
vi) MINIMUM COVER
1 m earth cover on sewer crown.

(To avoid damage from live loads on sewer)
vii) MANHOLE
Purpose: Cleaning
Inspection
House connection
Provision at: change in sewer - direction
- dia
- slope
Also at Junctions
One manhole to be provided for 2–4 plots.
Spacing: > 100 m (Sewer size 225 mm – 375 mm)
(WASA) > 120 mm (Sewer size 450 mm – 750 mm)
> 150 m ( Sewer size > 750 mm)
viii) DIRECTION OF SEWER LINE
Sewers should follow, as far as possible, the NATURAL
SLOPE.
3. DESIGN OF SEWER
i) Size of Sewer
Use Qf = AV to determine sewer dia.
 ii) Slope of Sewer
- Select Minimum velocity value.
- Use Manning’s formula:
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V
.R S
n
4. PREPARATION OF DRAWING
Typical drawings include:
- Sewer Joints.
- Manholes.
- Inlets
- Disposal station.
- Sewer profile or L – Section.
SEWER HYDRAULICS
Velocity Diameter Slope Discharge Discharge
m/Sec. mm m3/Sec. m3/day.
0.60 225 0.0028 0.024 2074
300 0.0019 0.042 3629
375 0.0014 0.066 5702
450 0.0011 0.095 8208
525 0.0009 0.130 11,232
600 0.0008 0.170 14,688
0.70 225 0.0038 0.028 2420
300 0.0026 0.049 4233
375 0.0019 0.077 6653
450 0.0015 0.111 9590
525 0.0012 0.149 12875
600 0.0010 0.195 16850
1.0 225 0.0078 0.040 3456
300 0.0053 0.071 6134
375 0.0040 0.110 9504
450 0.0031 0.159 13737
525 0.0025 0.216 18662
600 0.0021 0.283 24451
CALCULATIONS SHOWN IN THE ABOVE TABLE ARE
BASED ON ‘n’ VALUE OF 0.013
LECTURE NO. 4
INVERT LEVEL CALCULATIONS
INVERT LEVEL
The LOWEST inside level at any X-Section of a sewer pipe is known as the
INVERT LEVEL at that X-Section.
CROWN

Dia

INVERT

SIGNIFICANCE
Sewers must be designed and laid at a specific slope to attain self cleansing
velocities. The required slope is achieved through calculations of INVERT
LEVELS of the sewers at various manholes.
NGSL/R.L.
INVERT LEVEL (I.L.)
Depth of Sewer
= NGSL/Road level – Depth of Sewer Sewer
Thickness
– Thickness of Sewer – Dia of Sewer,
}

Dia of
CALCULATIONS FOR I.L. Sewer

INVER
i) Single Sewer

U/S I.L.
U/S I.L. = 198 – 1 – 0.05 – 0.225
(NGSL) – (Cover) – (Thickness) – (Dia)
= 196.725 m
U/S I.L. = 196.725 – 100 × 0.004 = 196.325 m
(U/S I.L) – Length × Slope
 ii) Two or More Same Dia Sewers
When EQUAL DIA sewers discharge in a manhole and the SAME DIA pipe
receives the total discharge, then – LOWEST D/S I.L. among the discharging
sewers will be carried as U/S I.L of the receiving sewer.
MH 1

225 mm 
MH 2

I.L.=196.325
I.L.=197.120
225 mm 
MH 3
MH 3.1
u/s I.L.=196.325

225 mm 

MH 4

iii) When Receiving Sewer DIA is Greater than the

discharging Sewer
RULE:
 Keep the SEWER CROWNS at the SAME LEVEL.
 Drop the U/S I.L of the RECEIVING SEWER by the DIFFERENCE
in the DIA of the two sewers.
Keep at same level
225 mm 
A
300 mm
B u/s IL
u/s I.L.=196.325 MH = 196.250

D/S I.L. at A = 196.325 m

Drop in I.L. = Difference of Dias = 0.300 – 0.225 = 0.075 m
 U/S I.L. at B = 196.325 – 0.075
= 196.250 m
 MH 1
U/S I.L. at MH3
= 196.120 – (0.375 – 0.300)
225 mm 
= 196.120 – 0.075
= 196.045 m D/S I.L.=196.120
D/s IL = 196.325
300 mm 
MH 3
MH 3.1
U/s IL = ?

375 mm 

REMEMBER MH 4
MH

375 mm 

U/s UK=?
CORRECT
300 mm  225 mm 
MH
D/s IL
= 196.325 D/s I.L.=196.12

MH

300 mm 
WRONG
I.L.=196.325 225 mm 
6.120
I.L. = 19
375 mm 
I.L.=DIFFERENCE

= 0.375 – 0.225
= 0.150 m
U/S I.L. = 0196.12 – 0.15
= 195.97 m
 STEP BY STEP GUIDE FOR DESIGN
1. Find the present population of the project area. Then find the design
population from the given design period. Afterwards find average sewage
flow for the design population. Using this average sewage flow for design
population, select peak factor for your project area from WASA Table.
2. Draw the layout of the sewer system keeping in view the layout of the roads
and streets (represent each sewer with a line and manhole with a small
circle).
3. Number the manhole.
4. Allocate “Plots “or “Area” to each sewer line.(col. 5, 6, 7)
5. Measure the length of each sewer line as scale of your map. Also show
direction of flow in sewer line with an arrow.
6. By adopting per capita sewage flow as 80-85%of water consumption,
calculate average sewage flow (col 10) and infiltration (col, 11.) for each
sewer line. For this design problem take infiltration rate as 5% of average
sewage flow.
7. Calculate peak sewage flow (col. 12) and finally the design flow (col. 14 &
l5) for the sewer lines.
8. Using the method of back calculation, find approximate dia (col, 17) and
slope (col, 18) for your sewer assuming that the sewer is flowing fill. For
back calculation choose a suitable design table with a suitable self cleansing
velocity (0.6 m/sec).
9. In the end find the invert level (col, 22 & 23) for all the sewers and complete
the table of calculation called “HIYDRAULIC STATEMEINT” (Note: A lot
of care should be exercised in calculating the invert levels otherwise the
whole scheme may fail due to incorrect levels)
 HYDRAULIC STATEMENT
Sr. From To Length Plot Served Total Avg. Infil. Peak Storm Design Flow Vful Dia Slope Fall Ground Level Invert Level
No. MH MH (m) Other Papul daily 5% of Sewage Sewage Qa (m/ (mm) (m)
No. No. Papul. . sewage avg. (m3/d) (m3/d) sec)
Local Pre- Total Apt + flow daily m3/d m3/s u/s d/s u/s d/s
vious flats (m 3/d) flow (m) (m) (m) (m)
(m3/d)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
1 M1 M2 95 30 0 30 0 300 121.68 6.084 486.72 486.72 979.52 0.0113 0.6 225 0.0028 0.266 1014 1014 1012.725 1012.459
2 M2 M4 38 5 30 35 0 350 141.96 7,098 567.84 567.84 1142.78 0.0132 0.6 225 0.0028 0.106 1014 1014 1012.459 1012.353
3 M3 M4 95 24 0 24 0 240 97.34 4.867 389.38 389.38 783.62 0.0091 0.6 225 0.0028 0.266 1014 1014 1012.725 1012.459
4 M4 M6 38 6 59 65 0 650 263.64 13.182 1054.56 1054.56 2122.30 0.0246 0.6 300 0.0019 0.072 1014 1014 1012.312 1012.206
5 M5 M6 95 22 0 22 0 220 89.25 4.462 356.93 356.93 718.32 0.0083 0.6 225 0.0028 0.266 1014 1014 1012.725 1012.459
6 M6 M7 38 5 87 92 0 920 373.15 18.658 1492.61 1492.61 3003.87 0.0348 0.6 300 0.0019 0.072 1014 1014 1012.206 1012.134
7 M7 M9 41 1 92 93 380 1310 531.34 26.567 2125.34 2125.34 4277.25 0.0495 0.6 375 0.0014 0.057 1014 1014 1012.059 1012.002
8 M8 M9 118 30 0 30 400 700 283.92 14.196 1135.68 1135.68 2285.56 0.0265 0.6 300 0.0019 0.224 1014 1014 1012.725 1012.501
9 M9 M11 35 0 123 123 790 2020 819.31 40.966 3277.25 3277.25 6595.46 0.0763 0.6 450 0.0011 0.039 1014 1014 1011.927 1011.888
10 M10 M11 118 27 0 27 200 470 190.63 9.532 762.53 762.53 1534.59 0.0178 0.6 225 0.0028 0.330 1014 1014 1012.725 1012.395
11 M11 M13 47 2 150 152 990 2510 1018.06 50.903 4072.22 4072.22 8195.35 0.0949 0.6 450 0.0011 0.052 1014 1014 1011.888 1011.836
12 M12 M13 118 23 0 23 200 430 174.41 8.720 697.63 697.63 1403.98 0.0162 0.6 225 0.0028 0.330 1014 1014 1012.725 1012.395
13 M13 M15 55 7 175 182 1250 3070 1245.19 62.260 4980.77 4980.77 10023.80 0.1160 0.6 525 0.0009 0.050 1014 1014 1011.761 1011.711
 DESIGN OF PARTIALLY COMBINED SEWER SYSTEM
Sr. No. From MH To MH Length Population Av. Av. Peak: Av. Peak Infilt- Storm- Design Flow Velo- Pro- Pro- Ground Invert Level
No. No. in. Sewage D.W.F. Ratio Flow ration water city m/ posed posed Elevation
Flow per m3/d m3/d 10% Av 100% sec sewer Grad-
Self Pre- Total Head flow peak m /d m /
3 3 dia mm ient U/S D/S U/S D/S
vious m3/d. flow m3/d sec.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

1. 19 11 800 800 - 800 0.28 224 4 896 22.4 896 1814.4 0.021 0.6 225 0.0028 100 100 98.725 96.485

2. 11 7 400 600 800 1400 0.28 392 4 1568 39.2 1568 3175.2 0.037 0.6 300 0.0019 100 100 96.410 95.650

3. 7.3 7 300 400 - 400 0.28 112 4 448 11.2 448 907.2 0.011 0.6 225 0.0028 100 100 98.725 97.885

4. 7 1 700 500 1800 2300 0.28 644 4 2576 64.4 2576 5216.4 0.060 0.6 375 0.0014 100 100 95.575 94.595

P=800 Persons
MH = 11
MH L = 800 m

P = 600 Persons
L = 400 m Take Min. Sewer Cover = 1 m

P = 400 225 mm  sewer thickness = 0.05 n

P = 500, L = 700 m
MH 7.3 L=300 m MH 7 MH 1

W.C. = 400 lpcd, Qav Sewage = 0.7 x 400 = 280 lpcd

 SEWER PROFILE
Horizontal Scale = 1 cm = 10 m
Vertical Scale = 1 cm = 1 m
Road Level = 102.625

NSL 101.625

I.L.
98.95 -99.01
100.35 98.115
98.875
98.04

500 m 400 m 430 m

Length
0.0019 0.0014
Slope 0.0028
300 mm 375 mm
Dia 225 mm

MH No.
M7 MH
M1
LECTURE NO. 5
DESIGN OF STORM SEWERS

1. QUANTITY OF STORMWATER
The primary source of stormwater is RAINFALL.
ESTIMATION
RATIONAL METHOD
Q = CIA
Where;
Q = Runoff in m3/hr.
I = Average Intensity of Rainfall in m/hr (m3/m2/hr)
A = Area in m2.
C = Runoff Coefficient i.e., imperviousness of area.
Generally used values for C are:

Most densely build up area. 0.9 – 0.7
Moderate build up area 0.7 – 0.5
Residential area with detached homes 0.5 – 0.25
Sub-urban areas with few built ups 0.25 – 0.1
VALUE OF I. (i.e., Average Intensity
 Depends upon Two Factors
i) FREQUENCY OF STORM OCCURRENCE
ii) DURATION OF STORM
FOR THE SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE VALUE OF I, LOCAL
RAINFALL RECORD DATA OF PAST MANY YEARS ARE CONSULTED.
i) FREQUENCY
Usually 5 years storm frequency is used for residential areas and 10 –
15 years for commercial areas where there are stores and basements which
may be flooded.
ii) STORM DURATION
Generally storm duration only upto 2 Hours is considered important,
since the AVERAGE INTENSITY OF STORM DECREASES AS ITS
DURATION INCREASES.
RAINFALL INTENSITY FREQUENCY AND DURATION
RELATIONSHIP

A
I
tB
Where A and B are constants and vary for different areas/cities.
For LAHORE A = 7190, B = 103
(For once in 5 years frequency)
(Based on 27 years rainfall record)
BASIC CONCEPTS
A

Sewer Inlet

A B M1

M2
Sewer

i) Assume rainfall is occurring on areas A with a CONSTANT intensity.

ii) First of all, depressions will be filled in the area due to rainfall.
iii) Some rainfall water will start getting absorbed in the soil.
iv) After that the rainwater will start moving towards SEWER INLET.
v) The first contribution to the sewer will be from areas nearest to the
sewer.
vi) The last contribution to the sewer will be from areas farthest from the
sewer.
vii) If the rain CONTINUES, the sewer will take the full storm water
discharge for the area A, when the storm water from the farthest area
starts reaching the sewer.
viii) So THIS SEWER SHOULD BE DESIGNED FOR A DURATION
OF RAINFALL WHICH IS EQUAL TO OR GREATER THAN THE
TIME OF TRAVEL OF STORM WATER FROM THE FARTHEST
POINT TO THE SEWER INLET.
INLET TIME:
It is the time required for the rain water to flow from the farthest point
over the surface of the ground to the sewer inlet.
Usually the inlet time is taken between 3 – 20 minutes.
SECOND CASE
i) Maximum runoff at M1 will be developed
when rainfall duration is = or > than INLET
TIME .
ii) So sewer line between M1 and M2 should
be designed for that run off.
iii) Maximum run off at M2 will be developed
when rainfall duration is = or > than
 INLET TIME (upto M1)  Time of

 run off travel in sewer from M1 to M 2.
 OR INLET TIME OF AREA B TO M 2.
WHICH EVER IS GREATER
iv) So sewer line between M2 and M3 should
be designed for that run off.
TIME OF CONCENTRATION
It is defined as the LONGEST TIME that will be required for a drop
of water to flow from the upper limit of a drainage area to the POINT OF
CONCENTRATION.
 IT IS THE TIME REQUIRED FOR THE MAXIMUM RUN OFF
RATE TO DEVELOP.
 THE TIME OF CONCENTRATION TO ANY POINT IN A STORM
SEWER IS A COMBINATION OF INLET TIME + TIME OF
FLOW IN THE SEWER.
(So storm water sewers must be designed taking into consideration the
time of concentration at various manholes).

CRITICAL DURATION OF RAINFALL

It is the duration of rainfall which will produce MAXIMUM RUN
OFF and so it is equal to the TIME OF CONCENTRATION.
CONCLUSION
THE DESIGN OF STORM SEWER REQUIRES ESTIMATING TIME OF
CONCENTRATION AND THEN USING IT AS RAINFALL DURATION TO
FIND THE RAINFALL INTENSITY AT THAT DURATION FROM
FORMULA:
A
I
tB

STEPS FOR THE DESIGN OF STORM SEWER

1. Estimate the TIME OF CONCENTRATION.
2. Take this as CRITICAL DURATION OF RAINFALL to produce
MAXIMUM RUN OFF.
3. Find out INTENSITY OF RAINFALL for that duration of rainfall
using:
A
I
tB
4. Use this I in C/A to find Q.
REMEMBER
i) If the duration of rainfall is MORE, the average intensity will be
LESS.
ii) If the duration of storm is LESS than the Time of Concentration,
MAXIMUM RUN OFF will NOT be developed. Maximum run off
will only be produced if the duration of storm EQUALS or
EXCEEDS the Time of Concentration.
 HYDRAULIC COMPUTATIONS FOR STORMWATER FLOW
Sr. Location From To Incre- Time I Q = Velo- Dia of Sewer Length Time Sewer Ground Invert
No. (Street) MH MH ment C AC AC of A CIA city Sewer Slope of of Capa- Elevation Level
Area Conc. = m/sec (mm) sewer Flow city
A T tB (m) (min.) m3/sec. U/S D/S U/S D/S
(min.)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
LECTURE NO. 6
LAYING OF SEWERS IN TRENCHES
(LINE AND GRADE)

Let I.L at Cleat 2 = 369.50

Let I.L at Cleat 1 = 369.30
Let nail mark on the CLEAT be 3 m above I.L.
Mark at Cleat 2 = 372.50
Mark at Cleat 1 = 372.30
Mark on BONING ROD = 3 m
From the Bottom End.
 PROCEDURE FOR SEWER INSTALLATION
1. Mark an OFFSET LINE on the ground PARALLEL to the sewer line.
The contractor will measure from the offset line to layout the
TRENCH.
2. Excavate the trench to proper width and nearly to the desired depth.
3. Place the BEDDING in the trench.
4. Place BATTER BOARDS across the trench at 10 – 15 m intervals
using PEGS.
5. Locate the CENTRE LINE of the sewer on the batter board by the
EDGE of an UPRIGHT CLEAT.
6. Place a NAIL on each cleat at some EVEN DISTANCE above the I.L.
of the sewer (e.g., 3 m).
7. Stretch a String (CORD) over the NAILS, from cleat to cleat to
indicate the SLOPE of the sewer.
8. Transfer the SEWER ALIGNMENT from the CORD to the bedding
surface by means of a PLUMB BOB.
9. Transfer SEWER SLOPE by means of BONING ROD marked with
even increments.
10. Check the SLOPE (GRADE) by placing short piece of the boning rod
on the INVERT of each length of sewer and noting that the PROPER
MARK (e.g., 3 m) touches the cord.
OPTIONAL ACTIVITIES
1. BRACING
Usually employed when the trench becomes too deep or strata is loose.
Bracing avoids CAVING of the trench walls thus preventing accidents.
2. DEWATERING
It is done when sewer is to be laid under water table. It is carried out by
installing pumps on both sides of the trench during installation of sewer.
SEWER PIPES
QUALITIES TO LOOK FOR:
1. Cheap.
2. Durability for Long Life.
3. Abrasion Resistant Interior to Withstand Scouring.
4. Impervious Walls to prevent Leakage.
5. Adequate Strength to resist Failure under BACKFILL or Traffic Load.
TYPES OF PIPE
PVC 
 Employed by households.
AC 
PCC 
 Most widely used in cities.
RCC 
CI 
 Used under unusual loading conditions and in FORCE MAINS.
STEEL 
PCC PIPES
Normally used for small storm drains and sanitary sewers.
Specifications: ASTM
Size: 100 mm – 600 mm
Class: I II III
Weakest Normally Strongest
Used
Wall Thickness: A B C
Min. Normally Max.
Thickness used Thickness
RCC PIPES
Normally used for sanitary and combined sewers.
Specifications: ASTM
Size: 225 mm – 4500 mm
Class: Available in 5 classes.
I II III IV V
Weakest Normally Strongest
used
Wall Thickness: A B C
Min. Normally Max.
Thickness used Thickness
LECTURE NO. 7
LOADS ON BURIED PIPES

Sewer design requires prior knowledge of soil and site conditions to

determine overburden loads that will be placed on buried pipes.
Total Load = Backfill Load + Live Load.
Backfill Load (W): It depends upon.
- Trench Width (B).
- Depth of Burial i.e. Depth of fill above pipe (H).
- Unit weight of fill material (W).
- Frictional Characteristics of Backfill.
Live Load Live loads on the surface.
Rarely influences design of sanitary sewers
because of their Great Depth and Small Size.
BACKFILL LOAD ON SEWERS
Backfill load on buried pipes can be calculated using MARSTON’S
EQUATION.
W = C  B2
Where
W = Load on the pipe per unit length, Kg/m.
 = Weight of the backfill material per unit volume, kg/m3.
B = Width of the trench, m
B = 1.5 D + 0.3 m (as minimum)
D = Dia of the sewer in m.
C = A coefficient depending upon:
- Depth of fill on top of the pipe.
- Character of construction fill material
 0.22 H / B
1 e
C
0.22
For saturated clay.
H = Depth of fill above the top of the pipe, m
B = Width of the trench, m
FOR STRUCTURAL STABILITY, STRENGTH OF SEWER (as
determined by 3 – EDGE BEARING TEST) SHOULD BE GREATER than
the BACKFILL load on the sewer.

STRENGTH OF RCC PIPES

Three edge bearing test is used to measure
strength of R.C.C. pipes. Load is applied on the
pipe to produce 0.25 mm crack. The test defines
the load that can be safely supported by the
sewer.
SEWER BEDDINGS
If sewer is simply laid by placing the pipe on
the FLAT TRENCH BOTTOM, the pipe will not
be able to support a load significantly greater than
the three edge bearing test.
However, if the bedding touches at least the
LOWER QUADRANT of the sewer and backfill
material is carefully TAMPTED around the sides
of the sewer, the SUPPORTING STRENGTH of
the pipe significantly increases.
LOAD FACTOR
Load factor expresses this INCREASE IN
STRENGTH. Numerically
Load Carrying Capacity
Load Factor (L.F.) 
3  Edge Bearing Strength
 SEWER BEDDINGS IN LAHORE (WASA)

A. BRICK BALLAST

Used under poor subsoil conditions,

ABOVE THE WATER TABLE

Size of the ballast: 1 – 1½ gauge.

(broken from first class bricks)

LOAD FACTOR = 1.7

B. CRUSHED STONE

Used under poor sub soil conditions

BELOW THE WATER TABLE

Size of the stone: ¾ – 1½ gauge.

LOAD FACTOR = 1.9

C. CONCRETE CRADLE

Used under increased strength requirements.

LOAD FACTOR = 3.0

 JOINTS IN SEWER PIPES

TWO TYPES IN CONCRETE AND RCC PIPES

 
(Upto 300 mm ) (>300 mm )

1) BELL AND SPIGOT JOINT

Employed for sewers from 225 mm to 600 mm 

2) TONGUE AND GROOVE JOINT

Employed for sizes > 600 mm .
LECTURE NO. 8
SEWER APPURTENANCES

Appurtenances are those devices, in addition to the pipes and conduits, that
are ESSENTIAL for the operation of the sewer system. These include:
Manhole Drop Manholes
Inlets Catch basins
Oil and Grease Traps.
Flush tanks
Inverted Siphons
Pumping Stations

Important ones are explained.

1) MANHOLE
Purpose, spacing, locations – Already discussed. See sketch.
2) DROP MANHOLE
When a lateral or submain joins in a deeper sewer, excavation will be
saved by keeping the upper sewer at a reasonable grade and making the
vertical drop at the manhole. This is known as drop manhole (See sketch). It
is constructed when the DROP is more than 0.6 m.
When the drop is less than 0.6 m, an ordinary manhole is built but the
bottom is so arranged that the INCOMING SEWAGE falls in a sloping
channel without SPLASHING.
3) INLETS
An inlet is an opening into a STORM or COMBINED sewer for
entrance of storm run off. It is designed to permit the passage of water from
the street surface into the sewer.
Two types of inlets are usually used:
i) CURB INLET

ii) GUTTER INLET

iii) CATCH BASINS

These are like inlets but DEEPER enough to store the settled grit
which is then removed periodically (See sketch).

INLETS
LECTURE NO. 9
SEWAGE PUMPING STATIONS
OBJECTIVES
To ELEVATE and TRANSPORT wastewater when:
i) Continuation of gravity flow is no longer feasible.
ii) Basements are deep.
iii) Any obstacle lies in the path of sewer.
iv) Receiving stream is higher than the sewer.
v) Sewage is to be delivered to an above ground treatment plant.

PUMPS FOR SEWAGE

 CENTRIFUGAL, VERTICAL, NON CLOG TYPE
 IMPELLER having 2 or 3 vanes.
 Low Head.
 RPM 200 – 1200
Other Aspects:
 Pump SUCTION pipe diameter is usually larger than that of the
DISCHARGE pipe (Force Main) by about 25%.
 The smallest discharge pipe is 80 mm.
 The smallest suction pipe is 100 mm.
 Capacity of the pump = MAXIMUM FLOW
 NUMBER OF PUMPS: 2 (MINIMUM)

Small stations generally have 2 pumps, each
of maximum flow capacity.
Any Number (MAXIMUM) To cope with
varying demand.
COMPONENTS OF SEWAGE PUMP STATIONS
1. Screens
2. Dry well – For installation of pumps.
3. Wet Well – For receipt of wastewater.
(SEE SKETCH)
4. Pumps – along with valves, force main, motor, control panel, etc.
 mm

 For automatic operation i.e., ON – OFF System, use electric probes,

located in the wet well.

SEWAGE PUMPING STATION

LECTURE NO. 10
DESIGN OF WET WELL AND PUMP SELECTION
In small pumping stations, where pump is sized to meet the peak or
maximum flow, the following considerations are made.
1. The pump MUST run for at least 2 minutes. (Too frequent starting
and stopping of the pump should be avoided as considerable amount
of heat is generated during the operation of the motor. This heat
should be dissipated and the motor allowed to cool before it is
restarted).
2. CYCLE TIME must not be less than 5 minutes. (For the above quoted
reason). For larger pumps, cycle time should not be less than 20
minutes. For smaller pumps a cycle time of 15 minutes is desirable.
3. The DETENTION TIME in the wet well at average flow should
preferably be not more than 30 minutes to avoid sewage being septic.
CYCLE TIME
It is the time between successive start-ups of the motor pump.
Cycle time = Time to run + Time off
= Time to EMPTY the wet well + Time to FILL the wet
well.
Let V = volume of wet well.
V V
t = 
PQ Q
(Cycle time)
Where;
P = Pumping rate (which is constant) and equal to
MAXIMUM FLOW.
Q = Sewage inflow (which is varying with time).
For each pump, the manufacturer gives the MINIMUM
RECOMMENDED CYCLE TIME. Therefore wet well should be designed
in such a way that the CYCLE TIME is ALWAYS GREATER than the
manufacturer’s given figure.
 It can be proved that the MINIMUM CYCLE TIME (tmin) will be
reached when:
Sewage Flow Rate is HALF of pumping Rate.
1
i.e., Q  P 
2
Thus
V V 4V
tmin =   
P  12 P 12 P P
Tmin . P
V 
4
PROOF:
V V
t 
PQ Q
Differentiating w.r., to Q (which is variable)
dt V V
 
dQ (P  Q) 2 Q 2
dt
For tmin, 0
dQ
V V
  0
(P  Q) 2 Q2
P = 2Q
1
Q P 
2
PUMPS
1. Number - 2 for small stations (i.e., one as standby).
Capacity: Peak Flow
- At least 4 for large pumping stations, with following
capacities:
1) Minimum Flow 2) Average Flow
3) Maximum Flow 4) Maximum flow (Standby)
2. Intake - Each pump should have a separate intake.
3. Velocity - At design average flow, a velocity in EXCESS of 0.6 m/s
in the discharge line should be maintained.
4. Priming - To be avoided by having a positive suction head.
5. Valves - Place Gate Valves on both SUCTION and DISCHARGE
pipes.
- Place Check Valve on DISCHARGE pipe.
LECTURE NO. 11
SEWAGE CHARACTERISTICS

(> 99.9% Water) PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BACTERIOLOGICAL

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. SOLIDS – TS, SS, Settleable Solids, VSS
 TS (Total Solids)  * Indicate Strength of Sewage.
* Amount of treatment required
* Indicate efficiency of treatment
TS = SS + Sett.S + DS (1.2  filter)
 SS, (Suspended Solids)  * Indicate Strength of Sewage
+(Settleable solids) * Help in selection of treatment process
design and operation
 VSS (Volatile SS)  Represent Organic Matter.
VSS + fixed Solids = SS
 Fixed Solids  Have little significance.

2. TEMPERATURE
Normal sewage temperature is slightly higher than the water
temperature because of heat added during utilization. High sewage
temperature is indicative of industrial waste inclusion.
3. COLOUR
Gray for normal, others for industrial waste inclusion.
4. ODOUR
Fresh sewage is odourless.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
These are important for the control of the operation of treatment plant.
1. ORGANICS
(i.e., proteins, carbohydrates, fats, oil, phenols etc.)
Measured as BOD, COD.
2. INORGANICS
pH: Very important in controlling the operation of the
treatment plant.
Alkalinity, Acidity: Ordinary sewage is slightly alkaline. Presence of
industrials waste may cause acidity. Alkaline conditions
are desirable for treatment process.
Chlorides: These come from urine of man and animals. High Cl 
concentrations are indicative of industrials waste
inclusion.
Nitrogen: It may exist in various forms, i.e., Free ammonia (due
to bacterial decomposition of organic matter).
 Organic Nitrogen (N combined with organics)
Org. N + Free ammonia are the index of organic
nitrogenous matter present in the sewage.
 Nitrites
 Nitrates.
 NITROGEN IS ESSENTIAL FOR THE GROWTH OF
MICRO-ORGANISMS IN SEWAGE TREATMENT.
 Where control of algal growth in the receiving water bodies is
necessary, it might be desirable to REMOVE nitrogen.
Heavy Metals - Indicate inclusion of industrial wastes in sewage.
Result in adverse health effects on man and
animals.
 3. GASES
O2 - It’s presence is necessary to prevent ANAEROBIC
CONDITIONS.
H2S - It produces CROWN CORROSION in sewers.
BACTERIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Coliforms.
 Pathogens.
 Worms

MEASUREMENT OF ORGANIC CONTENT

The methods generally employed are:
BOD, COD
1. BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)
It is the amount of oxygen required by the bacteria to oxidize
the organic matter present in the sewage under AEROBIC conditions.
SIGNIFICANCE OF BOD
 BOD is used to assess the POLLUTION STRENGTH of sewage and
industrial wastes.
 It is used in the design of waste treatment facilities.
 It is used in determining the efficiency of biological waste treatment
processes.
 Stream and effluent standards are generally based on BOD5 at 20oC.
Q:
 Why is BOD5 at 20oC used as a standard?
 What happens when wastewater is disposed into the river?
LECTURE NO. 12
BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION OF ORGANIC MATTER

MONOMOLECULAR REACTION (First Order Reaction)

It is a chemical reaction in which the rate of reaction is proportional to the
concentration of the reactants present.
Biological oxidation of organic matter is a first order reaction i.e., the rate of
OXIDTION is proportional to the ORGANIC MATTER REMAINING.
i.e.

Where,
L = Concentration of organic matter.
K = Reaction rate constant.
Integrating
Lt t
dL
 L   K .  dt
Lo to
Where;
Lt = Organic matter REMAINING at time t i.e., BOD remaining
at time t.
Lo = Original concentration of organic matters i.e., ULTIMATE
BOD
Lt
ln   Kt
Lo
or Lt = Lo e  Kt 

Let ‘y’ by the concentration of organic matter (BOD) CONSUMED upto time t.
Then
 y = Lo – Lt
 y = Lo – Lo e  Kt

or y  Lo (1 e kt ) 

i.e., BOD consumed = Ultimate BOD (1 e kt ) in ‘t’ days.

K is BOD reaction rate constant. For DOMESTIC SEWAGE K = 0.23 per
day at 20oC.
The value of K is temperature dependent.
K T  K 20 (1.047) T  20
DETERMINATION OF BOD.
Already explained in the practical class.
POPULATION EQUIVALENT
Population equivalent of an industrial establishment is the number of
persons which may produce the same amount of BOD load per day as is being
produced by the industrial establishment.
BOD contribution per person per day in sewage is taken as 80 – 90 gms of
BOD/person/day.
Population equivalent is a useful term to indicate the strength of an industrial
waste.
SIGNIFICANCE OF NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS
These are important as NUTRIENTS for microorganisms growth.
N – An essential part of protein.
P – Required for energy storage and transfer.
BOD : N : P
100 : 5 : 1
If N & P are not sufficient, add NH 4 salt i.e., UREA CO(NH2)2 and
Phosphates to wastewater.
2. CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)
It is the amount of oxygen required to oxidize, CHEMICALLY, the organic
matter. It is measured by using a strong chemical oxidizing agent in an acidic
medium i.e., K2Cr2O7 in H2SO4.
Advantage: * Only 2 hrs needed for the test as compared to 5 days for
BOD.
* BOD/COD ratio indicates the extent of
BIODEGRADABILITY of the wastewater
BOD : COD > 0.6  Biodegradable waste.
* `BOD/COD Correlation may help in rapid assessment
of BOD.

SEWAGE CHARACTERISTICS
Parameter Strong Medium Weak
Total solids, mg/L 1200 750 350
Dissolved Solids, mg/L 850 500 250
Suspended Solids, mg/L 350 200 100
Settleable Solids, ml/L 20 10 5
BOD5, mg/L 300 200 100
COD, mg/L 1000 500 250
Total Nitrogen, mg/L 85 40 20
LECTURE NO. 14
OBJECTIVES OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT
1. HEALTH ASPECTS
Pathogens, Helminths, Viruses
(>50 Excreta related diseases)
2. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
RECEIVING WATERS AND LAND POLLUTION

1. DO Depletion (BOD)
2. Turbidity, Colour (S.S.)
3. Eutrophication (N, P.)
4. Heavy Metals (Hg, Cr, Ni, Cd etc.)
IMPACTS
1. Aquatic Life
2. D/S Water Treatment
3. Algal Blooms, Taste, Odour, Colour
4. Toxic to Plants, Animals.
3. REUSE ASPECTS
- Sewage Irrigation.
- Groundwater Recharge.
PEPA EFFLUENT STANDARD BOD  80 mg/L
(For disposal of wastewater in rivers/canals.)
TREATMENT OF WASTEWATERS

THROUGH TREATMENT PLANTS

A SERIES OF PHYSICAL

CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL

PROCESSES

TREATMENT SEQUENCE

 PRELIMINARY TREATMENT

 PRIMARY TREATMENT

 SECONDARY TREATMENT

 TERTIARY TREATMENT
 INFLUENT

PRELIMINARY TREATMENT
Removes roots, rags,
SCREENING cans, large debris


Removes sand, silt,
GRIT REMOVAL gravel, glass and metallic
pieces.
PRIMARY TREATMENT 
SEDIMENTATION Removes settleable
AND FLOTATION and floating
materials.

SECONDARY TREATMENT 
BIOLOGICAL, Removes suspended
CHEMICAL AND and dissolved solids.
PHYSICAL PROCESSES

TERTIARY
FILTRATION,
TREATMENT LAGOONING, GRASS
(OPTIONAL) PLOTS ETC.
Employed for effluent
polishing and removal of
nutrients.

EFFLUENT

Fig.1 General Flow Diagram of a Wastewater Treatment Plant

PRELIMINARY AND  ACCOMPLISHED THROUGH
PRIMARY TREATMENT PHYSICAL METHODS

SECONDARY TREATMENT
 BIOLOGICAL METHODS Employed for Biodegradable waste
Invariably Cheaper
CHEMICAL METHODS Costly
Used for:
Colloidal/DS Removal
Heavy Metals Removal
 PHYSICAL METHODS Used for:

Sett. S. Removal
Floating Matter Removal
Balancing.
TERTIARY TREATMENT Physical/Chemical/Biological
Methods – Used for:
- Heavy Metals.
- Nutrients.
- Pathogens Removals.
LECTURE NO. 15
PHYSICAL TREATMENT METHOD
SCREENING
GRIT REMOVAL
SEDIMENTATION
FLOTATION – SEPARATION OF OIL, SCUM, GREASE AND
FINE SOLID PARTICLES.
EVAPORATION – REMOVAL OF Cr, Ni, Zn.
FILTRATION SLUDGE DEWATERING
BALANCING TO EVEN OUT FLOW,
(EQUALIZATION) TEMPERATURE, pH, STRENGTH (BOD)
VARIATIONS.
PRELIMINARY TREATMENT
SCREENING REMOVAL OF LARGER SUSPENSIONS

 Mechanically Cleaned Screens

 Hand cleaned Screens

 V > 0.6 m/sec. <1 m/sec.
 H.L. 15 cm
 Min. Units. 2

 Location Before Pumps, Grit Chamber


To avoid Clogging, Damage
GRIT CHAMBER
PURPOSE
To remove GRIT particles > 0.2 mm 

(Grit material consists of sand, silt, gravel and other heavy
INORGANIC solid material)
GRIT damages the pumps and mechanical equipment resulting in
excessive wear.
GRIT, if not removed, may accumulate in primary sedimentation
tanks and CLOG the sludge lines.
GRIT may cause serious troubles in SLUDGE DIGESTION.

HORIZONTAL FLOW CHANNEL

Velocity 0.25 – 0.30 m/sec.

Detention Time 40 – 60 Sec.

Length 10 – 20 m

Cleaning Interval 2 Weeks

Vel. Control Sutro Weir
Data Required Qmax, Qav, Qmin.
No. 2

PRIMARY TREATMENT
PURPOSE 1. REMOVAL OF SETTLEABLE AND FLOATING
MATERIALS.
2. REDUCTION OF LOAD ON BIOLOGICAL UNITS.
SEDIMENTATION
PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION TANKS
DESIGN BASIS

SURFACE OVERFLOW RATE.
Q
Vs  = S.O.R. m/day.
S.A.
Primary Sedimentation Tank
BOD  25  40%
Re movals
S.S.  50  60 %
Design Basis  Average Daily Flow
S.O.R.  25 – 40 m/day.
Detention Time.  1.5 – 2.5 Hrs.
Depth  2–5m
Tank Nos.  2 Minimum

SHAPE
L max 30 m
Rectangular 
L: W 4:1
Circular DIA max 100 m

SECONDARY SED. TANK (Not Part of Primary Treatment)

Design Basis  Average Daily Q
S.O.R.  30 – 40 m/day.
Detention Time.  2 – 3 Hrs.
Depth  2.5 – 3 m
SHAPE
Rectangular / Circular
LECTURE NO. 16
SECONDARY TREATMENT
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES
1. Chemical Precipitation
Employed for:
 BOD, S.S. Removals.
 Improving Sedimentation Process.
 Removal of Phosphorus.
 Removal of Organics (Using P.A.C.)
Chemicals Employed:
Alum, FeCl3, Ca(OH)2, Clay etc.
DOSE MUST BE DETERMINED IN THE LAB.
For Metal Removal   pH Ca(OH)2, METAL

For Colloidal Removal Use
 Coagulant ppt
(Sedimentation)

Rapid Mix
Flocculation
Sedimentation

2. Neutralization
ACID / ALKALI  pH Adjustment
DOSE TO BE DETERMINED IN THE LAB.
3. Balancing
 Physical process.
 To even-out Flow, Temperature, pH, BOD Variations.
 Tank Capacity = One Production Cycle/24 Hours.
LECTURE NO. 17, 18
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS (ASP)
Devised by ARDEN & LOCKETT (1914, Manchester)

ACTIVATED SLUDGE
It is a FLOC (i.e., body of micro-organisms gathered in a crowd)
produced in a raw or settled sewage by the growth of bacteria and other
organisms in the presence of dissolved oxygen and accumulated in sufficient
concentrations by returning floc previously formed.
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS
In this process a mixture of sewage and activated sludge is agitated and
aerated in an AERATION TANK. Bacteria present in the activated sludge
aerobically metabolize the organic matter present in the influent. The organic
matter is oxidized to CO2, H2O, NH3 etc., and a portion of it is converted into
NEW BACTERIAL CELLS. The activated sludge is subsequently separated
from the MIXED LIQUOR by sedimentation in the FINAL CLARIFIER and
wasted or returned to the aeration tank as needed. The treated effluent overflows
from the final clarifier.
MIXED LIQUOR
It is the mixture of sewage and activated sludge in the aeration tank.
A.S.P.

SLUDGE SETLEABLITY
The degree of treatment in ASP depends upon the settleability of sludge
in the final clarifier. The biological floc settles by gravity and leaves a clear
supernatant for disposal.
 However, if FILAMENTOUS MICRO-ORGANISMS grow in the
AERATION TANK, they DO NOT separate by gravity and contribute to BOD
and SS in the effluent.
Excessive carry over of floc, resulting in the INEFFICIENT operation of
final clarifier is referred to as SLUDGE BULKING.
CONDITIONS PROMOTING GROWTH
OF FILAMENTOUS MICROORGANISMS

(Leading to Sludge Bulking)
 Insufficient Aeration (DO Level < 2 mg/L)
 Lack of Nutrients (N, P) BOD : N : P

100 : 5 : 1
 Low pH (Promotes fungal growth)
 Over Loading i.e., High F : M Ratio.
F : M Ratio
F : M ratio is expressed in terms of Kg of BOD applied per day per kg of
MLSS.
If Q is the sewage flow in m3/day and it has a BOD expressed in mg/L,
then:
Q  BOD
FOOD  Kg BOD/Day 
1000
If V is the volume of aeration tank in m3 and it has an MLSS
concentration expressed in mg/L, then:
V MLSS
MICROORGANISMS = Kg MLSS 
1000
Q  BOD
 F: M  per day 
V  MLSS
BOD
= per day 
MLSS  t
Where;
t is the AERATION TIME in days 
  An F : M ratio between 0.25 to 0.5 per day is usually employed and
promises GOOD SETTLING CHARACTERISTICS of sludge.

MEASUREMENTS OF SLUDGE SETTLEABILITY

SLUDGE VOLUME INDEX (SVI)
SVI indicates sludge settling characteristics. It is the volume in ml
occupied by one gram of settled suspended solids.
Test to Determine SVI:
 Take mixed liquor sample at the end of the aeration tank.
 Measure the volume of sludge (in ml) settled in a graduated
cylinder of one litre capacity in 30 minutes. Call it Vs in ml.
 Also measure the MLSS content in mg/l of the mixed liquor
sample.
Vs 1000
SVI  ml/g 
MLSS
 An SVI from 50 to 150 indicates GOOD settling characteristics.

DESIGN CRITERIA
 F : M Ratio 0.25 – 0.5 per day.
 MLSS 1500 – 2000 -2500- 3000 mg/L

 Air Supply 5–10–15 m3 of air/m3 of sewage.

 Return sludge 25% - 100% of sewage flow.
 Aeration time 4 – 8 hours
 Dissolved O2 Level 2 mg/L (As minimum)
Also
Qr Vs
 
Q 1000  Vs
Where
Vs = Vol. of settled sludge in ml.
Qr = Flow of return sludge.
Q = Flow of sewage.
  No. of Aeration Tanks 2 (As minimum)
 Aeration Tank dimensions
RECTANGULAR L:W>5:1
DEPTH 3–5m
AERATION SYSTEM

DIFFUSERS SURFACE AERATORS


Pressure 40 KPa

DIFFUSER SYSTEM
Diffuser Size 150 mm  CERAMIC DOMES
Bubble Size 2.0 mm – 2.5 mm
Diffusers are generally placed in rows 0.6 m to 1.0 m apart, at the bottom
of the tank.
 Operation of diffusers in NOISE-LESS.
 Less aerosols are formed.

SURFACE AERATORS
Mechanical surface aerators are employed in the aeration tank. They spin
partially in and partially out of the mixed liquor. The mixed liquor is violently
thrown across the surface of the tank for adsorption of oxygen from the air.
Surface aerators require less maintenances and provide visual evidence of
break down.
TWO IMPORTANT TYPES OF ASP
i) CONVENTIONAL (PLUG FLOW)

Disadvantages
1. FM ratio varies as the wastewater travels in the tank.
2. DO requirements become less along the length of the aeration tank,
but the diffusers are spaced equally.
Advantages
1. Gives better BOD removal efficiency.
ii) COMPLETE MIXING PROCESS
 Most widely employed.
 The contents of the aeration tank (i.e., return sludge + sewage
influent) are completely mixed to result in:
o Constant F : M ratio throughout the tank.
 Diffusers/Surface aerators are spaced equally in the tank to result in
UNIFORM Oxygen supply.
Advantages:
The process can effectively handle SHOCK LOADS (i.e., instant
variations in influent BOD, temperature, pH etc.)
ADVANTAGES OF A.S.P.
 HIGH BOD Removals (> 95%)
 LOW land areas required.
 Odour free operation.
 Treats Industrial Wastes well.
DISADVANTAGES OF A.S.P.
 Extremely sensitive/Sophisticated.
 Skilled Operation.
 Very often goes out of order (>50% plants in USA not operating
well)
 Sludge bulking problem.
 High operating costs.
 Not suitable for developing countries.
LECTURE NO. 19
TRICKLING FILTERS (T.F.)

DESCRIPTION
These consist of highly permeable media to which
MOCROORGANISMS are attached and through which sewage is percolated.
 Media consists of ROCKS, STONES varying in size from 60 to 90
mm dia.
 Depth of the bed varies from 1 to 3 m, 2 m being average.
 Filters are usually CIRCULAR and sewage is SPRINKLED over
the TOP of the bed by a ROTARY distributor (Generally having 4
arms).
 Each filter has an UNDER DRAIN SYSTEM for:
i) Collecting the TREATED EFFLUENT.
ii) To allow AIR CIRCULATION through the filter.
The organic matter present in the sewage is degraded by the
microorganisms attached to the filter media. PROTOZOA, FUNGI, ALGAE
and BACTERIA, all are present.
THEORY OF FILTRATION
 The BACTERIAL FILM sticks to the stones.
 Fine SUSPENDED PARTICLES are removed and held by the
film.
 COLLOIDAL PARTICLES are ADSORBED by the film.
 DISSOVED ORGANICS are ABSORBED by bacterial cells.
 Due to AIR present in the filter, AEROBIC OXIDATION takes
place at the UPPER LAYER of bacterial film.
 In the LOWER LAYER of the film, DO may sometime not be
present (to result in anaerobic conditions).
 Layer of BACTERIAL FILM becomes thicker as the oxidation of
organic matter proceeds.
  Due to NON-AVAILABILITY of DO, bacteria sticking to the
stone DIE and leave the stone. The sludge mass thus appears with
the effluent.
 Under such conditions, the T.F. is said to be SLOUGHING.
PRETREATMENT REQUIRED
Primary sedimentation of sewage.
CLASSIFICATION OF T.F.
i) Low Rate (Standard Rate) – Not used these days.
ii) High Rate – Widely employed.

Factor High Rate T.F.

i) Hydraulic Loading 9 – 27 m3/m2 . day
ii) Organic Loading 1.5 – 18.5 kg BOD/day
iii) Depth. 1 – 2.5 m
iv) Recirculation (Qr : Q) 1:1 to 4:1 to 7:1
v) Configuration Single or double stage.

FLOW DIAGRAM
HIGH RATE FILTERS (SINGLE STAGE)

ADVANTAGES OF T.F.
1. Satisfactory BOD reduction i.e., 95%.
 2. Effective in handling shock loads.
3. Low operating cost.

DISADVANTAGES OF T.F.
1. Significant head loss (3 – 5 m).
2. Large areas required.
3. High construction cost.
4. Odour and fly (Psychoda) nuisance.

PERFORMANCE OF T.F.
To estimate the performance efficiency of T.F., NATIONAL
RESEARCH COUNCIL (NRC) empirical formula is used. The formula is
based upon data collected at military basis within USA during World War–II.
Ci  C e 1
E 
Ci [Link]
1  0.532
VF
Where;
Ci = Influent BOD, mg/L.
Ce = Effluent BOD, mg/L.
V = Filter Volume, m3
Q = Flow, m3/min.
F = Recirculation Factor.
1 r
F =
(1  0.1r ) 2
Qr Re circulated Flow
r = 
Q Average Sewage Flow
LECTURE NO. 20, 21, 22
WASTEWATER STABILIZATION PONDS
OR
WASTE STABILIZATION PONDS
 A LOW COST TECHNOLOGY for the treatment of sewage and
organic industrial effluent.
 Ponds are shallow excavations with earth embankments to treat
wastewaters using a once through mode of operation.
ADVANTAGES
Most suited for developing countries, because
o These do not required skilled operation and imported
equipment.
o Maintenance is easy.
o Minimum sludge handling requirements.
o Pose little risk to human health.
 Ponds are primarily designed to achieve ORGANIC,
PATHOGENS and HELMINTH REMOVALS.
 These also remove EXCESSIVE NUTRIENTS and HEAVY
METALS.
DIS-ADVANTAGES
Ponds require large land areas.
TYPES
ANAEROBIC PONDS
FACULTATIVE PONDS
MATURATION PONDS
SEQUENCE
WASTEWATERANAEROBICFACULTATIVEMATURATIONEFFLUENT
POND POND POND
ANAEROBIC PONDS
 Primarily designed to treat STRONG ORGANIC WASTES or
those containing HIGH SUSPENDED SOLIDS CONTENT.
 These are DEVOID OF D.O.
 Can affect HIGH ORGANIC REMOVALS (BOD, S.S.) in
SHORT DETENTION TIME.
Anaerobic ponds are shown in Fig. 1

These are generally 2.5 m deep.

PROCESS AND DESIGN

In anaerobic ponds, most of the suspended solids along with worm eggs
and pathogenic bacteria settle to the bottom where under anaerobic conditions
organic matter is converted into CO2, CH4, H2S, NH3, and other end products.
The gases are dispersed to the atmosphere through the liquid phase. Floating
materials in the pond form scum which also absorbs the escaping gases.
A liquid detention time of 1 to 5 days is generally employed. Loading rate
is kept 100 – 250 g BOD per m3 volume of the pond. The effluent from
anaerobic ponds requires treatment in facultative ponds before final discharge.
The sludge accumulation rate in these ponds is very slow and as such they
require desludging every three to five years.
DISADVANTAGES
Anaerobic ponds may produce foul smells. These should preferably be
located far away from housing communities.
FACULTATIVE PONDS

 Shown in Fig. 2

 Generally have a water depth of 1.5 – 2 m.

 In these ponds, DO persists throughout most of the liquid depth
during day time.

PROCESS AND DESIGN

In these ponds, settleable solids deposit on the bottom and organic matter
in the sludge layer undergoes anaerobic breakdown. Soluble fermentation
products enter the liquid layer above and are broken down aerobically along
with soluble and colloidal organics in the incoming wastes. In sunlight growth
of algae takes place in the facultative ponds. Algae supply oxygen through
photosynthesis for the bacterial breakdown of organic matter. Algae in turn
utilize CO2 released by bacteria in breaking down the organic components of
the wastewater.
Detention time in properly designed facultative ponds will normally be 20
– 40 days. The BOD loading rates are kept between 150 – 250 kg BOD/ha/d.
The effluent from a facultative pond treating sewage is expected to have a BOD
between 70 to 85 mg/l under local conditions (Aziz, 1997). Facultative ponds
require desludging every 10 – 15 years and thus pose minimum health risk to
the handlers.
MATURATION PONDS (Polishing Ponds)
 These are fully AEROBIC.
 Usually 1.5 m DEEP.

  PRIMARILY used for DESTRUCTION OF PATHOGENS and
HELMINTH REMOVAL.
 Shown in Fig. 3.

PROCESS AND DESIGN

Maturation ponds are designed for the removal of pathogens using faecal
coliform as indicator organisms. Generally a detention time of 7 to 14 days is
employed in maturation ponds depending upon the nature of reuse of treated
effluent from the system.
With properly designed maturation ponds receiving treated domestic
sewage from facultative ponds, it is possible to have an effluent with BOD
around 30 mg/L, faecal coliform content of less then 1000 per 100 ml and a
helminth count of less than 1 nematode egg per litre.
The following relationship is used to assess the faecal coliform removals
in maturation ponds.
Ne 1

No 1 K b t
Where;
No = No. of faecal coliform in the influent/100 ml.
Ne = No. of faecal coliform in the effluent/100 ml.
t = Detention time in days.
Kb = Faecal coliform die off rate/day = 2.6/day at 20 oC
Kb is temperature dependent.
LECTURE NO. 23

SLUDGE TREATMENT
SLUDGES CONTAIN
 Huge Volumes
 Pathogens
 Nutrients
EXTREMELY DIFFICULT TO HANDLE AND TREAT
SLUDGE HANDLING  30 – 40% of Capital Cost
 50% of Operational Cost
90% of Operational Problems
TREATMENT  Invariably Anaerobic Digestion

PURPOSE
1. Removal of pathogens.
2. Reduction in sludge volumes.
3. Reduction in moisture content.
4. Recovery of CH4 (CH4 content 55% - 75%)
5. Use as fertilizer.

THEORY
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
1. Acid Forming Bacteria degrade organic matter.
Carbohydrates  Fatty Acids.
Proteins  Amino Acids  NH3 + Fatty Acids  pH Drops
2. Methane forming Bacteria
NH3 + Fatty Acids  CH4 + CO2
Slow, Work in pH Range 6.5 – 8.0
Work Better in pH Range 7.2 – 7.4
pH ADJUSTMENT
2 – 5 Kg Lime/1000 persons/day.
WATER CONTENTS OF SLUDGES
Type Raw Digested
P.S.T. 94 – 96% 88 – 94%
A.S.P. 98.5 – 99.5% 94 – 96%
T.F. 96 – 97% 90 – 94%

Wt. of Solids (Kg.) 1

Sludge Vol. (m3) = 
[Link] .  Fraction of Solids in Sludge 1000

SLUDGE DIGESTORS
 Air Tight Steel Tanks.
 Heating – 35oC
 Mixing – Propellers, Draft tube.
 Sludge Loading – Twice Daily.
 Gas Drawn from Top.
TWO STAGE PROCESS
First Digester  Heated and Mixed
Second Digester  Not Heated, Quiescent

Acts as Thickener
DESIGN CRITERIA
Solids Retention time (1st Digester) = 10 – 20 Days.
Volume m3/person (1st Digester) = 0.1
Digester Depth = 6m – 15m
Bottom Slopes = 1V : 3 H
Digester DIA = 6m – 40m
Fig. High Rate Sludge Digesters
LECTURE NO. 24
SLUDGE DRYING BEDS

COMMON DIMENSIONS
L = 40 m
W = 6 – 10m
Use Multiple No. of Beds.

AREA REQUIREMENTS
0.15 – 0.2 m2/Person
Sludge Vol. Reduction on Drying  60%
Dried sludge may be used as Fertilizer Landfill.
 EFFLUENT REUSE
1. Uses
In many parts of the world where water is scarce. Treated effluent may be
put to use for a variety of the purposes.
Such uses of wastewater may include:
 CROP IRRIGATION
 LANDSCAPE IRRIGATION
 AQUACULTURE
 GROUNDWATER RECHARGE

2. Quality
Effluent reuse may, however, incur risks to human health. In order to
mitigate the adverse impacts, restrictions in the form of
guidelines/standards are imposed on the quality of the effluent with
respect to their specific use. Based on the guidelines/standards imposed,
appropriate treatment methods may then be employed to produce the
effluent of the desired quality.
In the present lecture, the discussion will be limited to the most widely
employed reuse of the municipal wastewater, that is, for CROP
IRRIGATION.
As Pakistan faces scarcity of water, it is highly appropriate to use
TREATED SEWAGE for irrigation purposes. However, its use may pose
risk to human health. These risks mostly occur due to the presence of
pathogenic microorganisms and WORMS present in the effluent. These
risks may rise to the maximum when UNTREATED SEWAGE is used
for irrigation. The pathogen present in sewage enter the food chain
through the irrigated crops. Field workers may also get worm infections.
It is therefore highly desirable that the
PRACTICE OF USING RAW SEWAGE FOR IRRIGATION
PURPOSES MUST BE STRICTLY BANNED.
 To protect the health of field workers the ENGELBERG GUIDELINES
have been established for effluent to be used for RESTRICTED and
UNRESTRICTED IRRIGATION. These are shown in Table 1 and must be
adhered to.

Table 1: Engelberg Guidelines for Treated Wastewater

Reuse in Agricultural Irrigation
Faecal Coliform per 100
Reuse Process Worm eggs/L
ml
Restricted Irrigation
Irrigation of trees,
industrial crops, fodder ≤1 not applicable
crops, fruit trees and
pasture
Unrestricted Irrigation
Irrigation of edible crops,
≥1 ≤ 1000
sports field, and public
parks

3. Treatment options
Conventional sewage treatment plants e.g. activated sludge, trickling filters
etc. are highly inefficient for the removal of pathogens and worms to meet
the Engelberg Guidelines. However, waste stabilization ponds are highly
effective in producing the effluent which conforms to the guidelines for
unrestricted irrigation. Therefore, the use of waste stabilization ponds is
highly recommended for the purpose.
LECTURE NO. 25

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN PAKISTAN

1. PAKISTAN ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACT
1997:
To provide legal basis for the control of environmental pollution, the
Pakistan Environmental Protection Act was promulgated in December
1997. The act provides for the establishment of Pakistan Environmental
Protection Council (PEPC) which is responsible for establishing national
environmental policy and for overseeing its implementation. Under the
provision of the Act, Environmental Protection Agencies (EPAS) have
been created at the federal and provincial levels to establish and enforce
National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS). The Act also
provides for the protection and conservation of renewable resources. The
Act makes it mandatory for the proponent of a project to submit to
federal/provincial EPA an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for
approval.
2. PUNJAB ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACT
(2012):
In order to deal with varying environmental conditions in various
provinces, the Pakistan Environmental protection Act, 1997, was
amended giving it the title of respective province. All the clauses of the
Act remain the same. It was deemed that this amendment would prove
effective for the enforcement of the Act.
3. NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
STANDARDS:
To control the environmental pollution, National Environmental Quality
Standards (NEQS) have been enforced by the Pakistan Environmental
Protection Agency (PEPA). Provincial EPAs have been made
responsible for the implementation of these standards.
NEQS have been framed with respect to:
 Municipal and industrial liquid effluent discharge.
 Industrial gaseous emissions.
 Motor vehicles exhaust and noise.
 Drinking water quality.
 Ambient noise level.
 Ambient air quality.
 NEQS for municipal and industrial liquid effluent have been
enforced for 32 parameters and framed for three situations with
respect to discharge of the effluent i.e. inland waters, sewage
treatment plants and sea. Some important NEQS for the effluent to
be discharged into inland waters are given in Table 1.
 NEQS for industrial gases emission address 16 parameters. These
include standards for smoke, particulate matter, SOx, NOx, CO etc.
 NEQS for motor vehicles are framed for smoke, CO and noise.
 NEQS for drinking water quality have already been discussed in
Environmental Engineering-I course.
 NEQS for ambient noise are shown in Table 2.

TABLE: 1
NEQS FOR MUNICIPAL AND LIQUID INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT
Sr. No. Parameter NEQS for Inland Water Disposal
1 pH 6-9
2 BOD 80 mg/L
3 COD 150 mg/L
4 TSS 200 mg/L
5 Total Dissolved Solids 3500 mg/L
6 Total Toxic Metals 2.0 mg/L
7 Pesticides, Insecticides 0.15 mg/L
TABLE: 2
NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR AMBIENT NOISE

CATAGORY OF AREA/ ZONE LIMIT IN DB (A)

DAY TIME NIGHT
TIME
1) Residential area 55 45
2) Commercial area 65 55
3) Industrial area 75 65
4) Silence zone 50 45
LECTURE NO. 26-27
BUILDING DRAINAGE
It refers to the plumbing system for the collection of wastewater from the point of
use in a building and conveying it to the nearest sewer.

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

SOIL PIPE
A pipe through which wastewater carrying human excreta flows.

WASTEWATER PIPE
A pipe which conveys only liquid waste free from human excreta.

SIPHONAGE
A suction created by the flow of water in pipes.

VENT PIPE / ANTISIPHONAGE PIPE

Pipe that leads from the trap to the atmosphere to allow the drainage pressure in the
soil/wastewater pipe to become equalized i.e. for antisiphonage purpose. The vent
pipe carries the sewer gases to atmosphere and does not let them enter the room.
Vent pipes are thus used to prevent the loss of water seals in traps and as
antisiphonage device, as shown in the figure. Minimum size of the vent is 2 inches.

TRAP
A fitting placed in the drain pipe from a fixture for the purpose of holding water to
form a seal that will prevent the passage of gases and odours through the drainage
pipe. (See the figures)
 (a) Wastewater pipe without vent. Possibility of siphonage.
(b) Wastewater pipe with vent. Anti-siphonage facility.

CROSS CONNECTION
A physical connection between potable water and wastewater piping system
whereby the water may flow from one system to the other.

HOUSE SEWER
It is that part of the drainage system beginning just outside the house foundation
wall and terminating at main sewer in the street. Minimum recommended size is
six inches.
HOUSE DRAIN
It is that part of plumbing system which receives the drainage of all soil and waste
pipes within the building and conveys it to the house sewer. Minimum
recommended size is four inches.

CLEANOUT
An opening in the drain provided for cleaning purposes.

INSTALLATION OF SANITARY FIXTURES

Sanitary fittings should be so fixed as to be completely exposed to view and easy
to clean. As far as possible, wash basins, bath tubs, kitchen sink should be installed
against outside walls.

PIPE MATERIALS
Cast iron, PVC pipes, UPVC pipes.

Height from Floor

Fixture Size of Drainage Pipe
Finish

Water closet 3”, 4” 15”

Shower, Bath tub , 2” -

Waste basin 31”

Kitchen sink 36”

Laundry tray 36”

Urinal 21”
CROSS CONNECTION AND BACK SIPHONAGE
CONTROL
Damage to human health may result from the pollution of water supplies through
cross connections.
Cross-connections may occur when:
- A fixture has inlet below the rim of the fixture such as bath tub, waste basin
or dish washer.
- A flexible hose is attached to a water supply pipe having length to hold
loosely in a water container. Siphoning may occur when the main water
supply line is shut off and a faucet on the supply line is open at the down
floor. (See figure)
- Leaking water pipes near sewers.

It is therefore necessary to avoid the above mentioned practices.

HOUSE SEWER CONNECTION
A house sewer connection is shown in figure. When a public sewer system is
available, every building nearby should be independently connected to it, through
house sewer.
The trench width for the house sewer should be kept 18” so as to minimize the
backfill load. Connection between the house sewer and the street sewer is made by
breaking through the sewer at or above centerline of the sewer. The joint is then
well cemented.

SYSTEM OF PLUMBING FOR HOUSE DRAINAGE

It is customary to use two pipe system of plumbing for a small two or three storey
building/house.
In this system, two separate sets of pipes are installed; one for the soil water and
the other for the wastewater. Both the soil and the waste pipes are provided with
vent pipes. Both pipes are then connected to house drain separately.

TESTING OF HOUSE DRAINAGE FOR LEAKAGE

It is done by SMOKE TEST.
This test is done before finishing of floors in bathrooms, kitchen etc. so that the
inspection of leakage may be visually possible. All traps are filled with water
before starting the smoke test.
A thick smoke is made by burning oily waste. The smoke machine is connected to
the lower end of the drainage system. The machine is then operated to fill the pipes
with smoke with pressure. When the smoke issues from the top of the stack, the
stack is closed with a plug.
An inspection is made to locate smoke or odours issuing from the leak in the
system. The leak can be found by applying soap solution to suspected spots.
LECTURE NO. 28, 29

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

SOLID WASTE
All waste arising from Human and Animal activities, which is Solid, Semi- solid or
Liquid in Containers and is discarded as useless or unwanted.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (SWM)

SWM deals with control of GENERATION, STORAGE, COLLECTION,
TRANSFER AND TRANSPORT, PROCESSING AND RECOVERY and
DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTES.

SIX FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS

GENERATION

STORAGE

COLLECTION

TRANSFER & TRANSPORT PROCESSING &

RECOVERY

DISPOSAL
1. GENERATION
It deals with QUANTITY and QUALITY of S.W.
PAKISTAN URBAN CENTERS 0.4-0.7 kg/c/d
LAHORE 0.7 kg/c/d
NEW YORK 2 kg/c/d
 QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS
LAHORE S.W
Vegetable/ Fruit (Kitchen) 30.5%

Paper 2.5%

Plastic and Rubber 5.5%

Yard waste (leaves, Straws) 20.0%

Animal Waste 2.5%

Rags 7.5%

Glass and Metal 1%

Dust, Stones, Bricks 28.0%

Bones and Wood 2.5%

TYPE/NATURE PERCENTAGE

Putrescible 63%

Non- Putrescible 37%

Organic 70%

Inorganic 30%

Combustible 50%

Non Combustible 50%

2. STORAGE
Two types of Containers are used:

i. SEPARATE CONTAINERS

Used by household and manually handled

 (UET Example) CAPACITY 80-100 LITRES

ii. COMMUNAL CONTAINERS

Used by a community collectively and mechanically handled

12m3

2.5m3
(IN LAHORE)

Good Storage offers four Advantages:

 1. CONTAINMENT

2. CONVENIENCE IN COLLECTION

3. COVER

4. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Encourage TWO BIN SYSTEM at individual premises for ease in processing and
disposal of S.W

1. WET WASTE ----------------- KITCHEN WASTES

2. DRY WASTE ----------------- PAPER, PLASTICS, GLASS,
METALS etc.

3. COLLECTION
Collection includes Pickup from the storage units and Hauling to the:
 DISPOSAL SITE
 TRANSFER STATION
 PROCESSING FACILITY
TWO SYSTEMS ARE IN VOGUE

1) HAULED CONTAINER SYSTEM 2) STATIONERY

CONTAINER SYSTEM

Other collection methods employed:

 TRACTOR TROLLEYS
 OPEN BODY TRUCKS
 ANIMAL CARTS

4. TRANSFER AND TRANSPORT

S.W collected in small vehicles is transferred to large vehicles at transfer

station for economical carriage to processing centers or disposal site.
Transfer stations are needed when disposal sites are located at long distances
and collection vehicles are small in size
Transfer stations should be so located as to avoid public inconvenience and
environmental degradation.

5. PROCESSING AND RECOVERY

Processing refers to techniques employed to improve the efficiency of SWM

operations. It includes:

 COMPACTION ------------- TO REDUCE S.W. VOLUME

 SHREDDING --------------- TO REDUCE SIZE OF S.W
Recovery refers to separation of paper, plastics, metal and glass for reuse

6. DISPOSAL

3 METHODS IN VOGUE

Method Usage Local Practice

 COMPOSTING 10-15% Not done completely

INCINERATION 5-10% Open Burning

SANITARY LANDFILL 70-80% Open Dumping

1) COMPOSTING
Highly suitable for S.W. containing large amounts of
BIODEGRADABLE organic matter.
Composting is biological degradation of organic wastes under aerobic
conditions
The end Product “COMPOST” is used as manure or land conditioner.

PROCESS (WINDROW METHOD)

 Separate Organic Matter from S.W for COMPOST
 Leave it on the open land in the form of heaps = 8ft wide, 4ft high

 Turn the heap with shovels every week to maintain AEROBIC

conditions.

 The process would take 45-60 days for completion.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSTING

 Produces Nutrient and Microbe rich manure

 Provides Minerals and WATER RETAINING HUMUS to soil
which keeps the land porous and aerated.
 2) INCINERATION
It is a CONTROLLED burning process at a very high TEMP (700-
800 °C) in the incinerators

Incinerators are high tech with high capital cost for adequate
emission control. The O & M cost are also high.
SHAUKAT KHANUM & SHALIMAR HOSPITAL employ
incinerators for hospital waste burning.

3) SANITARY LANDFILL
 An Engineered method of disposing solid waste on land
while protecting public health and environment.

 Solid waste is spread over the land in thin layers (6 inch

thick) and compacted.

 Compacted waste is covered with clay (6 inch thick) at the

end of the day.

 It is necessary to provide an impermeable liner (PLASTIC/

GEOMEMBRANE) sheet at the bottom to avoid
groundwater pollution.
 Provide for perforated pipes grid at the bottom of the landfill
to collect LEACHATE for draining into a LEACHATE
TANK for treatment.

 Provide 2FT thick clay cover when the landfill space is fully
utilized.

 Use the completed landfill for tree plantation or convert it

into park.
ADVANTAGES OF LANDFILLING
 Most widely used method to utilize low lying areas or
depressions.

 May be even done on level ground.

 Generated CH4 gas could be collected for use as fuel.

LECTURE NO. 30

SELF PURIFICATION OF STREAMS

The general tendency of a body of water to recover naturally from organic
pollutants (biodegradable waste) is called SELF PURIFICATION of streams. Thus
the stream tends to purify itself and recover naturally in the course of time.
The process self-purification depends on biochemical reaction in which bacteria
and other microorganisms in the presence of sufficient dissolved oxygen oxidize
the organic matter to gases and build up their own mass.
The dissolved oxygen in the stream, therefore, starts depleting. However,
REAERATION of the stream, by absorbing oxygen from air and through the
activities of algae which convert CO2 into oxygen in the presence of sunlight, helps
stream to regain its DO content. Thus, if the rate of utilization of oxygen exceeds
the rate of reaeration, self-purification ceases and anaerobic conditions in the
stream prevail. These are associated with offensive odours, floating masses of
black sludge and the termination of aquatic life. In order to enable the stream to
self-purify itself, it is therefore necessary to restrict the discharge of sewage and
industrial waste in the stream so that the dissolved oxygen is always present for the
bacteria to oxidize the organic matter.

ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY OF STREAM

It refers to the capacity of a stream to ABSORB/STABILIZE (biodegrade) a waste
load i.e. how much load can be TOLERATED by a stream without affecting a
particular water use.
DEFINITION:
Assimilative capacity of a river/stream can be defined as the maximum amount of
waste that can be safely stabilized (oxidized) during CRITICAL FLOW
CONDITIONS, while maintaining assigned water quality standards and without
impairing legitimate water usages.
Assimilative capacity also refers to self-purification capacity of a stream.

BACKGROUND
Streams/rivers are used for various purposes. The following are the major
beneficial uses of water bodies.

1. Recipient of effluent discharges

2. Agricultural irrigation
3. Municipal water supplies
4. Fishing
5. Recreation

To use the stream for purposes shown in 2, 3, 4 and 5, river/stream water quality
standards for each have been proposed and enforced in various countries of the
world. Effluent discharges must, therefore, be controlled to keep the stream water
quality fit for the other uses.

FACTORS AFFECTING ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY OF

A STREAM
Assimilative capacity of a stream depends upon:
1. FLOW and QUALITY CHARECTERISTICS of stream i.e. BOD, TSS,
TEMP, DO etc.
2. FLOW and QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS of wastewater i.e. BOD, TSS,
TEMP, DO etc.
 1. STREAM FLOW AND QUALITY

 River/stream flows are important with respect to INITIAL

REDUCTION of POLLUTANT.
 The flows are HIGHLY VARIABLE.
 LOW FLOW estimation is required to determine the CRITICAL
FLOW CONDITION for water quality.
 It is customary to employ MA7CD (Minimum Average 7 Consecutive
Days) flow for the determination of stream assimilative capacity.
 Data on existing water quality of stream are also to be obtained for the
study.

2. WASTEWATER FLOW AND QUALITY

 Wastewater flows are important with respect to INITIAL

REDUCTION of POLLUTANT.
 For CONSERVATIVE POLLUTANTS which are NON-
BIODEGRABLE, NON-EVAPORATIVE and NON-SETTLEABLE
(e.g. inorganic salt, very small clay or sand particles). The prediction
on their reduction is made on the basis of DILUTION CAPACITY of
the stream.
 NON-CONSERVATIVE POLLUTANTS include BIODEGRABLE
ORGANICS (BOD) and BACTERIA.
 Their concentration in the stream changes due to DILUTION FIRST
and then through BIODEGRADATION.

MATHEMATICAL MODELS
 These describe the waste assimilation capacity of a stream in quantitative
terms.
  These are based on POINT SOURCE OF POLLUTION.
 These are available for the prediction of:
 Conservative substances
 Bacterial self-purification.
 BOD
 DO

At undergraduate level, the subject is limited only to the prediction of conservative

substances in the stream.

The following mathematical model may be employed to predict the concentration

of conservative pollutant in the stream after thorough mixing of the effluent in the
stream.

Where:

Qru and Cru River discharge and pollutant concentration in the river U/S of
waste discharge.

Qw and Cw Waste discharge and pollutant concentration in the wastewater.

C The resulting concentration of the pollutant in the river.

LECTURE NO.31

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)

RATIONALE
Any proposed development may result in significant impacts on
ENVIRONMENT, SOCIAL STRUCTURE and HUMAN HEALTH.
Therefore, such impacts must be assessed to take decision as to whether the
development project should be allowed or not.
Examples: Dam, Motorway, Thermal Power Plant, Cement Factory,
Malaysia Episode.

DEFINITION OF EIA
It is the assessment of all potential ENVIRONMENTAL, SOCIAL and
HEALTH effects that would result on account of LOCATION, CONSTRUCTION,
DESIGN and OPERATION of the proposed project.
SCOPE OF EIA
 Description of the proposed development project and the plant
process.
 Description of the local ENVIRONMENT (Physical, Biological,
Social).
 Description of the POLICY and LEGAL FRAMEWORK for the
protection of the environment.
 Identification and assessment of significant environmental, social and
health impacts due to project location, construction, design and
operation of the plant.
 Project alternatives.
 Proposed MITIGATION MEASURES.
 MONITORING PROGRAMME.
STEPS FOR EIA STUDY
1. SCOPING
 Undertaken to identify KEY ISSUES to be included in EIA.
 Done by EXPERTS.
 Involve Govt. Agencies, NGOs and PUBLIC to have their views on
the project.
2. BASELINE STUDIES
 Conduct detailed SURVEY of the area to collect information on
PHYSICAL, BIOLOGICAL and SOCIAL aspects of the prevailing
environment.
3. IMPACT PREDICTION
 Use previous experience and prediction techniques (models) to predict
the nature and EXTENT of the impacts to be caused by the project.
4. IMPACT EVALUATION
 Compare the predicted impacts with the enforced NATIONAL
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY STANDARDS (NEQS).
5. MITIGATION MEASURES
 Propose appropriate mitigation measures.
6. POST-OPERATIVE MONITORING PROGRAMME
 Develop sampling and analysis programme for liquid and gaseous
emissions and noise to ensure compliance with NEQS,