4.

Stacks

A simple data structure, in which insertion and deletion occur at the same end, is termed
(called) a stack. It is a LIFO (Last In First Out) structure.

The operations of insertion and deletion are called PUSH and POP

Push - push (put) item onto stack

Pop - pop (get) item from stack

Initial Stack Push(8) Pop

TOS=> 8
TOS=> 4 4 TOS=> 4
1 1 1
3 3 3
6 6 6
Our Purpose:
To develop a stack implementation that does not tie us to a particular data type or to a
particular implementation.

Implementation:
Stacks can be implemented both as an array (contiguous list) and as a linked list. We want a
set of operations that will work with either type of implementation: i.e. the method of
implementation is hidden and can be changed without affecting the programs that use them.

The Basic Operations:

Push()
{
if there is room {
put an item on the top of the stack
else
give an error message
}
}

Pop()
{
if stack not empty {

39
 return the value of the top item
remove the top item from the stack
}
else {
give an error message
}
}

CreateStack()
{
remove existing items from the stack
initialise the stack to empty
}

4.1. Array Implementation of Stacks: The PUSH operation

Here, as you might have noticed, addition of an element is known as the PUSH operation.
So, if an array is given to you, which is supposed to act as a STACK, you know that it
has to be a STATIC Stack; meaning, data will overflow if you cross the upper limit of the
array. So, keep this in mind.

Algorithm:

Step-1: Increment the Stack TOP by 1. Check whether it is always less than the Upper
Limit of the stack. If it is less than the Upper Limit go to step-2 else report -"Stack
Overflow"
Step-2: Put the new element at the position pointed by the TOP

Implementation:

static int stack[UPPERLIMIT];

int top= -1; /*stack is empty*/
..
..
main()
{
..
..
push(item);
..
..
}

push(int item)
{

40
 top = top + 1;
if(top < UPPERLIMIT)
stack[top] = item; /*step-1 & 2*/
else
cout<<"Stack Overflow";
}

Note:- In array implementation,we have taken TOP = -1 to signify the empty stack, as
this simplifies the implementation.

4.2. Array Implementation of Stacks: the POP operation

POP is the synonym for delete when it comes to Stack. So, if you're taking an array as the
stack, remember that you'll return an error message, "Stack underflow", if an attempt is
made to Pop an item from an empty Stack. OK.

Algorithm

Step-1: If the Stack is empty then give the alert "Stack underflow" and quit; or else go to
step-2
Step-2: a) Hold the value for the element pointed by the TOP
b) Put a NULL value instead
c) Decrement the TOP by 1

Implementation:

static int stack[UPPPERLIMIT];

int top=-1;
..
..
main()
{
..
..
poped_val = pop();
..
..
}

int pop()
{
int del_val = 0;
if(top == -1)
cout<<"Stack underflow"; /*step-1*/
else
{

41
 del_val = stack[top]; /*step-2*/
stack[top] = NULL;
top = top -1;
}
return(del_val);
}

Note: - Step-2:(b) signifies that the respective element has been deleted.

4.3. Linked List Implementation of Stacks: the PUSH operation

It’s very similar to the insertion operation in a dynamic singly linked list. The only
difference is that here you'll add the new element only at the end of the list, which means
addition can happen only from the TOP. Since a dynamic list is used for the stack, the
Stack is also dynamic, means it has no prior upper limit set. So, we don't have to check
for the Overflow condition at all!

In Step [1] we create the new element to be pushed to the Stack.

In Step [2] the TOP most element is made to point to our newly created element.
In Step [3] the TOP is moved and made to point to the last element in the stack, which is
our newly added element.

Algorithm

Step-1: If the Stack is empty go to step-2 or else go to step-3

Step-2: Create the new element and make your "stack" and "top" pointers point to it and
quit.
Step-3: Create the new element and make the last (top most) element of the stack to point
to it
Step-4: Make that new element your TOP most element by making the "top" pointer
point to it.

Implementation:
struct node{

42
 int item;
struct node *next;
}
struct node *stack = NULL; /*stack is initially empty*/
struct node *top = stack;
main()
{
..
..
push(item);
..
}

push(int item)
{
if(stack == NULL) /*step-1*/
{
newnode = new node /*step-2*/
newnode -> item = item;
newnode -> next = NULL;
stack = newnode;
top = stack;
}
else
{
newnode = new node; /*step-3*/
newnode -> item = item;
newnode -> next = NULL;
top ->next = newnode;
top = newnode; /*step-4*/
}
}

4.4. Linked List Implementation of Stacks: the POP Operation

This is again very similar to the deletion operation in any Linked List, but you can only
delete from the end of the list and only one at a time; and that makes it a stack. Here,
we'll have a list pointer, "target", which will be pointing to the last but one element in the
List (stack). Every time we POP, the TOP most element will be deleted and "target" will
be made as the TOP most element.

43
 In step[1] we got the "target" pointing to the last but
one node.
In step[2] we freed the TOP most element.
In step[3] we made the "target" node as our TOP most
element.

Supposing you have only one element left in the Stack,

then we won't make use of "target" rather we'll take
help of our "bottom" pointer. See how...

Algorithm:
Step-1: If the Stack is empty then give an alert message "Stack Underflow" and quit; or
else proceed
Step-2: If there is only one element left go to step-3 or else step-4
Step-3: Free that element and make the "stack", "top" and "bottom" pointers point to
NULL and quit
Step-4: Make "target" point to just one element before the TOP; free the TOP most
element; make "target" as your TOP most element

44
Implementation:
struct node
{
int nodeval;
struct node *next;
}
struct node *stack = NULL; /*stack is initially empty*/
struct node *top = stack;

main()
{
int newvalue, delval;
..
push(newvalue);
..
delval = pop(); /*POP returns the deleted value from the stack*/
}

int pop( )
{
int pop_val = 0;
struct node *target = stack;
if(stack == NULL) /*step-1*/
cout<<"Stack Underflow";
else
{
if(top == bottom) /*step-2*/
{
pop_val = top -> nodeval; /*step-3*/
delete top;
stack = NULL;
top = bottom = stack;
}
else /*step-4*/
{
while(target->next != top) target = target ->next;
pop_val = top->nodeval;
delete top;
top = target;
target ->next = NULL;
}
}
return(pop_val);
}

45
4.5. Applications of Stacks

4.5.1. Evaluation of Algebraic Expressions

e.g. 4 + 5 * 5

simple calculator: 45

scientific calculator: 29 (correct)

Question:
Can we develop a method of evaluating arithmetic expressions without having to
‘look ahead’ or ‘look back’? ie consider the quadratic formula:
x = (-b+(b^2-4*a*c)^0.5)/(2*a)

where ^ is the power operator, or, as you may remember it :

In it’s current form we cannot solve the formula without considering the ordering of the
parentheses. i.e. we solve the innermost parenthesis first and then work outwards also
considering operator precedence. Although we do this naturally, consider developing an
algorithm to do the same . . . . . . possible but complex and inefficient. Instead . . . .

Re-expressing the Expression

Computers solve arithmetic expressions by restructuring them so the order of each

calculation is embedded in the expression. Once converted an expression can then be
solved in one pass.

Types of Expression

The normal (or human) way of expressing mathematical expressions is called infix form,
e.g. 4+5*5. However, there are other ways of representing the same expression, either by
writing all operators before their operands or after them,
e.g.: 4 5 5 * +

+4*55

This method is called Polish Notation (because this method was discovered by the Polish
mathematician Jan Lukasiewicz).

46
When the operators are written before their operands, it is called the prefix form

e.g. + 4 * 5 5

When the operators come after their operands, it is called postfix form (suffix form or
reverse polish notation)

e.g. 4 5 5 * +

The valuable aspect of RPN (Reverse Polish Notation or postfix )

x Parentheses are unnecessary

x Easy for a computer (compiler) to evaluate an arithmetic expression

Postfix (Reverse Polish Notation)

Postfix notation arises from the concept of post-order traversal of an expression tree (see
Weiss p. 93 - this concept will be covered when we look at trees).

For now, consider postfix notation as a way of redistributing operators in an expression

so that their operation is delayed until the correct time.

Consider again the quadratic formula:

x = (-b+(b^2-4*a*c)^0.5)/(2*a)
In postfix form the formula becomes:
x b @ b 2 ^ 4 a * c * - 0.5 ^ + 2 a * / =

where @ represents the unary - operator.

Notice the order of the operands remain the same but the operands are redistributed in a
non-obvious way (an algorithm to convert infix to postfix can be derived).

Purpose

The reason for using postfix notation is that a fairly simple algorithm exists to evaluate
such expressions based on using a stack.

Postfix Evaluation

Consider the postfix expression :

6523+8*+3+*

47
Algorithm
LQLWLDOLVHVWDFNWRHPSW\
ZKLOH QRWHQGRISRVWIL[H[SUHVVLRQ ^
JHWQH[WSRVWIL[LWHP
LI LWHPLVYDOXH 
SXVKLWRQWRWKHVWDFN
HOVHLI LWHPLVELQDU\RSHUDWRU ^
SRSWKHVWDFNWR[
SRSWKHVWDFNWR\
SHUIRUP\RSHUDWRU[
SXVKWKHUHVXOWVRQWRWKHVWDFN
`HOVHLI LWHPLVXQDU\RSHUDWRU ^
SRSWKHVWDFNWR[
SHUIRUPRSHUDWRU [ 
SXVKWKHUHVXOWVRQWRWKHVWDFN
`
`
7KHVLQJOHYDOXHRQWKHVWDFNLVWKHGHVLUHGUHVXOW

Binary operators: +, -, *, /, etc.,

Unary operators: unary minus, square root, sin, cos, exp, etc.,

So for 6 5 2 3 + 8 * + 3 + *

the first item is a value (6) so it is pushed onto the stack

the next item is a value (5) so it is pushed onto the stack
the next item is a value (2) so it is pushed onto the stack
the next item is a value (3) so it is pushed onto the stack
and the stack becomes

48
 TOS=> 3
2
5
6

the remaining items are now: + 8 * + 3 + *

So next a '+' is read (a binary operator), so 3 and 2 are popped from the stack and their
sum '5' is pushed onto the stack:

TOS=> 5
5
6

Next 8 is pushed and the next item is the operator *:

TOS=> 8
5 TOS=> 40
5 5
6 6
(8, 5 popped, 40 pushed)

Next the operator + followed by 3:

TOS=> 3
TOS=> 45 45
6 6
(40, 5 popped, 45 pushed, 3 pushed)

Next is operator +, so 3 and 45 are popped and 45+3=48 is pushed

49
 TOS=> 48
6

Next is operator *, so 48 and 6 are popped, and 6*48=288 is pushed

TOS=> 288

Now there are no more items and there is a single value on the stack, representing the
final answer 288.

Note the answer was found with a single traversal of the postfix expression, with the
stack being used as a kind of memory storing values that are waiting for their operands.

4.5.2. Infix to Postfix (RPN) Conversion

2IFRXUVHSRVWIL[QRWDWLRQLVRIOLWWOHXVHXQOHVVWKHUHLVDQHDV\PHWKRGWR
FRQYHUWVWDQGDUG LQIL[ H[SUHVVLRQVWRSRVWIL[$JDLQDVLPSOHDOJRULWKPH[LVWV
WKDWXVHVDVWDFN

Algorithm

LQLWLDOLVHVWDFNDQGSRVWIL[RXWSXWWRHPSW\
ZKLOH QRWHQGRILQIL[H[SUHVVLRQ ^
JHWQH[WLQIL[LWHP
LI LWHPLVYDOXH DSSHQGLWHPWRSIL[RS
HOVHLI LWHP ಫ ಫ SXVKLWHPRQWRVWDFN
HOVHLI LWHP ಫ ಬ ^
SRSVWDFNWR[
ZKLOH [ ಫ ಫ 
DSS[WRSIL[RS SRSVWDFNWR[
`HOVH^

50
ZKLOH SUHFHGHQFH VWDFNWRS ! SUHFHGHQFH LWHP 
SRSVWDFNWR[ DSS[WRSIL[RS
SXVKLWHPRQWRVWDFN
`
`
ZKLOH VWDFNQRWHPSW\ 
SRSVWDFNWR[DQGDSSHQG[WRSIL[RS


2SHUDWRU3UHFHGHQFH IRUWKLVDOJRULWKP 

ಫ ಫRQO\SRSSHGLIDPDWFKLQJಫ ಬLVIRXQG

$OOXQDU\RSHUDWRUV

 



7KHDOJRULWKPLPPHGLDWHO\SDVVHVYDOXHV RSHUDQGV WRWKHSRVWIL[H[SUHVVLRQ

EXWUHPHPEHUV VDYHV RSHUDWRUVRQWKHVWDFNXQWLOWKHLUULJKWKDQGRSHUDQGVDUH
IXOO\WUDQVODWHG

51
HJFRQVLGHUWKHLQIL[H[SUHVVLRQDE F G HI J

6WDFN 2XWSXW

 
DE
726 ! 

 
726 !  DEF

 

 
DEF 
726 ! 

 
726 !  
DEF GH
 

 

 
726 ! 
DEF GH I
 

 



DEF GH I


726 !

 
DEF GH IJ
726 ! 

52
  

HPSW\  DEF GH IJ 

53
4.5.3. Function Calls
When a function is called, arguments (including the return address) have to be passed to
the called function.
If these arguments are stored in a fixed memory area then the function cannot be called
recursively since the 1st return address would be overwritten by the 2nd return address
before the first was used:
10 call function abc(); /* retadrs = 11 */
11 continue;
...
90 function abc;
91 code;
92 if (expression)
93 call function abc(); /* retadrs = 94 */
94 code
95 return /* to retadrs */
A stack allows a new instance of retadrs for each call to the function. Recursive calls on
the function are limited only by the extent of the stack.
10 call function abc(); /* retadrs1 = 11 */
11 continue;
...
90 function abc;
91 code;
92 if (expression)
93 call function abc(); /* retadrs2 = 94 */
94 code
95 return /* to retadrsn */

54
[Link]

x a data structure that has access to its data at the front and rear.
x operates on FIFO (Fast In First Out) basis.
x uses two pointers/indices to keep tack of information/data.
x has two basic operations:
o enqueue - inserting data at the rear of the queue
o dequeue – removing data at the front of the queue

dequeue enqueue

Front Rear

Example:

Operation Content of queue

Enqueue(B) B
Enqueue(C) B, C
Dequeue() C
Enqueue(G) C, G
Enqueue (F) C, G, F
Dequeue() G, F
Enqueue(A) G, F, A
Dequeue() F, A

5.1. Simple array implementation of enqueue and dequeue operations

Analysis:
Consider the following structure: int Num[MAX_SIZE];
We need to have two integer variables that tell:
- the index of the front element
- the index of the rear element
We also need an integer variable that tells:
- the total number of data in the queue

int FRONT =-1,REAR =-1;

55
int QUEUESIZE=0;

56
 x To enqueue data to the queue
o check if there is space in the queue
REAR<MAX_SIZE-1 ?
Yes: - Increment REAR
- Store the data in Num[REAR]
- Increment QUEUESIZE
FRONT = = -1?
Yes: - Increment FRONT
No: - Queue Overflow
x To dequeue data from the queue
o check if there is data in the queue
QUEUESIZE > 0 ?
Yes: - Copy the data in Num[FRONT]
- Increment FRONT
- Decrement QUEUESIZE
No: - Queue Underflow

Implementation:
const int MAX_SIZE=100;
int FRONT =-1, REAR =-1;
int QUEUESIZE = 0;

void enqueue(int x)
{
if(Rear<MAX_SIZE-1)
{
REAR++;
Num[REAR]=x;
QUEUESIZE++;
if(FRONT = = -1)
FRONT++;
}
else
cout<<"Queue Overflow";
}
int dequeue()
{
int x;
if(QUEUESIZE>0)
{
x=Num[FRONT];
FRONT++;
QUEUESIZE--;

}
else
cout<<"Queue Underflow";
return(x);
}

57
5.2. Circular array implementation of enqueue and dequeue operations

A problem with simple arrays is we run out of space even if the queue never reaches the
size of the array. Thus, simulated circular arrays (in which freed spaces are re-used to
store data) can be used to solve this problem.

Example: Consider a queue with MAX_SIZE = 4

Simple array Circular array

Operation
Content of Content of QUEUE Message Content of Content of QUEUE Message
the array the Queue SIZE the array the queue SIZE
Enqueue(B) B B 1 B B 1
Enqueue(C) B C BC 2 B C BC 2
Dequeue() C C 1 C C 1
Enqueue(G) C G CG 2 C G CG 2
Enqueue (F) C G F CGF 3 C G F CGF 3
Dequeue() G F GF 2 G F GF 2
Enqueue(A) G F GF 2 Overflow A G F GFA 3
Enqueue(D) G F GF 2 Overflow A D G F GFAD 4
Enqueue(C) G F GF 2 Overflow A D G F GFAD 4 Overflow
Dequeue() F F 1 A D F FAD 3
Enqueue(H) F F 1 Overflow A D H F FADH 4
Dequeue () Empty 0 A D H ADH 3
Dequeue() Empty 0 Underflow D H DH 2
Dequeue() Empty 0 Underflow H H 1
Dequeue() Empty 0 Underflow Empty 0
Dequeue() Empty 0 Underflow Empty 0 Underflow

The circular array implementation of a queue with MAX_SIZE can be simulated as

follows:

12 11
13
10
9

MAX_SIZE - 1 8

0 7

1 6

2 5
3 4
Analysis:
Consider the following structure: int Num[MAX_SIZE];
We need to have two integer variables that tell:
- the index of the front element
- the index of the rear element

58
 We also need an integer variable that tells:
- the total number of data in the queue
int FRONT =-1,REAR =-1;
int QUEUESIZE=0;

x To enqueue data to the queue

o check if there is space in the queue
QUEUESIZE<MAX_SIZE ?
Yes: - Increment REAR
REAR = = MAX_SIZE ?
Yes: REAR = 0
- Store the data in Num[REAR]
- Increment QUEUESIZE
FRONT = = -1?
Yes: - Increment FRONT
No: - Queue Overflow

x To dequeue data from the queue

o check if there is data in the queue
QUEUESIZE > 0 ?
Yes: - Copy the data in Num[FRONT]
- Increment FRONT
FRONT = = MAX_SIZE ?
Yes: FRONT = 0
- Decrement QUEUESIZE
No: - Queue Underflow

Implementation:
const int MAX_SIZE=100;
int FRONT =-1, REAR =-1;
int QUEUESIZE = 0;

void enqueue(int x)
{
if(QUEUESIZE<MAX_SIZE)
{
REAR++;
if(REAR = = MAX_SIZE)
REAR=0;
Num[REAR]=x;
QUEUESIZE++;
if(FRONT = = -1)
FRONT++;
}
else
cout<<"Queue Overflow";
}

59
 int dequeue()
{
int x;
if(QUEUESIZE>0)
{
x=Num[FRONT];
FRONT++;
if(FRONT = = MAX_SIZE)
FRONT = 0;
QUEUESIZE--;

}
else
cout<<"Queue Underflow";
return(x);
}

5.3. Linked list implementation of enqueue and dequeue operations

Enqueue- is inserting a node at the end of a linked list

Dequeue- is deleting the first node in the list

5.4. Deque (pronounced as Deck)

- is a Double Ended Queue

- insertion and deletion can occur at either end
- has the following basic operations
EnqueueFront – inserts data at the front of the list
DequeueFront – deletes data at the front of the list
EnqueueRear – inserts data at the end of the list
DequeueRear – deletes data at the end of the list
- implementation is similar to that of queue
- is best implemented using doubly linked list

Front Rear

DequeueFront EnqueueFront DequeueRear EnqueueRear

60
5.5. Priority Queue

- is a queue where each data has an associated key that is provided at the time of
insertion.
- Dequeue operation deletes data having highest priority in the list
- One of the previously used dequeue or enqueue operations has to be modified

Example: Consider the following queue of persons where females have higher
priority than males (gender is the key to give priority).

Abebe Alemu Aster Belay Kedir Meron Yonas

Male Male Female Male Male Female Male

Dequeue()- deletes Aster

Abebe Alemu Belay Kedir Meron Yonas
Male Male Male Male Female Male
Dequeue()- deletes Meron
Abebe Alemu Belay Kedir Yonas
Male Male Male Male Male
Now the queue has data having equal priority and dequeue operation deletes the
front element like in the case of ordinary queues.

Dequeue()- deletes Abebe

Alemu Belay Kedir Yonas
Male Male Male Male

Dequeue()- deletes Alemu

Belay Kedir Yonas

Male Male Male

Thus, in the above example the implementation of the dequeue operation need to be
modified.

5.5.1. Demerging Queues

- is the process of creating two or more queues from a single queue.
- used to give priority for some groups of data

Example: The following two queues can be created from the above priority queue.
Aster Meron Abebe Alemu Belay Kedir Yonas
Female Female Male Male Male Male Male

61
 Algorithm:
create empty females and males queue
while (PriorityQueue is not empty)
{
Data=DequeuePriorityQueue(); // delete data at the front
if(gender of Data is Female)
EnqueueFemale(Data);
else
EnqueueMale(Data);
}

5.5.2. Merging Queues

- is the process of creating a priority queue from two or more queues.
- the ordinary dequeue implementation can be used to delete data in the newly
created priority queue.

Example: The following two queues (females queue has higher priority than the
males queue) can be merged to create a priority queue.
Aster Meron Abebe Alemu Belay Kedir Yonas
Female Female Male Male Male Male Male

Aster Meron Abebe Alemu Belay Kedir Yonas

Female Female Male Male Male Male Male

Algorithm:

create an empty priority queue

while(FemalesQueue is not empty)
EnqueuePriorityQueue(DequeueFemalesQueue());
while(MalesQueue is not empty)
EnqueuePriorityQueue(DequeueMalesQueue());

It is also possible to merge two or more priority queues.

Example: Consider the following priority queues and suppose large numbers
represent high priorities.
ABC CDE DEF FGH HIJ
52 41 35 16 12

BCD EFG GHI IJK JKL

47 32 13 10 7
Thus, the two queues can be merged to give the following priority queue.

62
 ABC BCD CDE DEF EFG FGH GHI HIJ IJK JKL
52 47 41 35 32 16 13 12 10 7

5.6. Application of Queues

i. Print server- maintains a queue of print jobs

Print()
{
EnqueuePrintQueue(Document)
}
EndOfPrint()
{
DequeuePrintQueue()
}

ii. Disk Driver- maintains a queue of disk input/output requests

iii. Task scheduler in multiprocessing system- maintains priority queues of

processes

iv. Telephone calls in a busy environment –maintains a queue of telephone calls

v. Simulation of waiting line- maintains a queue of persons

63