Page -1-

TISSUES AND HEALING

In the previous units we have looked at the structure of plant and animal cells and at
how these cells divide to form new cells. In this unit we will be looking at how these new
cells become specialised to carry out particular functions.

Large multicellular organisms like ourselves are made up of millions of cells. All these
cells were made by repeated mitotic divisions, starting with the first cell, the zygote.
Early in our development most of these cells look the same. However, not all cells go on
dividing. There is a division of labour and cells begin to look different from other cells.
The cells differentiate. This means that they become specialised to carry out special
functions. They then start to form tissues in the body.

Definition of a tissue

A tissue is a group of similar cells which have been grouped together to perform a
particular function.

Plant Tissues

Some examples of plant tissues include:

Tissue Description

Epidermal tissue Consisting of cells forming the outer covering of roots,

stems and leaves.

Xylem Tissue Consisting of long tube-like cells which transport water up

the plant.

Phloem tissue Consisting of cells specialised to carry food made in the

leaves to other parts of the plant.

Photosynthetic tissue Made of cells with thin walls and many chloroplasts.

Supporting tissue Cell walls are strengthened or thickened in some way.

There are several different types of supporting tissue.

Storage Tissue Made up of cells with thin walls and many chloroplasts

Animal Tissues

Some examples of animal tissues include:

Tissue Description

Epithelial tissues These are covering tissues which are found lining the
inside or outside of structures in the body. We will be
looking at these in some detail in this unit.

Connective tissues These include ligaments, tendons, adipose (fat) tissue and
areolar connective tissue and blood.

Skeletal Tissues Bone tissue and the different types of cartilage.

Nerve Tissue Makes up the nerves, brain and spinal cord.

Muscle Tissue There are three types of muscle tissue -

striated/striped/voluntary muscle, smooth
muscle/involuntary muscle and cardiac/heart muscle.
 Page -2-

Other Levels of Organisation

Different tissues are often grouped together to form organs. These organs are a group
of tissues working together to carry out a function. For example, the stomach is made
up of epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, connective tissue, nerve tissue and blood tissue.
The stomach is an organ. Other organs include the heart, kidneys, lungs etc.

Organs work together to form systems. The stomach does

not work alone. It is only one of the organs involved in
nutrition. The mouth, salivary glands, oesophagus,
intestines, liver etc all form part of the digestive system.

Other systems include the excretory system, respiratory

system, blood circulatory system, and nervous system.

However, before we look at the major systems in our body, let us take a closer look at a
few tissues and the functions they perform.
 Page -3-

ANIMAL TISSUES

Epithelial Tissues/Epithelia
Epithelia (sing. Epithelium) are covering or lining tissues.

They can be divided into two main types:

Simple Epithelium - consisting of a single layer of cells.

Compound Epithelium - made up of many layers of cells.

In all epithelia the cells rest on a basement membrane. This membrane is produced by
the cells and is made of collagen fibres in a jelly substance. The cells of the epithelium
are held together by a cement-like intercellular substance.

An epithelium which lines the inside of a tube or some other body space is often referred
to as an endothelium.

Let us now look at some of the common epithelia found in the body.

1. Squamous Epithelium

Squamous epithelium is made up of cells which are extremely flat and thin. In fact,
they are so flat that the cells bulge where the nucleus is found. The cells usually fit
quite closely together and the membranes are sometimes irregular (tessellated).

Squamous epithelium is most often found where exchange of substances takes place,
for example, the lining of blood capillaries and the linings of the air sacs (alveoli) of
the lungs. The fact that it consists of only a single layer of very flattened cells means
that the diffusion distance is reduced and this speeds up the rate at which
substances can be moved through the lining.
 Page -4-

2. Cuboidal Epithelium

In this type of epithelium, the cells are cubical in shape (about as long as they are
wide). The nucleus of each cell is usually spherical in shaped and placed more or
less in the middle of the cell.

Cuboidal epithelium may be glandular (ie. it secretes substances) and so some

glands (eg. sweat glands, thyroid glands and the liver) are made up of this type of
epithelium. It is also found lining the ducts of other glands.

Cuboidal epithelium is found in the kidney tubules where it is involved in absorption.

In this region the free surface is covered in finger-like foldings of the cell membrane.
These foldings are called microvilli and the surface is called a brush border of
microvilli. They increase the surface area for absorption.

3. Columnar Epithelium

As its name suggests, columnar epithelium is made of column-shaped cells (longer

than they are wide). The nuclei are usually large and slightly oval in shape.

Most of the alimentary canal is lined with columnar epithelium and so it is specially
designed for digestion and absorption. Some cells in the layer may become goblet
cells which produce mucus. This mucus is important for protection because it
lubricates the surface, keeps it moist, and prevents enzymes and stomach acids from
damaging the lining. The cells may also have a brush border of microvilli to increase
the surface area for absorption.
 Page -5-

4. Ciliated Epithelium

Ciliated epithelium is columnar (sometimes cuboidal) epithelium which has its free
surface covered in a mat of tiny hair-like cilia. This type of epithelium is designed
for moving fluids along tubes in the body. For example, it is found lining the air
passages like the trachea and bronchi. This type of epithelium protects the lungs
from infections. Goblet cells produce a mucus which traps the foreign particles and
then the cilia beat rhythmically in waves, moving the mucus up the air tubes and
away from the lungs.

Ciliated epithelium is also found in the oviducts in female reproductive organs where
it is involved in moving the egg from the ovary to the uterus, and also in the
Eustachian Tube connecting the middle ear with the pharynx (at the back of the
mouth cavity).

5. Stratified Epithelium

Stratified is a compound epithelium because it is made of many layers of cells. The

epidermis of the skin is a stratified epithelium. The bottom layer of cells sits on the
basement membrane. These cells divide rapidly in a plane parallel to the basement
membrane so that many layers are piled up and the older cells are pushed outwards
as new cells are formed beneath.

As cells move away they become flattened and impregnated with a protein called
keratin. The cells on the outside are therefore dead and scale-like (sometimes
referred to as being cornified) and they are constantly being worn off. This makes
a very effective protective covering for the skin.
 Page -6-

In areas where there is more friction (eg. hands and feet) the lower layer divides
more rapidly and the outer dead layer is much thicker.

Stratified epithelium is also found lining the vagina and oesophagus. These regions
are kept moist, and the outer layers do not become cornified (impregnated with
keratin).

Try this:

When you have done the theory of the epithelia, go back and look at all the micrographs
next to each type of epithelium. Try to identify and label as many things as possible on
the micrographs.

Activity : Microscope slides of epithelia.

 Page -7-

Connective Tissues
Connective tissues include a wide variety of tissues which help to bind and support
different tissues or organs of the body. For example, they bind the skin to the underlying
tissues like muscles and they form sheaths around organs.

Connective tissues are usually made up of cells and fibres embedded in an intercellular
matrix.

Let us now look at some different types of connective tissue.

Areolar Connective Tissue

Areolar connective tissue is found around most of the organs of the body, it connects the
skin to the structures underneath, and it forms a sheath around many blood vessels and
nerves. It simply holds (‘connects’) the different parts of the body together.

The matrix of this type of connective tissue is a slightly jelly-like fluid and the cells and
fibres are found scattered in this matrix.

Two types of fibres are found, white (collagen) fibres and yellow elastic (elastin)
fibres. The white collagen fibres are made of the protein collagen and they are much
thicker and less elastic than elastin fibres. They are, however, still very flexible. The
elastin fibres are made of the protein elastin and they are thinner and more elastic than
collagen fibres. Elastin fibres also tend to be branched. The collagen fibres give the
tissue strength, while the elastin fibres allow for stretching. The ratio of these two types
of fibre will affect how strong or elastic the tissue will be in a certain part of the body.

There are a number of different types of cells found scattered in the matrix. Fibroblasts
are small, flattened, spindle-shaped cells which produce the fibres, and they usually lie
very close to the fibres. Macrophages are larger cells which vary in shape because they
can wander through the tissue and engulf bacteria and other foreign particles. Their
function is to fight infection in this tissue. Mast cells are small oval cells with a granular
cytoplasm. These cells make the intercellular matrix, and they are also involved in the
histamine reaction.
 Page -8-

There are three other variations of areolar connective tissue found in the body. These
are the tissues which make up ligaments, tendons and fat tissue.

White Fibrous Tissue (Tendon)

Tendons join muscle to bone and so they need to be strong. They do not need to be
elastic, because the muscle itself is able to stretch. Therefore, tendons are made up
mainly of white collagen fibres running parallel to one another. There is very little matrix
and most of the cells are fibroblasts.

Yellow Elastic Tissue (Ligaments)

Ligaments join bone to bone at joints. They, therefore, need to be very elastic to allow
for movement at the joints. As a result, ligaments are made up of a network of branched
elastin fibres. Like tendons, there is very little matrix, but many scattered fibroblasts.

Adipose Tissue (Fat)

Adipose tissue is almost entirely made of fat cells. These fat cells are almost completely
filled with fat, the nucleus being pushed against the side of each cell. There is no
intercellular matrix and virtually no fibres. Blood vessels form a network through the
tissue. Although the main function of adipose tissue is to store excess energy (fat), it also
has other functions. It serves as protection around organs like the heart and kidneys , it
may act as a shock absorber, and an insulator against heat loss.

Activity : Microscope drawing of areolar connective tissue.

 Page -9-

Skeletal Tissues
Skeletal tissues are the tissues that form the skeleton of the body, ie. cartilage and
bone. They are both really types of connective tissue because they are made up of cells
and fibres embedded in an intercellular matrix, but we will deal with them under a
separate heading.

Cartilage

Cartilage is hard, rubbery and flexible tissue. It can also be compressed slightly. These
properties make it very useful as a tissue which can protect the ends of bones at joints;
give structure to parts of the body which need some flexibility, and act as a shock
absorber in the skeleton.

The intercellular matrix of cartilage is not fluid, but a firmer, more rubbery substance,
known as chondrin. The matrix is made by cells called chondroblasts. As they make
the matrix they become enclosed in little compartments called lacunae. Once they are
enclosed in these compartments they are called chondrocytes.

The edge of cartilage tissue usually has many fibres and fibroblasts, and this region is
called the perichondrium.

There are three types of cartilage: hyaline cartilage, yellow elastic cartilage, and white
fibrous cartilage.

Hyaline Cartilage (shown above) is fairly elastic and compressible and is found at the
ends of bones, the nose, and it forms the C- shaped rings which keep the trachea
(windpipe) open.

Yellow elastic cartilage contains many elastin fibres which makes it much more flexible
and elastic. This gives support to areas like the ear (pinna) and the epiglottis.

White fibrous cartilage has many white collagen fibres in the matrix. This forms a
very tough kind of cartilage which gives cushioning between bones that take a great deal
of stress, for example, the discs between the vertebrae of the backbone.
 Page -10-

Bone Tissue

Bone is the tissue making up the skeleton of most vertebrates. It is designed to be strong
and non-flexible so that muscle can attach to it. Bone also surrounds and protects some
important parts of the body, eg. the brain and spinal cord.

The matrix of bone is hard and consists mainly of inorganic salts containing calcium,
phosphorus and magnesium. These elements are therefore very important for a healthy
skeleton. There may also be some collagen fibres embedded in the matrix.

The bone cells are called osteoblasts and, because the matrix is hard and impregnable,
they are found in compartments called lacunae (like cartilage). They are responsible for
making the matrix.

If you look at a cross-section through compact bone, one will see that this matrix is laid
down in a series of concentric rings (called lamellae) around a central canal called a
Haversian canal. The lacunae are therefore also arranged in rings. The Haversian
canal contains an artery, which brings nutrients and oxygen to the osteoblasts, and a
vein which carries wastes and carbon dioxide away. Minute little canals, called
canaliculi link all the lacunae with one another and with the Haversian canal. One
Haversian canal with its concentric rings of matrix and lacunae is known as a Haversian
System. Bone tissue is made up of many Haversian Systems which are linked with one
another.

Like cartilage, bone may have an outer covering made of many fibres and some blood
vessels. This is known as the periosteum.

Activity : Microscope slides of cartilage and bone.

 Page -11-

Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissue makes up 40% of a mammal’s body mass. Its function is to contract and
produce movement.

Muscle tissue is made up of highly specialised cells or fibres held together by connective
tissue. The structure is very complicated and so we will only deal very briefly with the
three types of muscle tissue found in the body.

Striated/ Striped (Voluntary) Muscle

This is the type of muscle which moves the skeleton, and is therefore sometimes also
referred to as skeletal muscle. The muscle fibres which make up this type of muscle
tissue have stripes running across them (see picture below), and this is what gives the
name striated muscle. Striated muscle usually contracts quickly, giving fast movement,
but it also fatigues(tires quickly).

Smooth / Involuntary Muscle

The fibres of this type of muscle tissue are not striated. Smooth muscle is found around
the gut, blood vessels and various other structures of the body and it is responsible for
automatic movements like peristalsis. This is why it is also referred to as involuntary
muscle. Smooth muscle usually contracts more slowly, but it fatigues slowly.

Cardiac Muscle

Cardiac muscle is the type of muscle tissue which makes up the heart. The fibres which
make up this tissue are branched and striped, and it is also involuntary. Cardiac muscle
contracts slowly and rhythmically, and it does not fatigue. This is why the heart
continues to beat on average 70 times per minute for your entire life!

Nerve Tissue
Nerve Tissue is made up of special nerve cells (nerve fibres) called neurons, and these
transmit electrical impulses to and from the brain and spinal cord.

(This tissue will be covered next year in the Grade 11 syllabus)

Activity : Dissection of chicken wing.

 Page -12-

Blood Tissue
Blood is a tissue which is mainly responsible for transporting substances and distributing
heat around the body. These include substances like oxygen, carbon dioxide, food
(nutrients), wastes, hormones. Blood also plays a vital role in defending the body by
forming blood clots and fighting disease. An average adult man has approximately 5½
litres of blood.

In order to understand how blood carries out these vital functions, it is important to know
something about what blood is made of.

Composition of Blood
Blood is a typical connective tissue in that it is made up of cells floating in a fluid matrix,
called blood plasma.

Blood Plasma

Plasma is mostly water in which many other substances are dissolved. These are
substances like glucose, amino acids, salts, hormones, wastes (urea), plasma proteins
and antibodies.

Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)

Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, are the smallest, but the most numerous
of the cells found in blood. There are about 5 million red blood cells in one cubic
millimetre (mm3) of blood. They are round, flattened, disc-shaped structures and they
have a depression in the middle on both sides. They are sometimes referred to as being
biconcave discs.

The main function of red blood cells is the transport of oxygen and, to a lesser extent,
carbon dioxide. The cells are filled with a special iron-containing red pigment called
haemoglobin, which is responsible for carrying this oxygen. This is what gives them the
red colour.

Red blood cells are made in the bone marrow of some bones like the ribs, vertebrae and
some limb bones. They have no nucleus and so they have a limited life of approximately
120 days. When they die they are broken down in the liver and spleen. The iron from
the haemoglobin is saved so that it can be used to make new haemoglobin. The cells are
replaced at a very rapid rate, about 9 000 million per hour.
 Page -13-

White Blood Cells (Leucocytes)

White blood cells (also called leucocytes) are usually slightly larger than red blood cells
and they do have a nucleus. Their function is to fight infection and there are a number of
different types of white blood cells. They can be divided into two main groups.

Granulocytes have many small granules in the cytoplasm. Their nuclei are divided
into a number of sections (lobes) and they fight disease by flowing around and
engulfing foreign particles. The foreign particles are then digested and absorbed.
This method of feeding is called phagocytosis and these cells are said to be
phagocytic.

Agranulocytes have a cytoplasm which does not appear to have many granules. In
fact, they have very little cytoplasm at all because the nucleus is large and almost
fills the entire cell. Most agranulocytes are called lymphocytes because they fight
disease by making antibodies which destroy foreign organisms. Some agranulocytes
are phagocytic and destroy foreign organisms by engulfing them. These are called
monocytes.

Lymphocytes have large rounded nuclei which fill the cell whereas the nuclei of
monocytes are slightly more kidney-shaped. All granulocytes, monocytes and some
lymphocytes are made in bone marrow, but some lymphocytes are made in lymph
glands.

White blood cells are involved in the immune reaction, and we will be looking at this
later in this unit.
 Page -14-

Blood Platelets

Blood platelets (also called thrombocytes) are small fragments of cells without a
nucleus. They are formed in the bone marrow and they are involved in blood clotting.
When platelets are exposed to air, as a result of a wound to the skin, they release
substances which cause the plasma protein (fibrin) to change into longer fibres. These
fibres form a tangled mesh over the wound which traps red blood cells and platelets.
These then dry up to form a scab to plug the wound.

Activity : Making a blood slide

Activity : Drawing of blood slide/micrograph

Activity : Exercise on blood groups and transfusions

Immunity
As we mentioned earlier, white blood cells fight disease by destroying foreign germs, like
bacteria and viruses. The body knows that an organism is foreign by recognising certain
proteins called antigens on the disease causing agent. White blood cells are then called
into action and this is known as the immune reaction and it leads to immunity.
There are two types of immunity:

Natural Immunity

When the body comes into contact with a foreign antigen, the immune system is
activated and antibodies are formed, which destroy the antigen. This is known as
natural active immunity. With natural immunity, there is often a delay while the body
learns to make the antibodies, and so the person may experience some symptoms of the
disease.

Another type of natural immunity is when antibodies are passed from the mother to the
child, before or after birth (in milk). This is called natural passive immunity, because
the child did not make the antibodies itself. This passive immunity is generally quite
short-lived, because the antibodies are used up and not replaced.
 Page -15-

Acquired Immunity

Small amounts of an antigen can be injected into organism so that the body can learn
how to make the antibody before the active antigen arrives. This is done by giving an
injection (vaccination) with a harmless form (made safe in some way) of the antigen
(vaccine). The body then has the ability to make the antibody, before the harmful form
of the antigen enters the body. If the person comes into contact with the active antigen,
the body will destroy the antigen without experiencing the symptoms of the disease.
This is known as acquired active immunity.

If the antigens are injected into another individual (another animal), it will produce
antibodies. These antibodies are then extracted from the other organism and injected
into a person. Although this does not give a person long-term immunity, it will prevent
the person from getting the disease if the antibodies are still present in the body.
Immunisation against tetanus is done in this way, and one needs to have vaccinations on
a regular basis. Because the antibodies are not made by the organism itself, this is
known as acquired passive immunity.

Activity : Investigation into a tissue-related disease.

PLANT TISSUES
All the tissues that we have been discussing so far are found in animals. Now let us have
a look at some of the tissues found in plants. When looking at plant tissues, we must
bear in mind that the plant cells which make up these tissues have cell walls. Some of
the main differences between the different types of plant tissues involves the thickening
of the cell walls.

Meristematic Tissue

Meristematic Tissue is actively-dividing tissue. This is found in parts of the plant where
new cells are being formed, for example, in the tips of the roots and stems. Because they
are actively dividing, these cells are generally small and tightly-packed. The nuclei
occupy most of the cell, and the cytoplasm is very dense, because they do not have large
vacuoles. Sometimes the nuclei appear to be a little disorganised, because they are in
the process of dividing by mitosis.
 Page -16-

Parenchyma
Parenchyma is found filling spaces between other tissues. It is really just packing tissue
which maintains the shape and firmness of the plant, but is also useful as a storage
tissue. It is made up of large rounded cells which have very thin cellulose cell walls. The
cells have large vacuoles for storage and may contain many starch grains. There are
usually many air spaces between the cells (intercellular air spaces). The parenchyma
tissue found in the leaves of plants contains many chloroplasts for photosynthesis. This
type of parenchyma tissue is known as chlorenchyma.

Collenchyma
Collenchyma is a special type of supporting tissue which is usually found in the outer
parts of stems and in the midrib (main vein) of leaves. The walls of collenchyma cells are
made of cellulose, but they have extra thickening at the corners of the cells. Because
cellulose is permeable, the cells of this tissue are living.
 Page -17-

Sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma is also a special type of supporting tissue. However, the walls of these
cells have been thickened all round the cell, and they have been impregnated with a
special carbohydrate called lignin, which provides extra strength. Lignin is an
impermeable substance. This means that essential substances cannot enter or leave the
cells. Once the walls have become completely lignified, the cells inside die, leaving a
hollow lumen.

Sclerenchyma cells are usually long fibres which are packed together to form
strengthening rods in stems. The shells of nuts are also made up of sclerenchyma tissue.

Epidermal Tissue
Epidermal tissue is covering tissue and it is found on the outer surface of leaves and
stems. It is really the plant’s equivalent of epithelium. The cells fit tightly together,
often in a jigsaw-like way and this forms a protective layer around the plant. The outer
surface of the epidermis usually has a waxy covering called a cuticle. This prevents
excessive water loss from the plant, and it is thicker in plants living in very dry areas.

There may be stomata which are special pores for gaseous exchange. The opening and
closing of the stomatal pores is controlled by two guard cells. Stomata are more
common in leaves (usually more on the lower surface) than in stems.

In some plants, special multicellular hairs called epidermal hairs (or trichomes) may be
quite common on the epidermis. These protect the plant from excessive drying out and
protect the epidermis from sap-sucking insects.
 Page -18-

Vascular Tissues
Vascular tissues are concerned with transporting substances around the plant. There are
two main types; xylem and phloem. These two vascular tissues are found in vascular
bundles in the stem, and the central stele of the root.

Xylem Tissue

Xylem tissue is responsible for transporting water, and the mineral nutrients dissolved in
it, from the roots to the leaves.

While there are parenchyma cells and sclerenchyma fibres in the xylem tissue, the
main transporting cells are tracheids and vessels. Both these are hollow structures,
because the walls have become impregnated with lignin, which is impermeable. They,
therefore form a system of hollow pipes to transport the water. Tracheids are long
cigar-shaped cells, joined end-to-end and overlapping one another. The end-walls
between the cells are perforated, and there are small holes (called pits) found in their
side walls. This allows water to flow freely from one cell to another. Vessels differ in
that the end-walls between the cells have usually broken down completely to form
continuous tubes running from the roots to the leaves. The walls of vessels also have
pits. The walls of vessels are often not evenly thickened. Instead they may be thickened
in a spiral or annular (series of rings) fashion. This allow them to be strong, but
flexible, so that they do not break when the plant bends.
 Page -19-

Phloem Tissue

Phloem tissue is responsible for transporting dissolved organic food made by the plant,
from the leaves to other parts of the plant. There are some parenchyma cells and
some sclerenchyma fibres in phloem tissue, but the most important cells are the sieve
tubes and companion cells.

The sieve tubes are made up of long cells, joined end-to-end, with the cross walls
between them being perforated with many holes. These perforated end-walls are called
sieve plates and they allow larger organic food molecules to move through fairly easily.
The cellulose cell walls of sieve tubes are fairly thin and they are not lignified like xylem
vessels. This means that they are living cells. However, they do not have nuclei.

The companion cells are smaller cells which lie next to the sieve tube cells. These cells
have large nuclei and dense cytoplasm, and it is thought that they provide the energy for
the sieve tubes to stay alive and be active. A large number of plasmodesmata also
connect the two cells.
 Page -20-

Arrangement of tissues in the stem

The diagram below shows how the plant tissues are arranged in the stem of a plant. It
illustrates how tissues are arranged to form organs...the stem being an organ of a plant.

The notes on the plant tissues have diagrams of the various tissues. The following
activity will help you apply your knowledge of tissues, so that you will be able to identify
the tissues from photographs and microscope slides.

Activity : Photographs of plant tissues.

Activity : Drawing of xylem tissue.

Activity : Epidermal peel : Drawing.