Another name for red blood cells is erythrocytes
1. The Vascular System (Overview)
● Definition: A network of specialized tubes that transport substances through an
organism.
● In Plants:
○ Xylem: Transports water and minerals from roots → stems/leaves.
○ Phloem: Transports food (sugars) from leaves → growing/storage tissues.
● In Animals (Circulatory System):
○ Made of heart, blood, and blood vessels.
○ Transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and wastes.
● Why is it Necessary?
○ Enables efficient transport over long distances.
○ Overcomes the slow speed of diffusion.
○ Supports growth/survival by supplying cells and removing waste.
○ In plants: Also provides structural support.
2. Plant Vascular Tissue: Xylem vs. Phloem
Feature Xylem Phloem
Transports Water & dissolved Manufactured food(sucrose,
minerals (e.g., nitrates) amino acids)
Direction One-way only(roots → Bidirectional (up and down to
upwards) where needed)
Cells Dead at maturity (hollow Living (sieve tube elements +
tubes) companion cells)
Cell Walls Thick, lignified(woody) Thin, flexible, not lignified
Special Features Pits for sideways water Sieve plates with pores;
movement; no cytoplasm companion cells
3. How Plants Absorb Water & Minerals
● Absorbing Water (by OSMOSIS):
○ Occurs through root hair cells (large surface area).
○ Soil water has higher water concentration than root cell sap.
○ Water moves into root hair → across cortex → into xylem.
● Absorbing Minerals (by ACTIVE TRANSPORT mainly):
○ Minerals are absorbed as ions (e.g., NO₃⁻, K⁺, Mg²⁺).
○ Root hair cells have many mitochondria to produce ATP.
○ Active transport is needed because soil mineral concentration is often lower than
in root cells (moves against concentration gradient).
○ Requires energy (from respiration) and carrier proteins.
4. Transpiration & Factors Affecting It
● Transpiration: Loss of water vapor from leaves (mainly through stomata).
● Cohesion: Water molecules stick to each other.
● Adhesion: Water molecules stick to xylem walls.
● Factors:
○ Light ↑ → Rate ↑ (stomata open for gas exchange).
○ Temperature ↑ → Rate ↑ (increases evaporation).
○ Humidity ↑ → Rate ↓ (reduces diffusion gradient).
○ Wind ↑ → Rate ↑ (removes moist air layer).
○ Leaf Surface Area ↑ → Rate ↑.
○ Soil Water ↓ → Rate ↓ (stomata close).
5. Translocation
● Definition: Movement of food (sugars) in the phloem from source (leaves) to sink (where
it's used/stored).
● Key Points:
○ Occurs in living phloem tissue.
○ Requires energy (supplied by companion cells).
○ Can be upwards or downwards.
6. Animal Transport: Double Circulation
● Definition: Blood passes through the heart twice per complete body circuit.
○ Pulmonary Circuit: Heart → Lungs → Heart (to oxygenate blood).
○ Systemic Circuit: Heart → Body → Heart (to deliver oxygen).
● Why? Keeps oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separate, allowing high-pressure,
efficient oxygen delivery.
7. The Heart & Cardiac Cycle
● Chambers & Valves:
1. Right Side (Deoxygenated): Right Atrium → Tricuspid Valve → Right Ventricle →
Pulmonary Valve → Pulmonary Artery → Lungs.
2. Left Side (Oxygenated): Lungs → Pulmonary Veins → Left Atrium → Mitral
(Bicuspid) Valve → Left Ventricle → Aortic Valve → Aorta → Body.
● Cardiac Cycle Stages:
1. Atrial Systole: Atria contract, push blood into ventricles.
2. Ventricular Systole: Ventricles contract, push blood out to lungs/body.
3. Diastole: Heart muscles relax, chambers refill with blood.
● Systole = Contraction. Diastole = Relaxation.
8. Blood Vessels
Feature Arteries Veins Capillaries
Direction Away from heart Toward heart Connect arterioles →
venules
Blood Type Oxygenated Deoxygenated Mixed
(except (except
pulmonary) pulmonary)
Wall Thickness Thick, muscular,
elastic
Flow Pathway: Artery → Arteriole → Capillary → Venule → Vein
9. Blood Components
● Plasma (55%): Yellowish liquid; transports cells, nutrients, hormones, wastes.
● Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes):
○ Biconcave disc, no nucleus.
○ Contains hemoglobin to carry oxygen.
● White Blood Cells (Leukocytes): Fight infection.
● Platelets: Cell fragments; help clotting.
10. Blood Pressure & Cardiovascular Disease
● Blood Pressure Reading: Systolic / Diastolic (e.g., 120/80 mmHg).
○ Systolic: Pressure during ventricular contraction (top number).
○ Diastolic: Pressure during heart relaxation (bottom number).
● Hypertension: Persistently high BP (>140/90 mmHg).
● Atherosclerosis/Arteriosclerosis:
○ Build-up of fatty plaques (atheroma) inside artery walls.
○ Arteries become narrow, stiff, less elastic.
○ Consequences: Increases BP, risk of heart attack, stroke, heart failure.
11. Blood Groups (ABO System)
● Determined by antigens (on RBCs) and antibodies (in plasma).
● Type O: Universal donor (no A/B antigens). Has anti-A & anti-B antibodies.
● Type AB: Universal recipient (no anti-A/B antibodies). Has A & B antigens.
● Agglutination: Clumping of RBCs if wrong blood is transfused (antibody meets its
antigen).
(Need to organise)
Angina
Angina is chest pain or discomfort caused by insufficient oxygen supply to the heart muscle due
to narrow coronary arteries(arteries that wrap around the heart). It is not a heart attack, but a
warning sign of coronary artery disease.
Features of Angina
- Pain or tightness in the chest
- Occurs during exertion or emotional stress
- Relieved by rest or medication
Coronary thrombosis(clotting)
It is blood clotting in the coronary artery. It usually develops from atherosclerosis or plague
deposits.
It usually develops like:
1. Fatty plague builds up in the coronary artery
2. The plague surface may crack or rupture
3. A blood clot forms on the damaged area
4. The clot blocks the artery, reducing or stopping blood flow to part of the heart
The affected region of the heart muscle is deprived of oxygen and glucose, so respiration
becomes anaerobic and cells may die. This leads to a myocardial infarction(heart attack) if the
blockage is severe or prolonged.
Differences
The difference between angina and a heart attack is that a heart attack is over a long period of
time.
The skeleton
The skeletal system in humans is the body system made up of bones, cartilage, ligaments that
forms the rigid framework of the body.
Functions of the skeleton
● Supports the body and gives shape
● Protects vital organs (e.g. skull protects the brain; rib cage protects heart and
lungs)
● Enables movement by providing attachment points for muscles
● Produces blood cells in bone marrow (red and white blood cells)
● Stores minerals such as calcium and phosphorus
Major bones and their common names
Head and trunk
- Cranium - skull (brain case)
- Vertebral column - backbone or spine
- Rib - rib cage
- Sternum - breastbone
Upper limb
- Clavice - collarbone
- Spapula - shoulder blade
- Humerus - upper arm bone
- Radius - thumb-side forearm bone
- Ulna - little-finger-side forearm bone
- Carpals - wrist bones
- Metacarpals - palm bones
- Phalanges (hand) - finger bones
Lower limb
- Pelvis (hip bone) - bone
- Femur - thigh bone
- Patella - kneecap
- Tibia - shin bone
- Fibula - calf bone
- Tarsals - ankle bones
- Metatarsals - foot bones
- Phalanges (foot) - toe bone
Core functions
Movement
Movement is possible because of the bones, ligaments and tendons.
Ligaments
They are tough elastic bands or connective tissues that join bone to bone at joints. They hold
bones together, keep joints stable, and prevent excessive or abnormal movement.
- Bones to bones.
Tendons
They are strong fibrous cords of connective tissues that attach muscles to bones. When a
muscle contracts, the tendon transmits the pulling force to the bones, causing the bones to
move at the joints.
- Muscles to bones
Movement of muscles
They allow muscles to move bones by transmitting muscular force, while ligaments guide and
limit joint movement so it occurs in the correct direction and without dislocations. Together, they
enable smooth, controlled movements of the skeleton.
How do we move?
Antagonistic muscle muscle action occurs when muscles work in pairs and produce opposite
movements at a join. One muscles contracts while the other relaxes.
Example:
At the elbow, the biceps contract to bend the arm(flexion) while the triceps relaxes; to straighten
the arm(extension’, the triceps contracts and the biceps relaxes.
Protection
Skeletal structures and the organs they protect
➢ Cranium (skill) -> protects the brain
➢ Vertebral column (spine/backbone) -> protects the spinal cord
➢ Rib cage (ribs + sternum) -> protects the heart and lungs
➢ Pelvis (pelvic girdle) -> protects the urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and part of the
intestines
➢ Eye sockets (orbits of the skull) -> protects the eye
➢ Nasal cavity (skull) -> protects parts of the respiratory passages