Let I= current through the conductor (A) L= length of the conductor (m) ‘A= cross-section area (m’) n= number of free electrons per unit volume (n) @ = charge on each electron (C) v= average (drift) velocity of the electron (ms?) L —— D (= Frese section rea d nlimber of free electrons per unit volume (n) It follows that Volume of the section = LA Number of free electrons in the section = nLA. Total quantity of charge which is free to move = nlAe Time taken for an electron to travel through the sectio Lae Rate of flow of charge = "77" = nLave Hence current, | = nLave Current density, Potential difference (P.d.) This is work done in transferring a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to another in a circuit. Whenever current flows from one point to another, it does so because the electrical potential at two points are different. If two points are at the same potential, no current can flow between them. Resistance (R) This is the opposition to the flow of current in the material. v Resistance The S.l. units of resistance is ohms (0) ‘An ohm isa resistance of a conductor through which a current of one Ampere is flowing when the Potential difference across is one volt. i.e. 10 = 1VA*. 2 Sponsored by The Science Foundation College +256 753 80 27 09Resistivity (p, rho) Resistivity is electrical resistance across opposite faces ofa cube of 1m long Re SorR=ps and p=R#Am a) It is the reciprocal of resistivity Conducti Some conductors have resistances which depend on current flowing through them; but in most cases the resistance of many conductors (metals) depend only an their physical circumstances e.g. ‘temperature. This was discovered by Ohm and such conductors are called ohmic conductors and obey Ohm's law, Coulomb Is the quantity of charge passing in one second through a given cross-section area of a conductor when current flowing is one Ampere. Electromotive force (e.m.f) This is the work done in transferring one coulomb of charge around a circuit in which a battery is connected. [Link] denoted by E. Ohm’s law States that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the P.d. across it provided ‘that there is no change in physical conditions such as temperature of the conductor. =RV Experiment to determine Ohm’s law Cell switch || 1 LD Ammeter (A Rheostat Potentiometer ‘The switch is closed the current (I) from ammeter and P.d. (V] from the potentiometer are recorded. 3 Sponsored by The Science Foundation College +256 753 80 27 09‘The rheostat is adjusted to obtain several values of | and V The graph of V against | is plotted, Agraph of V against | viv) lav al 1A) {A straight line graph through the origin implies that Vis directly proportional to! ane From the graph R=. a Factors affecting resistance 1. Length: Resistance increases with the length of a conductor; electron make more frequent collision with atoms when the length of the conductor increases. This reduces drift velocity of free electron hence resistance increases. 2. Cross sectional area (A): Resistance reduces with increase in cross sectional area. When the cross-sectional area increases, the number of electrons that drift along the conductor increases. This implies that there is an increase in the number of electrons per second that pass a given point, thus an increase in current and consequently a decrease in resistance. 3. Temperature: Resistance increases with temperature increase. Increase in temperature causes atoms to vibrate with greater amplitude and frequency about their mean positions. The velocity of electrons also increases making more collision between electrons and atoms. This increase in collision between electron and atoms reduces the drift velocity of electrons and increases resistance, Ohmic conductors These are conductors that obey ohm’s law. Non-ohmic conductors ‘Are conductors that do not obey chm’s law; examples Graphs of non-ohmic conductors 1 ' v 7 Junction diode (semi-conductor) sulphuric acid 4 Sponsored by The Science Foundation College +256 753 80 27 09Resistance in combination (i) Series combination a eye <+ For series arrangement, the same current | flows through the resistors but each resistor has its own P.d. across Forn, Vien ( all (ii) Forts, V; Fors, Vs= rs) (iy VeVi tt Vs Enltnlenl elt tn) Resultant resistance, R thet) (i) Parallel arrangement The p.d. across each resistor is the same = Van Total sum of current sais 5 Sponsored by The Science Foundation College +256 753 80 27 09Example 1 (i) Define a volt (i) Derive the formula of resultant resistance for 3 combined resistors in parallel. (iil) In the circuit, the battery has negligible internal resistance. VV — ek 60 d] [l= i F 12 Find ammeter and voltmeter reading iii) WV ! s— — 6 ob d] [l= [ 12V 60 and 1200 are in paale let their effective resistance be Rr B42 then = 40 Equivalent circuit 6 Sponsored by The Science Foundation College +256 753 80 27 09“tl [jee I 12 20 and 40 resistors are in series The effective resistance R= 2+4=60 ems 2 From the circuit formula |= #7 = 2 = 24 From ohms law, V=IR=2x4=80 Example 2 The resistance of a nichrome element of an electric wire is 50.90 at20.0°C when operating a 240V. supply the current flowing through it is 4.17A. Calculate the stead temperature reached by the electric fire if the temperature coefficient of resistance of nichrome is 1.7 x 10°K*. Solution Roo = 50.90, a= 1.7x 104K, Re=? V=240V, 1= 4.178 From Ohm’s law Using Ra = Ro(1 + a8) Rao = Ro(1 + 20a) = 50.9 “ Re= Ro(1 + a8) = 57.55 (i) From equation (i) and (i) and substituting for a @=791.1°C Example 3 Anichrome wire of length 1m and uniform diameter 0.722mm at 25°C is made into a coil. The coll is immersed in 200cm? at the same temperature and a current 5.0A is passed through the coil for 8 minutes when the water starts to oil at 100°C. Find (i) Theresistance of the coil (ii) The electrical energy expended assuming all of it goes to heating the water (ii) The mean temperature coefficient of resistance of nichrome between 0° and 100°C. (Resistivity of nichrome at 25°C =1.2 x 108) 7 Sponsored by The Science Foundation College +256 753 80 27 09Solution i) Using Ros = Pg x Ros = 12x10 x (li) Assuming no heat losses Electric energy dissipated = heat gained by water = mc8 = (200 x 10°)(4200)(100-75) = 63000) Electric energy dissipated = Rrewnxt LOA, t= Sminutes = 8 x 60 = 480s 9480 Rove 5? RmeanX 4800 = 6300 Rynean = 5.20 5.2 = Bast Rioo Ryog = 7.5520 Using Ro = Rad +08) Rag = Ra(1 + 250) = 2.948 vane) Ro = Ro(1 +1004) = 7.552 vononnee (il) Divide eqn (i) by (i) = 0.0434 Example 4 8 Sponsored by The Science Foundation College +256 753 80 27 09In the figure X is an accumulator of the e.m.f 24V and having internal resistance of 10, Find the effective resistance of the circuit. Solution Ltrs} cr} 16,17, and r8 are in parallel; let their effective resistance be Ri + R,=10 R, and rs are in series; their effective resistance Ry =5+1= a rsand ra are in series, their effective resistance R: +6=90 Ry and R2 are in parallel, let their effective resistance be Re Ry=3.60. 1.60 6+ 1+ Ry, rs and r2 are in series their effective resistance, ‘Therefore, effective resistance of the circuit = 11.60 Example 5 A battery of unknown e.m-f and internal resistance is connected in series with a load resistance of R ohms. Ifa very high resistance voltmeter connected across the load reads 3.2V and the power dissipated in the battery is 0.032W and the efficiency of the circuit is 80%, Find () The current flowing (ii) The internal resistance of the battery (ii) The exm-fof the battery 9 Sponsored by The Science Foundation College +256 753 80 27 09Solution E aoa R Total resistance =R+r From circular formula 0) Power dissipated in the battery = Fr = 0.032w..(i) From Ohm’s law Terminal p.d. = IR = 3.2V (iii) power out put ‘power input = P(Rer) Efficiency = x100 Power generated Power output = ’R Fe) ~ Yoo From equation (3) Ixar=3.2 (iv) Divide eqn. (i) by (iv) 1= 0.040, From equation ii) r= "22 r=200 but R= 4r=4x20= 800 E=1(R-+r) = 0.04(80 + 20) = 4V 10 Sponsored by The Science Foundation College +256 753 80 27 09