CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction
This Unit describes the competencies required to Perform Structural Design and Analysis.
It involves analysing structural designs, designing structural elements, preparing structural
drawings interpreting structural drawings and applying structural drawings

4.2 Performance Standard

Analyse structural elements, design structural elements, prepare structural drawings,
interpret structural drawings and apply structural drawings according to building codes,
structure, drawing and support requirements, and structural design requirements.

4.3 Learning Outcomes

4.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Analyse structural elements
b) Design structural elements
c) Prepare structural drawings
d) Interpret structural drawings om
e) Apply and use structural drawings
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 4.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Analyze Structural Elements
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Analyse Structural Elements
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Determine methods used in analyses of structural • Demonstration by trainer

members • Practical work by trainee
1.2 Work loadings • Demonstration videos
1.3 Sketch structural members • Projects
1.4 Determine maximum moments in each section • Group discussions
1.5 Draw shear force and bending moments diagram

[Link] Information Sheet No4/L01: Analyse Structural Elements

Introduction to learning outcome

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This learning outcome covers Analyses of structural elements, Preparation of sketches,

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Determination of maximum moments and Structural designs.

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Definition
Building codes: These are laid down standards for any building structure.

Bending moments: These are structural reactions when a structure is subjected to moment
or applied load.

Shear force: This is the reaction imposed by a structure when loads are imposed.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Determine Methods used in analyses of structural members according to building
codes
Several methods are used in the analysis of structural members. A structural system is made
up of different members and each member is analysed differently. The methods of analysis
used in beams include:
a. Energy methods
Two methods are commonly used i.e.
• Methods of virtual work
• Castigliano’s theorem

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 b. Displacement methods of analysis
• Slope deflection methods
• Moment distribution methods
c. Approximate methods of analysis.
• This method is used in the analysis of statically indeterminate structures.
d. Double integration method
• In this method, sign convention and boundary conditions are well defined. It
is mostly used in determining deflections.
e. Elastic beam theory
• The method relates to slope, displacement as well as the internal moments of
a beam. Its development is fully dependent on this.
f. Moment area methods
• This method is mainly used when checking for deflection. It involves
determining slope and deflection of an elastic curve.
g. Conjugate- beam method
• This method relies mainly on statics for determining deflection in beams.
h. Stiffness method of analysis om
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1.2 Work loadings on according to the structure

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These are loadings that are subjected to a structure. Different structures are subjected to
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different loadings depending on the location, height as well as purpose of use.

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a. Dead loads
• These are loads that are permanent in a structure. They include the self-weight
of the structure, finishes, masonry etc.
• During analysis, these loads are taken into considerations to ascertain the
safety of the structure.
b. Live loads
• These are loads that are temporary. They include people, furniture, etc.
• There are other types of live loads such as impact loads (loads imposed by
moving cars), highway bridge loads (caused by traffic), wind loads and snow
loads.

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1.3 Sketch structural members as per the drawings and support requirements

i. Column ii. Frame iii. Beam

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iv. Truss
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Figure 73: Sketch structural members

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1.4 Determine maximum moments in each section in accordance with appropriate

methods
Maximum moments in different sections of a structural member is determined using
mathematical equations.
It is also necessary to note that maximum moment occurs at zero- shear force.
The line of influence method of determining maximum moment is often used for
statically determinate structures.
The method assumes that summation of shear force area under the influence line is
the moment at any given section in the structure.

That is, Mmax= Summation of area under shear

✓ For statically indeterminate structures, the force method is used in which,
𝑃𝐿
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ----- fixed support beams
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𝑃𝐿
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ------ Simply supported beams
8

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1.5 Draw shear force and bending moments diagram according to structural design
requirements
Drawing shear force and bending diagrams is very essential since it creates an image of
how a structure will fail.
Before doing so, one is required to follow certain procedures as discussed below:
Shear force diagram
a. Determine Shear, V at distance x. Distance x is always the distance from
one load application to another.
b. Plot a graph of V against x
Bending moment diagram
a. Determine moment, M by find the area under shear in the SFD.
b. Plot a graph of moment M, against distance x.
The diagram attached below is an example of how to draw a bending moment diagram
(BMD) as well as the shear force diagram (SFD)

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Figure 74: bending moment

Source: Structural mechanics, 2008

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Conclusion
This learning outcome covered Analyses of structural elements, Preparation of sketches,
Determination of maximum moments and Structural designs.

Further Reading

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1 Which one of the following is a type of load?
a) Furniture load
b) Rail truck load om
c) Live load
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d) Steel load
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2 Which of the following is a method is used to analyze statically indeterminate

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structure?
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a) Influence line analysis method

b) Superposition
c) Energy methods
d) Finite element method.
3 The following methods are used in the analysis of trussed which one is not?
a) Method of joints
b) Method of sections
c) Virial work methods
d) Influence line methods
4 Which of the following is not a displacement method of analysis?
a) Castigliano’s theory
b) Slope deflection equations
c) Moment distribution method
5 Which of the following is not a structural member?
a) Beams
b) Walls
c) Columns
d) Frames
6 Define what is a structure

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7 Explain the importance of structural analysis
8 Differentiate between Structural design and structural analysis
9 What is the difference between influence line and shear force and bending moment
diagram?
10 Differentiate
1. Column
2. Beam
3. Frame
4. Truss
11 Discuss Displacement methods in details
12 For each of the methods outlined, discuss their shortcomings.

Oral Assessment
1. What is analysis?
2. Why do we need to analyze structures?

Project Assessment
1. Analyze a one-story building.
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[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

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• Computers
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• Office equipment
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• Calculators
• Scale rule
• Computer software
• Design codes (British Standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals
• Dust coat
• First aid kit

[Link] References

Bhavikatti, S. (2010). Structural analysis. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.

Hibbeler, R. (2012). Structural analysis. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
Kaveh, A. (2004). Structural mechanics. Baldock, England: Research Studies Press.
Stanford, J. (2012). Structural Analysis Made Easy.

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4.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Design structural elements
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Design structural elements
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Gather Design recourses • Demonstration by trainer

2.2 Identify types of structural elements • Practical work by trainee
2.3 Identify different methods of designs • Demonstration videos
2.4 Identify different types of standard design codes • Projects
2.5 Determine maximum moments used in design • Group discussions
2.6 Identify and gather design tools and equipment
2.7 Design structural elements

[Link] Information Sheet No4/L02 Design structural elements

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Introduction to learning outcome
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This learning outcome covers Structural designs, Methods of designs, Design codes,
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Design tools and equipment, Structural elements designs and Schedules for different
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elements.
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Definition of key terms

Structural elements: Structural elements have to do with the part of the building that is
concerned with preserving the physical integrity (ensuring the structure satisfies the
ultimate limit state and the serviceability limit state requirements) and continues to exist in
the world as a physical object.

Structural designs: This refers to the process of undertaking a structural analysis and
selecting materials, member types, configuration and size to safely carry and transfer the
intended loads both in a serviceability and ultimate limit state.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Gather Design recourses according to standard design requirements
In design, it is said that there is no one way of solving a design problem. Focusing on just
one solution instead of considering other alternatives is almost certain that you are
overlooking other attractive solutions. Generating design options is a phase in project
planning known as conceptual design and it includes producing ideas and taking into
account the advantage and limitations of implementing those ideas.

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This is done to manage costs, minimize the likelihood of errors, evaluate success and assess
risks of undertaking the intended project. Some of the design recourses undertaken in
project include:
i) Changing the materials.
ii) Changing the member types.
iii) Changing the member configuration and arrangement.
iv) Changing the member sizes.

2.2 Identify types of structural elements as per building codes

Structural elements have to do with the part of the building that is concerned with
preserving the physical integrity (ensuring the structure satisfies the ultimate limit state and
the serviceability limit state requirements) and continues to exist in the world as a physical
object. The following are some of the structural elements:
i) Foundations: The foundation is part of an engineered system that transmits to
the underlying soil or rock the loads supported by the foundation itself and its
self-weight in such a way that the soil is not overstressed or excessive settlement
occurs.
ii)
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Columns: These are vertical members that majorly resist axial compressive
loads.
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iii) Beams: These are horizontal members that primarily carry vertical loads and
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resist failure in bending.

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iv) Walls: A wall is a structure that demarcates the different spaces in a building
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as well as the external boundary. Some walls are load bearing and carry the
structural loads of the building.
v) Ties: This is a slender structural element that carries the loads in tension.
vi) Struts: This a structural member that carries the loads in compression only.
vii) Trusses: This a structure that is composed of a series of struts and is used to
carry loads in compression.
viii) Frames: This type of structure is composed of beams and columns that are
either pin or fixed connected.
ix) Slabs: This are horizontal structures built to provide a flat surface in buildings.

2.3 Identify different methods of designs as per the design manuals

The following are the design methods according to BS 5950:
i) Simple design method: The connections between members are assumed not to
develop moments adversely affecting either the members or structure as a
whole. So, the structure is assumed to be pinly-jointed for analysis.
ii) Semi-rigid design method: Are capable of transmitting some moments. Here
the joints are capable of transmitting partial moment.

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 iii) Rigid design method: Connections are assumed to be capable of transmitting
100% moment required by analysis assuming full continuity.
iv) Experimental verification: The code states that where design of a structure or
elements by calculation in accordance with any of the above methods is not
practical, the strength will be confirmed by loading tests.

2.4 Identify different types of standard design codes according to construction

materials
The following are some of the design codes currently in use in Kenya:
i) Design of reinforced concrete structures- BS 8110
ii) Design of steel framed buildings- BS 5950
iii) Design of timber structures- BS 5628
iv) Design code on the occupancy load requirements of a building- BS 6399 Part
1.

2.5 Determine maximum moments used in design according to standard

specification manuals
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The maximum bending moment occurs in beam where the shear force is zero. Below is a
table showing how to calculate bending moment for various types of beams:
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Table 4: How to calculate bending moment for various types of beams

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Source: [Link]

2.6 Identify and gather design tools and equipment according to standard design
manuals
Check the tools, equipment, supplies and materials section.

2.7 Design structural elements as per the design codes

The following is the procedure followed in the design of a beam according to BS 5950:
i) Determine the loading condition of the beam.
ii) Calculate the design load of the beam.
iii) Perform structural analysis to determine the design moment and the design
shear.
iv) Perform a strength classification and section classification.
v) Choose a section based on its moment capacity equation.
vi) Perform a moment capacity check.
vii) Perform a shear capacity check.
viii) Evaluate whether it’s a low or high shear load.
ix) Perform a deflection limits check.
x) Perform a web bearing check.

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Conclusion
This learning outcome covered structural designs, methods of designs, design codes, design
tools and equipment, structural elements designs and schedules for different elements.

Further Reading

1. British standards Institute. (2002). Design of reinforced concrete structures-BS 8810.

BSI.
2. British standards Institute. (2002). Design of steel structures-BS 5950. BSI.
3. British standards Institute. (2002). Design of timber structures-BS 5628. BSI.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment om
1. Which of the following is not a type of foundation?
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a) Mat
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b) Isolated footing
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c) Retaining wall
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d) Combined footing
2. Which of the following is not a check done during the design of reinforced concrete
beam?
a) Shear capacity check.
b) Moment capacity check.
c) Web buckling check.
d) Deflection check
3. Which of the following is not a phase during design of structures?
a) Technical design
b) Developed design
c) Conceptual design
d) Handover
4. Which of the following is not a structural element?
a) Ties
b) None
c) Trusses
d) Joists
5. Design a reinforced concrete beam of your choosing according to the design code BS
8110.

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6. Describe the various type of foundations and when should be used.
7. Describe the design principles that should guide an engineer during the design process.
8. Describe the main design theories.
9. Write an essay describing the how an engineer with poor communication skills can
lead to poor quality construction.

Project Assessment
1. Using a BIM software application of your choice obtain architectural drawings from
the internet and develop a corresponding structural model.

Oral Assessment
1. Describe how you as a student pursuing a diploma of civil engineering can develop
shop drawings for fabrication of steel members when requested by the professional
engineer.
2. What skills have you gained as a result of performing the project assessment described
above.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

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• Computers
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• Office equipment
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• Calculators
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• Computer software
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• Design codes (British standards)

• Stationery
• Standard design manuals

[Link] References

Abdy Kermani (2008) Structural timber design. Blackwell science, London.

N. Subramanian (2010). Steel structures design and practice. Oxford university press, New
Delhi.
W.H Mosley, R. Hulse, J.H Bungey (2012). Reinforced Concrete Design. Red Globe Press,
New York.

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4.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Prepare Structural Drawings
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Prepare structural drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Identify and gather drawing resources • Demonstration by trainer

3.2 Determine methods of drawing for structural • Practical work by trainee
members • Demonstration videos
3.3 Prepare standard working structural drawings for • Projects
various elements • Group discussions
3.4 Prepare materials schedules

[Link] Information Sheet No4/ L03 Prepare structural drawings

Introduction to learning outcome om

This learning outcome covers Drawing tools and equipment, Methods of drawing, Standard
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structural drawings and Preparation of material schedules.

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Definition of key terms

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Drawing resources: This refers to the various resources required in order to produce the
complete set of structural drawings.

Structural members: Structural members have to do with the part of the building that is
concerned with preserving the physical integrity.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Identify and gather drawing resources according to structural elements designed
• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Computer software
• Design codes (British standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals

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3.2 Determine methods of drawing for structural members as per the designs
Structural drawings confine themselves to the load-carrying members of a structure.
The following outlines the methods for drawing structural members:
i) Structural plan. These drawings show the floor, foundation and roof plan of a
building and provide information like location and size of different elements
present in the plans.
ii) Elevations. These shows the exterior walls of a building or structure and the
structural properties of elements present in the walls and cannot be seen in plan
drawings.
iii) Sections. These are referenced in the plan drawings and provide more
information about elements that may not be seen in plan drawings.
iv) Detail drawings. These provides particular information on how to connect or
construct the structural elements.

3.3 Prepare standard working structural drawings for various elements as per
designs
Structural drawings have to be produced as the design process evolves since the drawings
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are required in construction of the structure. Production of structural drawings takes place
as follows:
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i) The schematic architectural drawings are obtained from the architect.

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(Conceptual design phase)

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ii) The engineer determines the loadings applied to the structure based on the
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drawings and performs design to size the members according to the forces
applied to the building. (Developed design phase)
iii) As the design process evolves the engineer produces more detailed drawings,
bar bending schedules, notes, specifications, details and at the end of this stage
we have construction ready documents. (Technical design phase)
iv) The drawings are included in a tender pack to be tendered together with
drawings from other disciplines during the bidding and tendering process.

3.4 Prepare materials schedules as per design codes

A material schedule is a detailed list of construction materials required to complete
construction of the intended project.
i) Decide what is required. This requires that you thoroughly interrogate the
drawings and specifications to determine the required materials.
ii) Decide whether to prefabricate the materials or construct on-site. This involves
deciding whether to purchase materials for construction on-site or purchase
prefabricated components.

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Conclusion
This learning outcome covered drawing tools and equipment, methods of drawing, standard
structural drawings and preparation of material schedules.

Further Reading

1. [Link] Raju (1992) Structural design and drawing: Reinforced concrete and steel.
Universities Press.
2. Leonard Koel. (1999) Construction print reading. Delmar Cengage Learning.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment om
1. Which of the following is not a method of drawing structural members?
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a) Specifications
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b) Structural plans
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c) Elevations
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d) Details
2. Which of the following is not among the drawing resources required to produce
structural plans?
a) Computers
b) Computer software
c) Standard design manuals
d) Office equipment
3. Which of the following is not a phase during design of structures?
a) Technical design
b) Developed design
c) Conceptual design
d) Handover
4. State the various computer software required in the production of structural drawings.
5. Explain the procedure of developing shop drawings.
6. Describe what is detailing of structural drawings.
7. Write an essay describing Building Information Modelling (BIM) and its impact on the
production of structural drawings.

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Project Assessment
Obtain a set of structural drawings for a project from the internet and interpret them to draw
up a material schedule.

Oral Assessment
1. Explain the skills required to competently interpret structural drawings.
2. Explain the steps followed in interpreting structural drawings.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Computer software
• Design codes (British standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals
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[Link] References
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R.K Dhawan (2012). A textbook of engineering drawing. [Link] 3rd rev.

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Leonard Koel. (2000) Construction print reading. Delmar Cengage Learning.

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4.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Interpret structural drawings
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Interpret structural drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Identify project • Demonstration by trainer

4.2 Identify and obtain structural drawings • Practical work by trainee
4.3 Obtain and prepare steel schedules and • Demonstration videos
materials schedules • Projects
• Group discussions

[Link] Information Sheet No4/ L04 Interpret structural drawings

Introduction to learning outcome om

This learning outcome covers Identification of project, Structural drawings, Steel and
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material schedules preparation and Standard construction procedures

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Definition of key terms

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Steel schedules: This is a list that explains the location, mark, type, size, length and number
of each steel bar in a reinforcement drawing of a structure.

Structural drawings: These are plans illustrating in detail how a structure or building
should be constructed. Engineers come up with structural drawings from performing
checks using the loads that the structure is to carry, co-currently with standard codes.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Identify project according to the contract document
Project Identification is one of the major stages of a project cycle
Steps taken in identifying a project:
• Preliminary stakeholder analysis
• Analyzing the problem
• Setting of Objectives
• Analyzing alternatives
• Analyzing accountability
• Logical framework thinking
• Analyzing assumptions and associated risks
• Definition of Progress indicator
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4.2 Identify and obtain structural drawings as per design manuals
Structural drawings
These are plans illustrating in detail how a structure or building should be constructed.
Engineers come up with structural drawings from performing checks using the loads that
the structure is to carry, co-currently with standard codes.

Structural drawings should basically include the following information;

• Setting out dimensions
• Notes describing the specifications
• Sections, plans and elevations
• Compass direction – North point

Reinforcement Drawing
These are drawings describing the location, number, size, type of reinforcement and
illustrate the direction in which the reinforcement is to be laid.

Standard Details
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This is a description of certain standard details that keep recurring in several structural
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drawings and are kept for use whenever necessary.

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Standard details include;

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• Notes
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• Expansion joints details

• Concrete box culverts
• Pile caps and column bases

Record Drawings
This is a drawing that has been revised to cater for unforeseen challenges. A revision letter
is normally included in the revised drawing to indicate that it is a revision.

4.3 Obtain and prepare steel schedules and materials schedules according to
construction procedures
Factors to be considered when preparing a Steel Schedule
• Location of reinforcement
• Mark of reinforcement
• Type of reinforcement
• Size of reinforcement – diameter of steel
• Length of reinforcement
Factors to be considered when preparing a Materials Schedule
• Type of material
• Amount of material

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Conclusion
This learning outcome covered identification of project, structural drawings, steel and
material schedules preparation and standard construction procedures.

Further Reading

Read further on the Project cycle

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Structural drawings should basically include the following information. Which one is
not among them? om
a) Setting out dimensions
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b) Notes describing the specifications

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c) Sections, plans and elevations

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d) Amount of material
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2. While developing a steel schedule, the site engineer left out one crucial detail
necessary. Which one of the following is it?
a) Color of reinforcement
b) Location of reinforcement
c) Dimensions of structure
d) Height of the structure
3. Define the term Structural drawings
4. State three types of construction drawings
5. Discuss in detail the steps taken in project identification

Oral Assessment
Why is it necessary to master the art of interpreting structural drawings?

Practical Assessment
Get construction drawings of a given structure and point out the different structural element
present and come up with a steel schedule for the reinforcement

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[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Scale rule
• Computer software
• Design codes (British standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals
• Dust coat
• First aid kit

[Link] References

McCormac. (2007). Structural Steel Design. Prentice Hall, 4th edition. ISBN:013221816X
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Segui (2006). Steel Design. Cengage-Engineering, 4th edition. ISBN: 0495244716
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4.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Apply and use Structural Drawings
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Apply and use Structural Drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1 Identify and obtain construction resources • Demonstration by trainer

5.2 Gather statutory documents • Practical work by trainee
5.3 Determine setting out activities • Demonstration videos
5.4 Establish foundation • Projects
5.5 Prepare structural members • Group discussions
5.6 Develop and adhere to working drawing, steel
schedules and materials schedules

[Link] Information Sheet No5/ L05 Apply and use structural drawings

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Introduction to learning outcome
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This learning outcome covers Interpretation of drawings, Statutory requirements,

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Foundation engineering, Preparation of structural elements and Development of working

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drawing, steel schedules and materials schedules

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Definition of key terms

Statutory documents: This refers to documents with instructions or requirements which
are applicable by virtue of law enacted by the government.

Steel schedules: This is a list that explains the location, mark, type, size, length and number
of each steel bar in a Reinforcement Drawing of a Structure.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1 Identify and obtain construction resources as per the tender documents
Construction resources – this is basically the materials and personnel necessary for the
construction process from start to finish.

Construction resources include;

a) Time – Time as a resource in construction is very sensitive since most construction
projects are working under a certain time frame requested by the client. The fact
that some construction works such as concrete works which require curing time
makes the resource of time quite valuable.

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 b) Materials – Construction materials are a great resource since they sum up the
ingredients necessary to have a finished structural work. These include but are not
limited to building blocks, cement, sand, water, ballast etc.
c) Labour – this includes human personnel, from the manual worker to the
construction experts such as engineers.
d) Plant and Machinery – These are necessary in order to have some finished
products such as concrete which requires a concrete mixer.
e) Health and safety equipment – This is whereby we have guard rails at the edge
of high-rise buildings under construction, the use of bright coloured tape
surrounding shafts, presence of fire extinguishers on site and health and safety
training for all personnel.
f) Technology – technology such as a crane which is necessary for lifting heavy
construction materials such as steel, scaffolding, shuttering, buckets of concrete etc.
g) Works Requirement – This comprises of the working drawings and specifications
required for the construction project.
h) Construction site – This is the very place where the proposed structure is to be
constructed.
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5.2 Gather statutory documents as per the project requirements
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Statutory documents
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This refers to documents with instructions or requirements which are applicable by virtue
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of law enacted by the government. Almost every proposed development project has
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statutory obligations that do not arise out of the contract, but are imposed by law. These
obligations are applicable to the design, construction and operation of buildings and will
depend on the specific nature of the proposed development.

Statutory documents are required for the following areas when drafting construction
contracts:
Labour
• The Employment Act 2007
• The Labour Institutions Act
• The Labour Relations Act

Tax
• The Income Tax Act
All workers in any construction project must be subject to the payment of income tax

Health and Safety

• Occupational Safety and Health Act 2007 (OSHA)
• Work Injury Benefit Act, 2007

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Environment and Pollution
• Environmental Management and Coordination Act

Noise
• Legal Notice No.61 (NEMA)

Traffic
• The Road Traffic Act

Building
• Building Regulations

Planning
• The Urban Planning Act

Public Procurement
• The Social Value Act om
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Products and Services

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• The Supply of Goods and Services Act

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5.3 Determine setting out activities according to the approved drawings and standard
construction processes
Setting Out – the act of establishing the location points of site boundaries, columns,
foundations, center-lines of walls and any other necessary structural part.

Types of Setting Out

• 3-4-5 method
Used especially in setting out right angles from certain points on the base line.
• Rope method
The rope method is used in setting out a perpendicular line in reference to the base
line, beginning from a point which is not on the base line.
• Single and Double Prismatic Square
This is used in setting out both right angles and perpendicular lines.
The methods of setting out listed above are used in conjunction with the total station,
prisms, etc.

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Steps undertaken in Setting out a building
• Clearing the site
• Obtain the working drawing of the proposed building
• Ensure that the materials for construction are ready
• A parallel line is then established
• The 3-4-5 setting out method is then used for setting out
• Profiles are then established
• The points of excavation on the profiled are nailed
• The points of the column on the profile are then nailed.

5.4 Establish foundation as per the working drawings and standard construction
procedures
Factors to be considered when establishing the foundation
• Excavation depth and volume
• Soil bearing capacity
• Base area of foundation
• Proximity to property lines om
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5.5 Prepare structural members in accordance with the working drawings

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Structural Members
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These are simple structural elements that when viewed or put together, make up the
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structural body in a drawing

Structural members include;

• Columns – these are vertical elements that carry loads from slabs and beams.
• Beams – these are horizontal elements that carry loads from slabs and
sometimes walls
• Slab – these is a horizontal element that covers a described portion in the x-
plane and carries both fixed and static loads depending on the use of the
structure
• Stairs – are structural elements that are in the z-plane. They can be diagonal or
vertical in the y-plane and are horizontal in the x-plane.
• Walls – These are vertical elements constructed using masonry and can carry
loads.
• Foundations – this is a substructure element that transfers the loads of the
superstructure to ground

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5.6 Develop and adhere to working drawing, steel schedules and materials schedules
according to standard construction processes
Factors to be considered in developing Working Drawing
• Internal forces – Moment and Shear (ULS – Ultimate limit state)
• Safety Checks on deflection, cracking, corrosion and fire resistance
• Loads – dead loads and imposed loads
• Partial Safety factors – On dead loads a partial safety of 40% (1.4Gk) and a partial
safety factor of 60% on imposed loads (1.6Qk)
• Moment distribution

Factors to be considered when developing a Steel Schedule

• Location of reinforcement
• Mark of reinforcement
• Type of reinforcement
• Size of reinforcement – diameter of steel
• Length of reinforcement
om
Factors to be considered when developing a Materials Schedule
t.c

• Type of material
e

• Amount of material
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sy
ea

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered interpretation of drawings, statutory requirements,
foundation engineering, preparation of structural elements and development of working
drawing, steel schedules and materials schedules.

Further Reading

Read further on statutory documents necessary for construction works in Kenya.

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[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Sophia is a student undertaking a diploma course in civil engineering. While arranging
a bookshelf at her home, she came across structural drawings to their proposed new
home in Ruai. Which of the following was not a structural member in the drawings?
a) Columns
b) Beams
c) Slab
d) Steel reinforcement
2. Victor a recently graduate civil engineer was asked to come up with a steel schedule
back at work. Which of the following is not a factor he should consider while
developing the steel schedule?
a) Location of reinforcement
b) Size of reinforcement
c) Color of reinforcement om
d) Length of reinforcement
t.c

3. In an interview for a civil engineering job, an interviewee was asked to state the steps
e
tv

undertaken when setting out a building. Which of the following should have been his
sy

first step?
ea

a) Establishing the profile

b) Using the 3-4-5 method to set out
c) Clearing the site
d) Establishing a parallel line
4. State construction resources necessary for the construction process
5. State 5 factors to be considered when developing a working drawing
6. Using examples, define statutory documents
7. Discuss the significance of partial safety factors on loads and materials

Performance Based Evidence

Oral Assessment
What are the factors considered when selecting concrete cover?

Practical Assessment
Given a 4 by 5 two-way spanning solid slab, with the aid of a structural drawing, develop
a steel schedule for the slab.

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[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Scale rule
• Computer software
• Design codes (British standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals
• Dust coat
• First aid kit

[Link] References

McCormac. (2007). Structural Steel Design. Prentice Hall, 4th edition. ISBN:013221816X
om
Segui (2006). Steel Design. Cengage-Engineering, 4th edition. ISBN: 0495244716
et.c
tv
sy
ea

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