CHAPTER THREE

EVAPORATION
3 .1 Introduction
Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is converted to water vapor (vaporization) and
removed from the evaporating surface (vapor removal). Water evaporates from a variety of
surfaces, such as lakes, rivers, pavements, soils and wet vegetation.

Transpiration is the process by which moisture is carried through plants from roots to small
pores on the underside of leaves, where it changes to vapor and is released to the atmosphere.
Transpiration is essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves. It is estimated that about 10
percent of the moisture found in the atmosphere is released by plants through transpiration.

Evapotranspiration is the discharge of water from the earth's surface to the atmosphere by
evaporation from lakes, streams, and soil surfaces and by transpiration from plants. Evaporation
and transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no easy way of distinguishing between the
two processes. Apart from the water availability in the topsoil, the evaporation from a cropped
soil is mainly determined by the fraction of the solar radiation reaching the soil surface. This
fraction decreases over the growing period as the crop develops and the crop canopy shades
more and more of the ground area. When the crop is small, water is predominately lost by soil
evaporation, but once the crop is well developed and completely covers the soil, transpiration
becomes the main process. Evapotranspiration can be expressed by the equation:

ET = Ew + Et + Es + Ei + Ed + Eg
Where:
ET = Evapotranspiration
Ew = Evaporation from water surface
Et = Transpiration produced by the vegetation biological process
Es = Evaporation from soil surface without vegetation
Ei = Evaporation of rainfall quantity intercepted by vegetal covering and also by constructions
Ed = Evaporation of rainfall quantity accumulated in ground depressions without possibilities of
infiltration
Eg = Evaporation from snow and glacier surface

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 Fig. 4.1 the components of evapotranspiration

Physical process of evaporation

For evaporation to take place the presence of water inflow is assumed. Water will evaporate from
free open surfaces like land, lakes, reservoirs, open streams, but also from soils covered with
vegetation, trees, etc. Precipitation that reaches the ground surface returns to the atmosphere in
vapor shape.

Natural evaporation is an energy-exchange process. Energy input is necessary for evaporation to

proceed. The quantity of energy necessary to start the transition from liquid state to vapour state
is called vaporization latent heat.

3.2 Factors that affect evaporation and transportation

1. Meteorological factors
The meteorological factors that influence the evaporation process are: the available quantity of
water, solar radiation, air pressure and wind, the specific and relative air humidity and also the
air and water temperatures.

Available water quantity

Basically, for the evaporation phenomenon takes place a water supply is necessary.

Solar radiation
The quantity of water evaporated from a surface depends mainly on the heat quantity that the
surface receives from the sun. The heat quantity received by a surface alternates depending on
the geographic conditions (latitude gradient) and altitude (altitude gradient) where the surface is
located. This heat exchange between the atmosphere, the soil surface and the water surface is
achieved through heat convection and conduction.

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Vapor Pressure

The rate of evaporation is proportional to the difference between the saturation vapor pressure at
the water temperature, ew and the actual vapor pressure in the air, ea.

Thus
E = c(ew - ea) (3.1)
Where E = rate of evaporation (mm/d) and c = a constant: ew - ea are in mm mercury.
Eq (3.1) is known as Dalton's Law of Evaporation after John Dalton (1802) who first recognized
this law.
 Evaporation continues till ew= ea. If ewea condensation takes place.
Wind (air movement)
The process of vapor removal depends to a large extent on wind and air turbulence which
transfers large quantities of air over the evaporating surface. When vaporizing water, the air
above the evaporating surface becomes gradually saturated with water vapor. If this air is not
continuously replaced with drier air, the driving force for water vapor removal and the
evapotranspiration rate decreases.
Water & air temperature and air humidity
Temperature of both air and evaporating surface is an important factor in evaporation. The
higher the air temperature, the more water vapor it can hold, and similarly, if the temperature of
evaporating water is high, it vaporizes faster. Thus evaporation amounts are high in tropical
climates and tend to be low in Polar Regions. Similar contrasts are found between summer and
winter evaporation quantities in temperate climate.
The water vapor capacity of air is directly related to temperature. Evaporation is dependent on
the saturation deficit of the air, which is given by the difference between the saturation vapor
pressure at the surface temperature and the actual vapor pressure of the air. Hence more
evaporation occurs in inland areas where the air tends to be drier than in coastal regions with
moist air from the oceans.

2. Physical factors
The physical factors that have a major interference in the evaporation process are: the depth of
the free water surface, the shape of the free water surface and the water salinity.

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Depth of open water surface
This characteristic plays an important role in energy storage. The essential difference between a
shallow water surface and a deep-water surface result from the sensitivity of the shallow surface
to seasonal climatic variations. A shallow water surface will follow closely meteorological
variations, and the deep-water surface with an important temperature delay will present a
different answer to climatic exchanges [Musy, 2001].
Water salinity
An increase of salinity concentration by 1% reduces the evaporation by 1% by reducing water
pressure. This decreased pressure is directly proportional to the concentration of saline solution.

3.3 .Evapotranspiration process

By the definition, this process groups direct water evaporation from the soil surface and from the
open water surfaces with vegetation transpiration.

Transpiration process
The plants assimilate [take in] water from soil through the roots. The development of the roots
system is connected to the water quantity available in soil. The water absorption is accomplished
through osmosis. The water circulates through vegetation's vascular system to the leaves. The
transpiration process takes place at the leaf level.

Figure 4.3 The pathway of water through vegetation [Musy, 2001]

In addition to the participation of the transpiration process in the water hydrological cycle,
transpiration has multiple functions, the most important of which is to maintain a thermal

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balance in the leaf. The water quantity transpired depends on meteorological factors (the same as
the physical process of evaporation), on the soil humidity in the roots zone, on the plant's age and
species, and also on leaf growth and on the depth of the roots.

Evapotranspiration notions
The authors used two distinct notions for evapotranspiration:
Potential evapotranspiration (PET) is defined as the total water losses through evaporation and
transpiration of a surface with grass of uniform height completely covering the ground surface,
in period of growth, and abundantly fed with water. It is the maximum possible
evapotranspiration at a given location or area related to atmospheric conditions under the
premise of optimum water availability to use up all available energy.
Actual Evapotranspiration (AET) is the sum of the quantity of water evaporated from soils and
the quantity of water evaporated from vegetation, when the soil is at actual specific humidity and
the vegetation is in real physiological and sanitary growing phases. [Musy, 2001]

3.4 Measurement of Evaporation

The rate of evaporation from large water surfaces, such as rivers, ponds, reservoirs, etc can be
determined by the following methods:
 pan measurement methods
 Using empirical formulae
 storage equation method/ water budget method
Pan- measurement method
In this method, a pan of certain standard dimensions is taken, and the water is filled in this pan
up to a certain range of level. The amount of water evaporated from this pan is measured, from
which the rate of evaporation per unit time per unit area is calculated. Evaporation pan data
cannot be applied to free water surface directly but must be adjusted for the differences in
physical and climatological factors. For example, a lake is larger and deeper and may be exposed
to different wind speed, as compared to a pan. The small volume of water in the metallic pan is
greatly affected by temperature fluctuations in the air or by solar radiations in contrast with large
bodies of water (in the reservoir) with little temperature fluctuations. Thus the pan evaporation
data have to be corrected to obtain the actual evaporation from water surface of lakes and
reservoirs i.e. by multiplying by a coefficient called pan coefficient (K) and is defined as:

Eactual = Epan × K
The experimental values for pan coefficients range from 0.67 to 0.82 with an average of 0.7.

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 Fig. 4.2 Hargreaves class A pan evaporometer

[Link] following are the monthly pan evaporation data (Jan - Dec) at a lake in a certain
year in cm.
16.7, 14.3, 17.8, 25.0, 28.6, 21.4, 16.7, 16.7, 16.7, 21.4, 16.7, 16.7
The water spread area in a lake nearby in the beginning of January in that year was 2.80 km2 and
at the end of December it was measured as 2.55 km2. Calculate the loss of water due to
evaporation in that year. Assume pan coefficient of 0.7.
Solution:
Mean water spread area of lake
1
 
Aav = A1  A2  A1 A2 , coneform
3

=3
1
2.08  2.55  2.80x 2.55 
 2.673Km 2
Annual loss due to evaporation (adding up the monthly value) = 228.7 cm.
Annual volume of water lost due to evaporation
= (2.673 x 106) x 228.7 x 0.7
100
= 4.29 x 10 m or 4.29 Mm3
6 3

Example.2. Compute the daily evaporation from a class A pan if the amounts of water added to
bring the level to the fixed point are as follows:

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Rainfall (mm) 14 6 12 8 0 5 6
Water added / removed
(mm) -5 3 0 0 7 4 3

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What is the evaporation loss of water in this week from a lake (surface area - 640 ha) in the
vicinity, assuming a pan coefficient of 0.75?

Solution:
Pan evaporation, EP mm = Rainfall + water added or
- Water removed

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ep (mm) 14-5 = 9 6+3 = 9 12 8 7 5+4 = 9 6+3 =9

Pan evaporation = Ep = 63 mm.

Pan coefficient = EL
EP
EL = EP x pan coefficient
= 63 x 0.75 = 47.25 mm
Water lost from the lakes = A x EL = 640 x 47.25
1000
= 30.24 ha m = 0.3 x 106 m3 = 0.3 Mm3
Using empirical formulae
 Evaporation is measured by two method:
(i) Blaney-Criddle method
This method is used throughout the world for the evapotranspiration/consumptive use
determinations and is given by:

ET= k p (4.6 t + 81.3)

100
ET = k f = kf = K F

f = p (4.6 t + 81.3)
100
Where
ET= seasonal evapotranspiration (consumptive use) in cm
t = mean monthly temperature (in 0C)
p = monthly percentage of hours of bright sunshine (of the year)
k = monthly consumptive use /crop coefficient determined from experimental data
f = monthly consumptive use factor
K, F = seasonal values of consumptive use coefficient and factor respectively.

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Table 3.2: Saturation vapor pressure of water
Temperature Saturation vapor pressure es Slope of plot between

(oC) mmHg Mbar Δ

(1) (2) (3) (4)

0.0 4.58 6.11 0.30

5.0 6.54 8.72 0.45

7.5 7.78 10.37 0.54

10.0 9.21 12.28 0.60

12.5 10.87 14.49 0.71

15.0 12.79 17.05 0.80

17.5 15.00 20.00 0.95

20.0 17.54 23.38 1.05

22.5 20.44 27.95 1.24

25.0 23.76 31.67 1.40

27.5 27.54 36.71 1.61

30.0 31.81 42.42 1.85

32.5 36.68 48.89 2.07

35.0 42.81 57.07 2.35

37.5 48.36 64.46 2.62

40.0 55.32 73.14 2.95

42.5 62.18 84.23 3.25

45.0 71.20 94.91 3.66

Example: Determine the evapotranspiration for wheat by using Blaney-Criddle method

, if the consumptive use coefficient for the growing season is 0.8 from the following data:

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 Month Mean monthly Monthly percentage of Effective
temp, 0C sunshine hours rainfall, cm

November 18 7.20 2.6

December 15 7.15 2.8
January 13.5 7.30 3.5
February 14.5 7.10 2.0

Solution:
Month Mean monthly Monthly % of Effective Monthly consumptive use
temp, 0C (t) sunshine hours (p)rainfall, cm (pe) factor, f = p (4.6 t
+81.3)/100
Nov 18 7.20 2.6 11.82
Dec 15 7.15 2.8 10.74
Jan 13.5 7.30 3.5 10.48
Feb 14.5 7.10 2.0 10.50
Σf = 43.54
Seasonal consumptive use, U = kf = 0.8 x 43.54 = 34.83 cm
Example1: Assuming a growing season of 4 months, December - March for wheat, determine
the consumptive use (evapotranspiration) of wheat in the month of January if the pan evaporation
for the month is 9.5 cm. Take the consumptive use/evapotranspiration coefficient at 40 % stage
growth of the crop as 0.52.
Solution:
ET = KEp
= 0.52 x 9.5
= 4.94 cm
The daily consumptive use (ET) for the month of January
= 4.94x10
31
=1.6mm/day
Penman Method

Penman developed a theoretical formula based on the principles of both energy budget and mass-
transfer approaches to calculate potential evapotranspiration. A simple energy budget neglecting
all minor losses can be written as

(  H    E a )
ET  (3.15)
(   )

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Where H is the heat budget of an area with crops which is the net radiation in mm of evaporable
water per day, ET the daily evaporation from free water surface in mm/day,  is a constant called
psychometric constant whose value is 0.49 mmHg/0C or 0.66 mb/0C,  the slope of the saturated
vapor pressure vs. Temperature curve at mean air temperature given in Table 3.2, Ea is the
drying power of air which includes wind velocity and saturation deficit and is estimated form the
relation

E a  0.002187 (160  u 2 ) (es  ea )

(3.16)

where u2 is the mean wind speed in km/day measured 2 m above the ground, es is saturation
vapour pressure at mean air temperature in mm Hg (given in Table 3.2 ), ea is actual vapour
pressure in the air in mm of mercury and H is the daily net radiation in mm of evaporable water
and is estimated from the energy budget theories using the relation

H  H a (1  r ) (0.29 cos  0.55n / N )  Ta4 (0.56  0.092 ea ) (0.10  0.9n / N ) (3.17)

where Ha is the extraterrestrial solar radiation received on a horizontal surface in mm of

evaporable water per day (whose value for different latitudes are given in Table 3.4),  the
latitude of the place where PET is to be computed, r is the reflection coefficient whose values for
close crops may be taken as 0.15-0.25, for barren land 0.05-0.45 and for water surface 0.05, n is
the actual duration of bright sunshine which is a function of latitude and is an observed data at a
place, N is the maximum possible hours of bright sunshine available at different location ( given
in Table 3.3),  is the Stefan-Boltzman constant = 2.01 x 10-9 mm/day, Ta is the mean air
temperature in oK = (273 + 0C) and ea is the actual vapor pressure in mm of Hg. The relation can
reduce the wind speed measured at any other height z to 2 m height

0.143
2
u2  u   (3.18)
z

Equation (3.18) is known as (1/7)th power law. Knowing all other data from the table and
measuring n, ea u2, at the place, PET can easily be calculated from the relation given by Penman.
This method is finding its increasing application for crop water estimation by various countries.

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 Table 3.3: Mean daily maximum duration of bright sunshine hour N for different month and
latitudes (Doorenbos& Pruitt, 1977)

N Lat Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

S Lat July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June

50 8.5 10.1 11.8 13.6 15.4 16.3 15.9 14.5 12.7 10.8 9.1 8.1

48 8.8 10.2 11.8 13.8 15.2 16.0 15.6 14.3 12.6 10.9 9.3 8.3

46 9.1 10.4 11.9 13.5 14.9 15.7 15.4 14.2 12.6 10.9 9.5 8.7

44 9.3 10.5 11.9 13.4 14.7 15.4 15.2 14.0 12.6 11.0 9.7 8.9

42 9.4 10.6 11.9 13.4 14.6 15.2 14.9 13.9 12.9 11.1 9.8 9.1

40 9.6 10.7 11.9 13.3 14.4 15.0 14.7 13.7 12.5 11.2 10.0 9.3

35 10.1 11.0 11.9 13.1 14.0 14.5 14.3 13.5 12.4 11.3 10.3 9.8

30 10.4 11.1 12.0 12.9 13.6 14.0 13.9 13.2 12.4 11.5 10.6 10.2

25 10.7 11.3 12.0 12.7 13.3 13.7 13.5 13.0 12.3 11.6 10.9 10.6

20 10.0 11.5 12.0 12.6 13.1 13.3 13.2 12.8 12.3 11.7 11.2 10.9

15 11.3 11.6 12.0 12.5 12.8 13.0 12.9 12.6 12.2 11.8 11.4 11.2

10 11.6 11.8 12.0 12.3 12.6 12.7 12.6 12.4 12.1 11.8 11.6 11.5

5 11.8 11.9 12.0 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.3 12.3 12.1 12.0 11.9 11.8

0 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1

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Table 3.4: Mean Monthly Solar Radiation Incident on Earth's Outer Space (Extra

Terrestrial Radiation) in mm of Evaporable Water per day (Ha)

North Latitude in Degrees

Month 0o 100 200 300 400 500 60o 70o 800 90o

Jan. 14.5 12.8 10.8 8.5 6.0 3.6 1.3 - - -

Feb. 15.0 13.9 12.3 10.5 8.3 5.9 3.5 1.1 - -

Mar. 15.2 14.8 13.9 12.7 11.0 9.1 6.8 4.3 1.8 -

Apr. 14.7 15.2 15.2 14.8 13.9 12.7 11.1 9.1 7.8 7.9

May 13.9 15.0 15.7 16.0 15.9 15.4 14.6 13.6 14.6 14.9

Jun. 13.4 14.8 15.8 16.5 16.7 16.7 16.5 17.0 17.8 18.1

Jul. 13.5 14.8 15.7 16.2 16.3 16.1 15.7 15.8 16.5 16.8

Aug. 14.2 15.0 15.3 15.3 14.8 13.9 12.7 11.4 10.6 11.2

Sep. 14.9 14.9 14.4 13.5 12.2 10.5 8.5 6.8 4.0 2.6

Oct. 15.0 14.1 12.9 11.3 9.3 7.1 4.7 2.4 0.2 -

Nov. 14.6 13.1 11.2 9.1 6.7 4.3 1.9 0.1 - -

Dec. 14.3 12.4 10.3 7.9 5.5 3.0 0.9 - - -

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Example: Using Penman’s formula calculates the consumptive use of rice for the month of
February. Take the following data

Wind velocity measured at 2 m height = 30 km/day

Elevation of the area = 220 m

Relative humidity for February = 50%

Latitude = 220N

Mean monthly temperature = 160C

Actual Day time hours = 7.20 h

Solution

From Table 3.2, for temperature of 160C, es= 13.67 mmHg

Slope of the saturated vapor pressure vs. temp. Curve A = 0.86 mm per 0C

From Table 3.4, Ha = 11.94 mm of water per day for 22 0N latitude

From Table 3.3, N = 11.42 h for the latitude of 22 0N

n 7.2
  0.63
N 11.42

Vapor pressure in air ea = es x RH = 13.67 x 0.50 = 6.88 mmHg

Drying power of air Ea = 0.002187 (160 + U2) (es – ea )

= 0.0021817 (160 + 30) (13.67 – 6.88) = 2.84 mm/day

The reflection coefficient for close crop like paddy is 0.20.

  0.49,   2.01 x 109 mm / day, Ta  273 16  2890 K

Take

H  H a (1  r ) (0.29 cos  0.55n / N )


 Ta4 (0.56  0.0092 ea ) (0.1  0.9 n / N

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or H = 11.94 (1-0.2) (0.29 cos 220 + 0.55x 7.2/11.42)

- 2.01 x 10-9 x 2894 (0.56 –0.092√6.88) x (0.1 + 0.9 x 7.2/11.42)

= 11.94 x 0.8 x (0.269 + 0.347) – 14.02 (0.56 – 0.24) (0.1 + 0.568)

= 5.88 – 3.00 = 2.88 mm of water/day

H   E a 0.86 2.88  0.49 2.84

PET    2.865mm / day
  0.86  0.49

= 2.865  28  1/10 cm/month = 8.03 cm for February

Consumptive use of rice for February is 8.03 cm = 80.3 mm of water.

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