CHAPTER FOUR

INFILTRATION
4.1 Introduction

When water falls on a given formation, a small part of it is first of all, absorbed by the top thin
layer of soil, so as to replenish the soil moisture deficiency. Thereafter, excess water moves
down ward, where it is trapped in void and becomes ground water. This process, when by the
water enters the surface strata in the soil, and moves downward towards the water table, is
known as infiltration. Infiltration is the flow of water through the soil surface into a porous
medium under gravity action and pressure effects.

Movement of water into the soil is controlled by gravity, capillary action, and soil porosity. Of
these factors soil porosity is most important. A soil's porosity is controlled by its texture,
structure, and organic matter content. Coarse textured soils have larger pores and fissures than
fine-grained soils and therefore allow for more water flow. Pores and fissures found in soils can
be made larger through a number of factors that enhance internal soil structure. For example, the
burrowing of worms and other organisms and penetration of plant roots can increase the size and
number of macro and micro-channels within the soil. The amount of decayed organic matter
found at the soil surface can also enhance infiltration. Organic matter is generally more porous
than mineral soil particles and can hold much greater quantities of water.
4.2 Factors which influence infiltration
1. Soil Characteristics
Infiltration rate is controlled by the nature of the soil, by the plant and animal communities it
supports, and by human influences. Where soil is absent and little fractured bedrock is exposed,
water cannot soak in and will run off rapidly. If soil is present, but is very fine-grained and clay-
rich, the pore spaces that water must pass through are extremely small; hence, water will
infiltrate very slowly compared to sandy soils that readily soak up water. Some finer-grained
soils have vertical cracks that form when the soil shrinks as it dries. These cracks allow water to
enter more readily, but may close up after the soil is wetted. Compaction of soils reduces the size
of pore spaces and the infiltration rate. Water commonly runs off areas that were compacted
through repeated passage of people, large animals, or heavy machinery. In general, the soil
related factors include all of the properties and characteristics that influence a soil’s permeability.

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Permeability, with units similar to that of infiltration, is the ability of the soil to transmit water.
These soil factors include:
• Soil texture
• Soil structure
• Organic matter
• Compaction
• Initial amount of water in the soil
• The presence of surface horizons of low permeability

2. Plants and Small Animals

In general, plants and small animals tend to increase the infiltration rate of soils. A plant cover
and litter layer of dead vegetation protects the soil surface from compaction by heavy raindrops,
and also slows the delivery of water to the soil surface. Plant stems help slow down water that
flows over the soil surface. Plant roots help create openings in the soil, and also take-up water
from beneath the soil surface and transpire it through leaves back to the atmosphere. Decayed
plant matter helps keep fine soil particles (such as clay) from sticking together, thereby
increasing infiltration capacity. The burrowing activities of small animals such as insects and
worms also help keep the soil loose and create small openings through which water can pass.

When the landscape is completely devegetated, for example, following a forest fire or during a
construction project, a dramatic increase in runoff and soil erosion may result. In desert
environments where much of the soil surface lacks vegetation and where bare rock is exposed,
most of the rainfall in heavy thunderstorms runs off rapidly and flash floods are common. Yet in
dense, humid forests, vegetation and thick, loose soils may absorb water so readily that water
rarely runs off the surface.

3. Slope/Topography
Steep slopes in drainage basins tend to generate more runoff than do lowland areas. Mountain
areas tend to receive more precipitation overall because they force air to be lifted and cooled. On
gentle slopes, water may temporarily pond and later soaks in. But on steep mountainsides, water
tends to move downward more rapidly. Soils tend to be thinner on steep slopes, limiting storage
of water, and where bedrock is exposed, little infiltration can occur.
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 4. Precipitation characteristics
If the rate of water supply to the surface is less than the infiltration rate of the soil, then all the
rainwater will infiltrate. When the supply rate (rainfall intensity) exceeds the infiltration rate of
the soil, part of the rainwater will become runoff. If the total amount of rainfall water is more
than the infiltration capacity of the soil the excess will become runoff.

4.3 Measurement and Estimation of Infiltration

Infiltration Measurement
The measurement of infiltration of water into the soil is an important indication concerning:
✓ The efficiency of irrigation and drainage,
✓ Optimizing the availability of water to plants,
✓ Minimizing of erosion.
For a specific project requiring detailed information, infiltration can be measured or estimated
using the following methods:
❖ Infiltrometers,
❖ Rainfall simulators,
❖ Hydrograph analysis.
Infiltrometers
A single ring or double ring infiltrometers are used to measure infiltration. The double ring
infiltrometer is a simple instrument which is used to determine the infiltration rate of water into
the soil. The infiltration rate is determined as the amount of water per surface area and time unit,
which penetrates the soils. This rate can be calculated on the basis of the measurements and the
Darcy's law. Several measurements can be executed simultaneously, yielding a very reliable and
accurate mean result. As vertically infiltrated water runs away to the side. The outer ring of the
infiltrometer serves as a separation. The measurement exclusively takes place in the inner ring
through which the water runs virtually.

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Figure 1. Double ring infltrometr

Estimation of infiltration
There are numerous techniques available for estimating water infiltration rate and cumulative
infiltration. Some of the commonly used empirical equations for estimating infiltration are
discussed below.
The Philip Equation
Philip proposed a method of resolving the vertical infiltration for certain initial and boundary
conditions. This model has introduced the notion of "sorption" that represents the soil capacity to
absorb water when the flow is produced only under gradient pressure. The infiltration can be
simplified as follows:

where:

i(t) = infiltration rate at time t (cm s-1)

s = Sorptitivity

t = time (s)

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 A = the gravity component (transmission term), depending on hydraulic conductivity on
saturation (cm s-1)
The cumulative infiltration, I(t), is also given by:

I(t) = St0.5 + At
Kostiakov’s equation
Kostiakov (1932) proposed the following equations for estimating infiltration,
i(t) = αt-β
Where:
i(t) = infiltration rate at time t
α (α>0) and β(0<β<1) are empirical constants.
The cumulative infiltration (I) is given by:
𝛂
I(t) = 𝟏−𝛃 t1-β

Variation of infiltration rates during a rainfall

During a rainfall the infiltration capacity of soil decreases to a limiting value, which represents
the infiltration potential at saturation. If we compare the rain intensity and the infiltration
capacity of the soil, there are two possibilities:

• When the rain intensity is inferior to infiltration capacity, water infiltrates faster due to
the supply regime.

• When the rain intensity is superior to the infiltration capacity of the soil, the water surplus
is stocked on the surface or in ground depressions. The infiltration regime and the

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 infiltration capacity for net storm rain are presented in the next Figure

Figure 2. Infiltration regime and net storm rain

4.4 Horn’s Infiltration concept

4.5 Infiltration Indices

In hydrological calculations involving floods, it if found convenient to use a constant value of
infiltration rate of the duration of the storm. The average infiltration rate is called infiltration
index.
Two types of indices are in common use:
 - index: The  index is the average rainfall above which the rainfall value is equal to the
runoff volume. The  index is derived from the rainfall hyetograph with the edge of the resulting
runoff volume. The initial loss is also considered as infiltration. The  value is found by treating
it as a constant infiltration capacity. If the rainfall intensity is less than, then the infiltration rate
is equal to the rainfall intensity. However, if the rainfall intensity is larger than  the difference
between rainfall and infiltration in an interval of time represent the runoff volume.

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Fig.-index
The amount of rainfall in excess of the index is called rainfall excess, The  index thus accounts
of the total abstraction and enables runoff magnitudes to be estimated for a given rainfall
hyetograph.
Example: A storm with 10.0 cm precipitation produced a direct runoff of 5.8 cm. Given the
time distribution of the storm as below, estimate the  index of the storm
Time from start (h) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
in each hour (cm) 0.4 0.9 1.5 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.0 0.5

Solution: Total infiltration = 10.0 - 5.8 = 4.2 cm

Assume te = time of rainfall excess = 8 h for the first trial
Then, = 4.2 = 0.525 cm/h
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But this value of  makes the rainfalls of the first hour and eight hour ineffective as their
magnitude is less than 0.525 cm/h. The value of te should be modified.
Assume te = 6 h for the second trial. In this period,
Infiltration = (10.0 – 0.4 - 0.5 - 5.8) = 3.3 cm
  = 3.3 = 0.55 cm/h
6
This value of  is satisfactory as it gives te = 6h and by calculating the rainfall excesses

Time from start (h) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Rainfall excess (cm) 0 0.35 0.95 1.75 1.25 1.05 0.45 0

Total rainfall excess = 5.8 cm = total runoff

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W - Index: In an attempt to refine the  index. The initial losses are separated from the total
abstractions and an average value of infiltration rate called the W- index is defined as:
W = P - R - Ia
te
Where P = total storm precipitation (cm), R = total storm runoff (cm),Ia = initial losses (cm),te =
duration of the rainfall excess i.e. the total time in which the rainfall intensity is greater than W
(in hours) and W is average rate of infiltration (cm/h). Since Ia values are difficult to obtain, the
accurate estimation of the W index obtained under very wet soil conditions, representing the
constant minimum rate of infiltration of the catchment, is known as Wmin. Both the W-index and
 index vary from storm to storm.
Example: The rates of rainfall for the successive 30 min period of a 3-hour storm are 1.6, 3.6,
5.0, 2.8, 2.2, and 1.0 cm/hr. The corresponding surface runoff is estimated to be 3.6 cm.
Establish the  index. Also determine the W – index.
Solution: Construct the hydrograph as shown in the attached normal graph paper.
(i - ) t = Pnet and thus it follows
(3.6 -) + (5.0 -) +(2.8 - ) +(2.2 -)30 = 3.6
60
 (13.6 - 4 )½ = 3.6
or, 4 = 13.6 - 7.2 = 6.4
= 6.4 = 1.6 cm/h
4
Precipitation, P = (1.6 + 3.6 + 5.0 + 2.8 + 2.2 + 1.0) 30 = 8.1 cm
60
W - index = P - Q = 8.1 - 3.6 = 1.5 cm/h
te3 3

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