BTNY-MM: XI 2 BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

➔ Biological classification is the scientific ordering of organisms Five-Kingdom Classification by R.H. Whittaker (1969)
into groups for the ease of study. Living organisms

Kingdom Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

This classification was based on-
(i) Cell structure, (ii) body organisation, (iii) mode of nutrition,
(iv) reproduction & (v) evolutionary relationships

Three-domain / Six-kingdom classification

Living world
Domain Archea Bacteria Eukarya

Kingdom [Link] Eubacteria Protista Fungi Plantae

Animalia

KINGDOM MONERA
 Bacteria are the members of this kingdom.
Shape of Bacteria

Cocci Bacilli Spirilla Vibrio

(spherical) (rod-shaped) (spiral) (comma-shaped)

Aristotle’s classification
Plants Animals
Monerans
Herbs Shrubs Trees Red blooded Non- red
blooded Archaebacteria Eubacteria
Two-kingdom classification by Linnaeus Halophiles Photosynthetic bacteria
* In salty areas Type: Cyanobacteria / Blue-Green algae
Living organisms
Thermoacidophiles * Bloom in polluted water
Kingdom Plantae Animalia * in hot springs * Have chrophyll-a
(with cell-wall) (without cell-wall) Methanogens * Heterocyst – Cell that
Plants (Algae, Mosses, Ferns, Animals
* In Marshy areas and in can fix atm. N2
Gymnosperm, Angiosperm) Protozoans guts of ruminant animals. e.g, Nostoc, Anabaena
Fungi Use: Produce biogas
Bacteria / Monera
Some protists
Chemosynthetic bacteria
Drawbacks of 2-kingdom classification- * Oxidize inorganic compounds for ATP
A. It does not distinguish between - * Recycle nutrients
o prokaryotes and eukaryotes. e.g, N-bacteria, S-bac, P-bac, Fe-bac
o unicellular (e.g. Chlamydomonas) and multicellular (e.g.
Heterotrophic bacteria
Spirogyra) organisms. * Uses: In making curd, antibiotics
o autotrophs (e.g. green algae) and / heterotrophs (e.g.: fungi). Fix nitrogen in legume roots.
o cellulosic and non-cellulosic cell wall * Some causes diseases- e.g.: Cholera, typhoid,
B. A large number of organisms did not fall into either category. tetanus, citrus-canker

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 Reproduction in Bacteria
Favourable Unfavourable
@ Diatoms: They are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.
Asexual Sexual Spores production - The cell wall deposits of diatoms over billions of years is referred
Binary fission DNA transfer to as ‘diatomaceous earth’.
→This is used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups.

Mycoplasma / PPLO
Smallest cells without cell-wall, survive without O2, pathogenic.

KINGDOM PROTISTA
 Protists are unicellular eukaryotic organisms. It includes-
Protozoans
Character Chrysophytes Dinoflagellates Euglenoid Slime mould
Amoeboid Flagellated Ciliated Sporozoan
Fresh water,
Fresh water, Free-living
Habitat Mostly marine Fresh water - sea water or Aquatic Endoparasites
marine water or parasitic
moist soil
Diatoms have Colour varies Have a protein Under favourable Marine - - Have an
siliceous cell depending on the rich layer called condition forms have infectious
walls forming pigments present pellicle which They form an aggregation silica shells spore-like
2 thin in their cells. makes their called plasmodium. on their stage in their
overlapping body flexible surface life cycle
shells. The cell wall Under unfav. condition
has stiff cellulose Form fruiting bodies
plates on the bearing spores at their
Body outer surface. tips.

Photosynthetic,
heterotrophic
Nutrition Photosynthetic Photosynthetic Saprophytic Heterotrophic
(in the absence
of sunlight)
Cilia
2 flagella;
Locomotory Movement of
Absent One lies 2 flagella,
and food cilia causes the
(float longitudinally and A short and a -- Pseudopodia Flagella Absent
capturing water laden with
passively) the other long one
organ food to be steered
transversely.
into the gullet
Diatoms@, Trypanosoma
Gonyaulax (cause Plasmodium
Example Golden algae Euglena - Entomoeba (Cause sleeping Paramoecium
red tide) (Cause malaria)
(desmids) sickness)

KINGDOM FUNGI.  Some fungi live in symbiotic associations-

 Fungi are eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic organisms with
chitinous cell wall.
 Fungi are filamentous, except yeast (unicellular). Fungi + algae = lichens Fungi + roots of higher plants
(mycorrhiza)
Fungal body is called mycelium. It consists of network of thread-
like structures called hyphae.
Steps of Sexual reproduction:
Plasmogamy Karyogamy Meiosis
Fusion of protoplasm Fusion of nucleus

Hyphae

Coenocytic / Aseptate Septate

Hyphae that are continuous tubes Hyphae having cross wall /
filled with multinucleated cytoplasm septa

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 Kingdom fungi are divided into 4 classes:
Habitat / Morphology
Class Reproduction Example
Nutrition of mycelium
Asexual-By zoospores (motile) or
by aplanospores (non-motile).
Aquatic or on 1. Mucor
decaying wood Aseptate, Sexual –Zygospore 2. Rhizopus (breadmould)
Phycomycetes
-or as plant Coenocytic 3. Albugo (parasite on
parasites. mustard)

Asexual –By Conidia 1. Penicillium (source of

Produced exogenously on a mycelium called conidiophores. antibiotic)
2. Sacharomyces (Yeast- to
Saprophytic, make bread and beer)
decomposers, Sexual -Ascospores
Ascomycetes Branched, 3. Morels
parasitic or →Produced endogenously in sac like asci.
(Sac-fungi)
coprophilous
septate
Fruiting body- ascocarps.
4. Truffles Edible
(grow on dung). 5. Aspergillus
6. Claviceps
7. Neurospora (used in genetic
expt.)
Asexual-not found
Vegetative- by fragmentation
Sexual- Basidiospores (dikaryotic) 1. Bracket fungi
Grow in soil, on →Exogenously produced on the basidium. 2. Puffballs
tree stems and Branched, Fruiting body – basidiocarp
Basidiomycetes 3. Agaricus(mushroom)
in living plant septate
as parasites 4. Ustilago (smut)
Parasitic
5. Puccinia (rust)

Decomposers- Asexual -by Conidia 1. Alternaria,

Deuteromycetes Branched, Vegetative- by fragmentation
(Imperfect fungi)
Saprophytes or
septate
2. Colletotrichum
parasites. Sexual-not found
3. Trichoderma

VIRUSES, VIROIDS, PRIONS & Structure of Viruses-

It consists of a protein coat and a nucleic acid.
LICHENS 1. PROTEIN COAT
Viruses The protein coat (capsid) is made of subunits called capsomeres
➔ Viruses are nucleoprotein and obligate parasites Function: Protects the nucleic acid.
VIRUS 2. NUCLEIC ACID
The nucleic acid or genetic material is either RNA or DNA.
Outside a living cell: Inside a cell: Function: Cause infection.
Have an inert Infect a host cell
crystalline structure ↓ Virus infecting- Nucleic acid
Take over the machinery of the host Plant ssRNA
Animal ssRNA / dsRNA / dsDNA
Replicate Virus Kill the host Bacteria
dsDNA
(bacteriophages)
 Viral diseases- e.g: Mumps, Small pox, Herpes, Influenza, AIDS
Viroids – ‘Virus like’
➔ Viroids are infectious RNA.
Milestones in Virology  Discovered by T.O. Diener.
Year Scientist Contribution
Recognized ‘viruses’ as causal organism Prions
1892 Dmitri Ivanowsky ➔ Prions are abnormally folded proteins.
of the mosaic disease of tobacco.
The name virus (means venom or Diseases caused by prions- Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
poisonous fluid) was given (BSE) / mad cow disease, Cr-Jacob disease (CJD) in human
Called the extract of the infected tobacco Lichens
as Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious
➔ Lichens are symbiotic associations between algae and fungi.
living fluid).
1898 M.W. Beijerinek Component Role
Phycobiont- algal
- Gives food for fungi
component
Mycobiont- fungal - Provide shelter for algae
component - Absorb mineral nutrients and water
1935 W.M. Stanley Showed that viruses could be crystallized ❖ Lichens do not grow in polluted areas. So they act as a good
pollution indicators.
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 BTNY-MM: XI 3. PLANT KINGDOM
 Kingdom plantae includes all eukaryotic, multi-cellular, Algae are classified into 3 classes:
photosynthetic organisms with cellulosic cell-wall. Criteria of Chlorophyceae / Phaeophyceae / Rhodophyceae
classificatn Green algae Brown algae / Red algae

organisation
Unicellular,
Thallus /
colonial or
complex body
filamentous.

Body
Habitat Mainly fresh water Mainly marine Mainly marine
Chlorophyll a, c, Chlorophyll a, d,
Pigments Chlorophyll a, b
fucoxanthin phycoerythrin
Starch & protein

Stored food
(in pyrenoids)
Mannitol,
Floridean starch
Laminarin

Inner layer-Cellulose Inner layer-Cellulose Inner layer-Cellulose

Outer layer- pectose Outer layer- algin Outer layer-

Cell Wall
carrageen
(pectin + poly-sulphate
esters)

Vegetative
by fragmentation fragmentation fragmentation
Asexual
Zoospores; Zoospores; Non-motile
Apical, 2-8, equal pear-shaped, spores;
Reproduction

flagella lateral, 2, unequal flagella absent

flagella

Sexual
Systems of classification (in angiosperms) Isogamy- Isogamy,
System Based on Anisogamy, Oogamy
Artificial Morphology (vegetative characters) Anisogamy- Oogamy (eg. fucus)
1
(Linnaeus) Demerit: Easily affected by envt.
Natural Oogamy-
2 (Bentham Morphology + Anatomy Chlorella, Ectocarpus (Film.),
Uni

and Hooker) Chlamydomonas

Examples

Kelps (Massive), Polysiphonia,

Evolutionary relationships (from fossil). Volvox (Colonial), Dictyota, Porphyra,
Uses information from- Chara Laminaria, Gracilaria,
Phylogenetic - Numerical taxonomy (Number and codes are Ulothrix Sargassum, Gelidium
Filamnt.
3 (Oswald assigned to the characters and processed by Spirogyra Fucus
Tippo) computers).
- Cytotaxonomy (Chromosome)
- Chemotaxonomy (analysis of chemical content)
II. BRYOPHYTES
 Bryophytes are non-vascular, thalloids attached to soil by
I. ALGAE rhizoids.
o Habitat: Moist and shady places
 Algae are non-vascular (xylem and phloem tissue are absent) They lives in soil but water is needed for sexual reproduction.
thalloids (plant body is not differentiated into root, stem and leaves). So they are regarded as ‘amphibians of the plant kingdom’.
Ecological importance
Economic importance
 10 producers in aquatic food cycles
 As food: for animals like mammals, birds etc.
 Fix CO2 and dissolve O2 in the environment.
 As packing material: Sphagnum can hold water (up to 25
Economic importance times its weight). It is used for trans-shipment of seedlings,
 As food: E.g. Porphyra, Laminaria and Sargassum. cut plants etc.
 As food supplements: Protein-rich Chlorella are used by space  As fuel: Dead Sphagnum slowly get fossilised to produce a
travellers. dark spongy mass called peat (which can be burn as coal).
 As hydrocolloids (water holding substances): Ecological importance
E.g. algin (from brown algae) and carrageen (from red algae).
 Decompose rocks to make soil for the growth of higher
 In industry: Agar (obtained from Gelidium & Gracilaria)
plants (plant succession).
Uses: to grow microbes
 Prevent soil erosion.
in ice-creams and jellies.
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 The bryophytes are divided into liverworts and mosses:
(i) Liverworts (wyrt = plant)
 They have flattened thallus with lobes resembling liver.
E.g. Marchantia
Reproduction
Asexual reproduction:
a. By fragmentation of thalli.
b. By formation of gemmae.
Gemmae are green, multicellular, asexual buds that develop
in small receptacles (gemma cups) on the thalli.

Sexual reproduction: Antheridium (Male sex organ)

Disc shaped receptacle contain
antheridium. They produce
Archegonium (Female sex organ) biflagellate antherozoids (n) /
Star shaped receptacles contain (male gamete).
Antherozoids  released into water
flask-shaped archegonium. They
produce 1 egg (n).  swim  enter into archegonium
 fuse with egg  zygote (2n)

antherozoid

Female thallus / gametophyte (n)

It possesses reproductive branches
called archigoniophores. It bears
star shaped receptacles.

Female Male gametophyte

Male thallus / gametophyte (n) gametophyte
It possesses reproductive branches Zygote  Sporophyte
(foot + seta + capsule)
called antheridiophores. Each
antheridiophore bears a disc shaped
receptacle.

Capsule Meiosis Spores (n)

germinate
Spore Gametophyte

(ii) Mosses
 They have erect thallus
E.g. Funaria, Polytrichum, Sphagnum
Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction:
a. By fragmentation and budding of protonema.
Sexual reproduction:
Leafy stage
Thin axis bearing spirally arranged
leaves. Attached to soil by rhizoid.
Sex organs at their tips.
budding
Protonema Leafy stage
antherozoid

water
Protonema stage
Creeping, green, branched Liverwort Moss
and filamentous Plant body is creeping erect
Rhizoid is unicellular multicellular
Sporophyte- less
elaborate more elaborate
Spore dispersal
mechanism is absent present
Asexual reproduction:
Fragmentation, Fragmentation,
germinate gemma cup budding in protonema
Spore Protonema Spore directly give Spore  protonema
rise to thallus  leafy stage

Capsule Meiosis Spores (n)

Zygote (2n)  Sporophyte

(foot + seta + capsule)

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III. PTERIDOPHYTES
 Pteridophytes are the ‘first terrestrial plants’ possessing ϕ The pteridophytes have 4 classes:
vascular tissues. Class Examples
o Habitat: Moist and shady places 1. Psilopsida Psilotum
Economic importance 2. Lycopsida Selaginella, Lycopodium
 They are used for medicinal purposes 3. Sphenopsida Equisetum
 They are used as soil-binders.
4. Pteropsida Salvinia, Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum
 They are grown as ornamentals for their large, showy foliage.
Sexual Reproduction
Homosporous- Produce similar kinds of spores; Eg: Majority of pteridophyte
Sporongia
Sporophyll contain sporangia Heterosporous- Produce 2 kinds of spores; megaspores → female gametophyte
Meiosis Eg: Selaginella, Salvinia microspores → male gametophytes
Spore mother cell Spore

Prothallus (gametophyte)
germinate
Spore Prothallus

Small, free-living, photosynthetic thalloid.

Sporophyte Bear antheridia and archegonia
Root + Stem + Leaves produce
(Sporophyll) Antherozoids Egg
Strobili / cones:
Water
In some cases sporophylls Zygote (2n)
may form compact
structures as in Selaginella,
Equisetum.

Embryo  Sporophyte Precursor to seed habit

Zygote  Embryo (2n)
(2n) In heterosporous pteridophyte,
this development is within the
IV. GYMNOSPERMS (gymnoG: naked, spermaG: seeds) female gametophytes
 Gymnosperms are plants in which the ovules are not covered by ovary wall.
Root- Tap root Pinus Cycas
Root have association
Some gymnosperms are symbiotically associated with- Root have association
of N-fixing
- Fungus on Pinus root (mycorrhiza- helps to absorb water and minerals) of fungus
cyanobacteria
Sporophyte - N2- fixing cyanobacteria on Cycas root (coralloid roots). (mycorrhiza)
(coralloid root)
Stem- Unbranched (eg: Sequoia -tallest tree, Cycas) / Stem- Branched Stem- Unbranched
Branched (eg: Pinus, Cedrus) Male cones on male
Male & female cones
tree, female cones on
Leaves- Simple / compound on same tree
male tree
Adaptations of leaves to reduce water loss (in conifers): Needle-like leaves Pinnate leaves
- the needle-like leaves (↓surface area)
- have thick cuticle on leaf surface
- presence of sunken stomata.
Sexual Reproduction
Sporophyte
Root + Stem + Leaves

Microsporophyll Megasporophyll
clustered spirally
along an axis
Male Strobili (Cone) / Microsporangiate Female Strobili (Cone) / Macrosporangiate
↓ ↓
Microsporangia

Microspore (n) Nucellus

↓ ↓ 1 cell differentiate
Macrosporangia / Ovule

Pollen grain (male gametophyte) Megaspore mother cell (2n)

↓ Meiosis
release into air Megaspore (n)+ [Link] + [Link] + [Link]
↓
Female gametophyte
Pollen grain

↓
Male gametes Egg Archegonia (female sex organ)

Male gamete
Zygote  (Embryo) seed

Opening of ovule
Pollen tube

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V. ANGIOSPERMS (AngionG= hidden, spermaG=seed)
 Angiosperms / Flowering plants are plants in which sporophylls are organised into flowers and seeds are produced inside the fruits.
E.g. Wolffia (smallest), Eucalyptus (tallest)
Economic importance
 Provide food, fodder, fuel, medicines, commercial products etc.
Angiosperms are divided into 2 classes:
o Dicotyledons: They have 2 cotyledons in their seeds.
o Monocotyledons: They have only one cotyledon.
Examples:
ALGAE

Chlorella Chlamydomonas (Unicel.) Volvox (Colonial) Chara Ulothrix (Filamentous) Spirogyra (Filamentous)

Ectocarpus (Filament.) Kelps (Massive) Dictyota Laminaria Sargassum Fucus

Polysiphonia Porphyra Gracilaria Gelidium

BRYOPHYTE

Marchantia Funaria Polytrichum Sphagnum

PTERIDOPHYTE

Psilotum Selaginella Lycopodium Equisetum Salvinia Dryopteris

Pteris Adiantum

GYMNOSPERM ANGIOSPERM

Sequoia Cycas Pinus Cedrus Wolffia Eucalyptus

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 Two-kingdom classification Five-kingdom

Living organisms
Kingdom Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
(with cell-wall) (without cell-wall)
Plants (Algae, Mosses, Ferns, Animals
Gymnosperm, Angiosperm) Some protists
Fungi eg: Protozoans
Some protists
Bacteria eg: Blue-green algae /
cyanobacteria

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BTNY-MM: XI 5 MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

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 Morphology is the study of external forms. Types of Leaves

A flowering plant body has 5 main parts: Root, stem, leaves,
flowers and fruits. Simple Compoud
Single lamina; incision
THE ROOT do not touch the midrib Pinnately Palmately
or petiole Incision touch Incision touch
 Root: It is the underground part formed from radicle of embryo.
the midrib the petiole
Root system Ex: Neem Ex: Silk cotton

Tap root Fibrous root Adventitious root

Formed from 10 root is replaced Formed from
radicle by thin fibres other than radicle Leaflets are
Ex: Mustard Ex: Wheat Ex: Grass attached on rachis Attached at the tip
Regions of Root of petiole

Phyllotaxy: arrangement of leaves

cells differentiate and
mature
Alternate Opposite Whorled
Single leaf arises A pair of leaves arise More than 2 leaves
cells undergo enlargement at each node in at each node & lie arise at a node
alternate manner opposite to each other. Ex: Alstonia
Ex: China rose Ex: Guava
cells divide actively

Functions of root:
 Absorption of water and minerals.
 Provide proper anchorage to the plant parts.
 Some root store food material.
Functions of Leaves:
THE STEM  They are the organs for photosynthesis.
 Stem: It is the ascending part that develops from the plumule.
 Stem bear nodes & internodes THE FLOWER
where leaves are born portions between two nodes  Flower: It is a modified shoot in the angiosperms.

Functions of stem: The arrangement of flowers

 Spreading out branches bearing leaves, flowers and fruits. on the floral axis
 It conducts water, minerals and photosynthates. INFLORESCENCE

THE LEAF Racemose Cymose

 Leaf: It is a lateral, flattened structure borne on the stem. Floral axis→ Continues to grow Ends in a flower
Arrangement→ Acropetal Basipetal
Parts of a Leaf: Of flower
point of leaf attachment on stem

stalk

leaf blade- green expanded part

with veins and veinlets

Venation: arrangement of veins and veinlets

Reticulate Parallel
Symmetry in Flowers

Actinomorphic Zygomorphic Asymmetric

veins run parallel (radial symmetry) (bilateral) Ex: Canna
veinlets form a Ex: Mustard Ex: Pea
network

Dicot leaf Monocot leaf

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Parts of a Flower: Placentation: arrangement of ovules within the ovary

A typical flower has 4 kinds of parts:

Marginal: Ovules are attached to marginal placenta.

Ex: Pea

Thalamus- swollen end Axile : Ovules are attached to axial (central) placenta
Ex: Tomato
stalk

Whorls of sepals- outermost Parietal: Ovules attached to peripheral placenta

Fun.: Protect the flower in bud stage Ex: Mustard

Free central: Ovules are attached on central axis

Whorls of petals- inner to calyx Ex: Dianthus
Fun.: Attract insects for pollination

Basal: An ovule attached on placenta develops at the

base. Ex: Sunflower
Aestivation: mode of arrangement of sepals / petals in floral bud
Valvate- Sepals or petals in a whorl just touch one Types of flowers
another at the margin. Ex: Calotropis Based on the position of calyx, corolla and
androecium in respect of the ovary on thalamus

Twisted - One margin of the sepals or petals overlaps Hypogynous Perigynous Epigynous
that of the next one and so on. Ex: China rose Ex: Mustard Ex: Plum Ex: Guava

Imbricate - Margin overlaps in an irregular manner. Inferior

Ex: Cassia Superior Half inferior ovary
ovary ovary

THE FRUIT
Standard Vexillary Ex: Pea
2 wings
 Ovary  fruit
2 keel Ovary wall  pericarp (wall of fruit)

Anther
Whorls of stamens- inner to corolla
Filament Male reproductive part

Cohesion (united with same whorl) of Stamens  Parthenocarpic fruits- Fruits develop without fertilisation
 In mango & coconut, the fruit is known as a drupe.
Monoadelphous Diadelphous Polyadelphous
united into 1 bundle
Ex: China rose
united into 2 bundles
Ex: Pea
more than 2 bundles
Ex: Citrus
THE SEED
 Ovule  seed
Adhesion (united with other whorl) of Stamens Structure of a Dicot Seed e.g. gram & pea
(Food reserve)
Epipetalous condition Epiphyllous condition
Attached to petals Attached to perianth
Ex: Brinjal Ex: Lily
Embryonal axis
Stigma
(Scar)
Style Whorls of pistil / carpel- innermost
(pore)
Female reproductive part
Ovary
Structure of Monocot Seed e.g. wheat, maize
Pistil / carpel
(Store food)
Monocarpellary Polycarpellary
1 carpel (Covering of endosperm)
(cotyledon)
Ex: Mango Apocarpous Syncarpous
Carpels free Carpels fused (cover of plumule)
Ex: lotus Ex: mustard
Embryonal axis

(cover of radicle)

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DESCRIPTION OF FAMILY
Solanaceae (Potato family)
Distribution In tropics, subtropics and temperate zones.  Floral formula:
Habit: o Herbs, shrubs and small trees.
[Link]
1. Stem: o Aerial; erect, branched, solid or hollow,
hairy, underground stem in potato.  Floral diagram:
2. Leaves: o Alternate, simple; reticulate.
Floral characters
1. Inflorescence: o Cymose
2. Flower: o Bisexual, actinomorphic
3. Calyx: o Sepals-5, valvate.
4. Corolla: o Petals-5; valvate
5. Androecium: o Stamens-5, epipetalous
6. Gynoecium: o ovary superior, axile placentation
7. Fruit: o Berry
8. Seed: o endospermous

o Vegetables: E.g. tomato, brinjal, potato.

o Spice: E.g. chilli
Economic
o Medicine: E.g. Belladonna, ashwagandha
importance:
o Fumigatory: E.g. tobacco
o Ornamentals: E.g. petunia

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BTNY-MM: XI 6 ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

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 Anatomy (anaG= up, tomiaG = to cut) is the study of internal 3) Epidermal appendages
structure of organisms including plants.  They are the outgrowths of epidermis.
2 types:-
Cell Tissue Tissue system Organ Plant
Type Definition Function
Unicellular hairs on Help to absorb water and
Simple Complex Epidermal Root i. Root hair
root epidermis minerals from the soil.
Parenchyma Xylem Vascular Stem
Collenchyma Phloem Ground Leaf
Multicellular hairs on Prevent water loss due to
ii. Trichomes
Schelenchyma Flower the stem epidermis transpiration

THE TISSUE SYSTEM

 Tissue system: A group of tissues performing related function. Root hair Trichomes
On the basis of the structure and location, there are 3 systems-
Epidermal, Ground & Vascular.
Cuticle Adaxial
Vein
Abaxial
ETS II. Ground Tissue System / Fundamental
 It is the tissues except epidermis and vascular bundles.
X
VTS  It is differentiated into zones such as cortex, endodermis,
P pericycle, pith and medullary rays.
Stomata
Leaf GTS / Mesophyll
Trichome Cuticle
ETS

X
Stem
VTS
P

GTS  In leaves, the ground tissue consists of mesophyll cells.

III. Vascular Tissue System / Conducting
Root hair Xylem + Phloem = Vascular bundles
Epidermal Tissue System Types of vascular bundles:
Root
Xylem Type Definition Found in-
Vascular Tissue System
Xylem and phloem are arranged in
Phloem
i. Radial an alternate manner on different Roots
Ground Tissue System radii
Xylem and phloem are situated at Stems,
ii. Conjoint
I. Epidermal Tissue System / Covering the same radius leaves
 It is the outer-most covering of plant body.
It comprises epidermis, stomata and epidermal appendages.
1) Epidermis
 It is the outermost protective layer made-up of parenchyma cells.
 Covered with a waxy coating (cuticle), absent in roots.
Function: Prevents the loss of water.
2) Stomata
 Stomata are minute pores present in the epidermis of leaves.
Function: Gaseous exchange and transpiration
Stoma is made of

In dicots: In monocots:
2 bean-shaped 2 dumb-bell shaped
guard cells guard cells
Types of Conjoint vascular bundles (on the basis of cambium):
Function of guard cells: Regulates the opening & closing of stomata.
Type Cambium Secondary growth Found in-
i. Open Present
Present (vascular bundles can
(Open for (b/w phloem Dicot stem
form 20 xylem and
20 growth) and xylem)
phloem tissues)
Stomata in dicot In monocot ii. Closed Absent Monocots
Absent
(do not form 20 tissues)
 The cells seen near the guard cells are known as subsidiary cells.
Stomatal pore +
Guard cells + = Stomatal apparatus
Subsidiary cells
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In angiosperms, monocots and dicots are anatomically different.

ANATOMY OF ROOT ANATOMY OF STEM

Dicot Root Dicot Stem
The transverse section of a dicot root shows 3 regions:- The transverse section of a dicot stem shows 3 regions:-
1) Epiblema: The outermost layer. Root hairs are present. 1) Epidermis: Covered with cuticle, may bear trichomes & stomata.
2) Cortex: Several layers of parenchyma cells. 2) Cortex: Multiple layers of cells between epidermis and stele.
- Endodermis: The innermost layer of the cortex. It consists of 3 sub-zones.
In root, endodermis has a band of suberin (wax) depositions  (i) Hypodermis: Few layers of collenchymatous cells just
casparian strips below the epidermis.
Function: Maintain root pressure. (ii) Cortical layers: Below hypodermis, made-up of
3) Stele: All tissues inner to endodermis. parenchyma cells.
They include - (iii) Endodermis: Innermost layer of the cortex. The cells are
(i) Pericycle: Few layers of parenchyma cells inner to the rich in starch (starch sheath).
endodermis. 3) Stele: It is the central part of the stem inner to endermis. It
Role:- * Initiation of lateral roots consists of pericycle, vascular bundles, medullary rays &
* Origin of vascular cambium (during the 20 growth). pith.
(ii) Vascular bundles: 2 - 4 radial patches. (i) Pericycle: Semi-lunar patches of sclerenchyma above the
(iii) Conjunctive tissue: Parenchyma cells b/w the xylem and phloem, called bundle cap.
the phloem. (ii) Vascular bundles: Arranged in a ring. Each VB is
(iv) Pith: Innermost region. It is small or inconspicuous. conjoint, open, and with endarch protoxylem.

(iii) Medullary rays: Radial parenchyma cells in b/w VB.

(iv) Pith: Large central portion of parenchyma cells.

Monocot Root
Similar to dicot root, but have-
 More than 6 (polyarch) xylem bundles.
 Large pith.
 Do not undergo 20 growth.
Difference between dicot and monocot root
Dicot root Monocot root
1. Xylem and phloem elements 1. Xylem and phloem are
are limited in number (2-4). more than 6.
2. Xylem vessels are polygonal 2. Xylem vessels are round in
in shape shape
3. Pith is small or absent. 3. Pith is large
4. Undergo for 20growth 4. Do not undergo 20growth.
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Monocot Stem
Differ from dicot stem in having-
 Undifferentiated ground tissue
 Sclerenchymatous hypodermis.
 Scattered vascular bundles, each surrounded by a
sclerenchymatous bundle sheath.
Vascular bundles are conjoint and closed.
The phloem parenchyma is absent, and water-containing
cavities are present within the vascular bundles.
Difference between dicot and monocot stem
Dicot stem Monocot stem
1. Epidermal hair is present 1. Absent
2. Collenchymatous hypodermis. 2. Sclerenchymatous
hypodermis
3. The ground tissue gets 3. Undifferentiated ground
differentiated into cortex and tissue.
stele.
4. Vascular bundles are limited in 4. Vascular bundles are
number and are arranged in the numerous and scattered.
form of a broken ring.
5. Vascular bundles are open. 5. Vascular bundles are closed.
Hence 20growth is present. Hence 20 growth is absent.
6. Vascular bundles have 6. Vascular bundles have
sclerenchymatous bundle cap. sclerenchymatous bundle
sheath.
7. Phloem parenchyma is 7. Phloem parenchyma is
present absent

Anatomical difference of stem and root:

STEM ROOT
Conjoint vascular bundle Radial vascular bundle
Endarch Xylem Exarch Xylem Monocot Leaf (Isobilateral)
Similar to dicot, but have-
1) Epidermis: Stomata are present on both epidermises.
ANATOMY OF LEAF
 Bulliform cells: Large, empty and colorless cells on
Dicot Leaf (Dorsiventral) upper epidermis of grasses.
 This type of leaves have distinct dorsal and ventral surface Function: Help to roll and unroll the leaves to regulate
The vertical section of a dicot leaf shows 3 regions: Epidermis, water loss.
mesophyll & vascular bundles. When water is available:
1) Epidermis: Upper (adaxial) epidermis has less number of Bulliform cells absorb water  turgid  leaf expose
stomata than lower (abaxial) epidermis. It has cuticle. (unrolled).
2) Mesophyll: The ground tissue between the upper and the lower When water is unavailable (water stress):
epidermis. It is made up of thin-walled chloroplast containing Bulliform cells loose water  flaccid 
parenchyma cells. leaves curl (roll) (to minimize water loss).
It has 2 types of cells:
Bulliform cells
(i) Palisade layer: adaxial elongated cells.
(ii) Spongy tissue: oval or round loosely arranged cells situated
below the palisade cells.
3) Vascular bundles: They are located in the veins and midrib as
reticulate venation.
- Surrounded by a layer of thick walled bundle sheath cells.

2) Mesophyll: Consists of spongy parenchyma.

3) Vascular bundles: Parallel venation.

Difference between dicot and monocot leaf

Dicot leaf Monocot leaf
Reticulate venation in dicot leaf Parallel venation in monocot leaf
1. Stomata are more on lower 1. Equal number of stomata
surface. The guard cells are on both surfaces. The guard
bean-shaped. cells are dumb-bell shaped.
2. Mesophyll is differentiated 2. Undifferentiated
into palisade and spongy mesophyll.
tissues.
3. Reticulate venation is 3. Parellel venation is present
present

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BTNY-MM: XI 8. CELL: THE UNIT OF LIFE

 A cell is the basic unit of all living organisms. Cell theory
(i) All living organisms are composed of cells.
Scientist Contribution (ii) Cells arise from the division of pre-existing cell.
Anton Von
Discovered live cells.
Leeuwenhoek  Smallest cells: Mycoplasma
Matthias  Largest single cell: Egg of an ostrich.
Observed that plants are composed of cells
Schleiden  Longest cells: Nerve cell.
Observed that - Types of Cells
Theodore  animals are composed of cells
Schwann  all cells had a thin outer layer Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
 plant cells have cell wall Cell without nucleus & Cell with nucleus &
Rudolf Explained that new cells arise from membrane bound organelles. membrane bound organelles
Virchow pre-existing cells.
All cells contain a semi-fluid matrix called cytoplasm.
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
 Prokaryotes are bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma / PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms).

Cell structure Structure Function

Made of 3 layers-
a) Glycocalyx: Outer layer.
1. Cell envelope 2 type:- slime layer (loose sheath) or capsule (tough) Protection
b) Cell wall: Middle layer. Gives shape to the cell
c) Plasma membrane: Innermost layer. Selectively permeable
o Cell wall formation.
2. Mesosome Infoldings of plasma membrane o DNA replication.
o Respiration and secretion processes.
3. Chromatophore Infoldings containing pigments in cyanobacteria Photosynthesis
4. Genomic DNA Naked circular single chromosome DNA --
5. Plasmid Small circular dsDNA outside the genomic DNA Provide resistance to antibiotics to bacteria.
Thin filamentous extensions from the cell wall.
6. Flagella Motility in bacteria
 Flagellum = Filament + hook + basal body.
7. Pili Long tubular structures on the cell. Help to attach the bacteria to rocks in
8. Fimbria Small bristle-like fibres streams or the host tissues.

9. Prokaryotic
Protein synthesis (translation)
ribosome
Ribosomes = rRNA + proteins.
Ribosome (70S) = 50S subunit + 30S subunit.
Eg.: Phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules,
10. Inclusion Storage
glycogen granules.
bodies
Gas vacuole in some bacteria Buoyancy

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
 Eukaryotes include protists, fungi, plants and animals.
Differences between Plant and animal cells
Plant Cell Animal Cell
Enclosed in a cell wall Absent
Plastids are present Absent
A large central vacuole Absent
Centrioles are absent Present
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Cell structure Structure Function

Thin membrane enveloping protoplasm  Transport of the molecules (types- osmosis, simple
Made up of 2 layers of phospholipids and protein molecules (Fluid diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport)
mosaic model- by Singer & Nicolson)

1. Cell membrane
(plasma
membrane)
 Help in cell growth & cell division
 Help in secretion & endocytosis

Non-living rigid structure found outer to the plasma membrane of

fungi and plants
Have 10 wall and 20 wall forms inner to it.

Gives shape to the cell.

Protects the cell from mechanical damage & infection
2. Cell wall

Middle lamella is a layer of calcium pectate b/w 10 wall of cells Glues the neighbouring cells together
Plasmodesmata is the microscopic channel through cell wall and Connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells which
middle lamella helps in cell-to-cell interaction
Network of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm

3. Endoplasmic
reticulum

2 types:
a) Rough ER- Bear ribosome on their surface. Protein synthesis and secretion.
b) Smooth ER- ER without ribosome Synthesis of lipid & steroidal hormones.
4. Golgi apparatus Composed of flattened sacs (Cisternae) Packaging of cellular secretions
Cis (convex Trans (concave
Discovered by forming face) maturing face)
Camillo Golgi
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Produce glycoproteins and glycolipids

Vesicles filled with hydrolytic enzymes Digest all types of macromolecules

a. Lipases- - digest lipids
5. Lysosome b. Proteases- - digest proteins
c. Carbohydrases- - digest carbohydrates
d. Nucleases- - digest nucleic acids
Membrane-bound (tonoplast) space in the cytoplasm
3 types-
a) Sap vacuoles- Seen in plants

Store water, sap, excretory product

b) Contractile vacuole- Seen in amoeba

6. Vacuole
Helps in osmoregulation & excretion

c) Food vacuoles- Seen in protists

Engulf the food particles and digest it

7. Mitochondria Produce energy in the form of ATP

Outer membrane and the inner membrane divides lumen into

outer compartment and the inner compartment (matrix)
Inner membrane has infoldings  Cristae
Matrix possesses a circular DNA, RNA molecules, 70S ribosomes etc.
Plastids are found in plant cells and in euglenoides
3 types-
a) Chloroplast- Contain chlorophyll and carotenoid.

Trap light for photosynthesis

8. Plastids

Double membrane bound organelles found in the mesophyll cells

of the leaves.
 The space inside inner membrane is stroma.
 In stroma, there are number of flattened sacs (thylakoids) which
are arranged in stacks called grana.
b) Chromoplast- Contain carotene, xanthophylls etc. Gives yellow-red colour to plant parts

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c) Leucoplast- Colourless plastids

3 types:
i) Amyloplasts: Store starch
ii) Elaioplasts: Store oils & fats
iii) Aleuroplasts: Store proteins
9. Eukaryotic
Ribosome Non-membraneous granules seen in cytoplasm and on ER
Protein synthesis (translation)
Ribosome (80S) = 60S subunit + 40S subunit
Disc. By Palade
 It provides mechanical support
Network of protein filaments present in the cytoplasm
10. Cytoskeleton  Helps in motility
3 types- Microtubules, Microfilaments, Intermediate filaments
 Maintenance of the shape of the cell etc.
Small hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane

11. Cilia Movement of either the cell or the surrounding fluid

12. Flagella Long hair-like outgrowths Cell movement

Form the basal body of cilia or flagella

13. Centrosome &

centriole Form spindle fibres during cell division.

Centrosome = 2 centrioles (cylindrical structures) +

pericentriolar materials (surrounded)
Seen only in animal cells

Nuclear envelope Passage b/w nucleus and the cytoplasm

Nuclear matrix (nucleoplasm): Transparent sap filled in nucleus.
Nucleolus: non-membranous spherical bodies. rRNA synthesis.
Chromatin = DNA + RNA + histones (basic proteins) +
non-histone proteins.
14. Nucleus During cell division, chromatins condense to form chromosomes.

Discovered by
Robert Brown
Based on the position of the centromere,
chromosomes are 4 types-
1. Metacentric: Middle
2. Sub-metacentric: slightly away from middle
3. Acrocentric: close to end
4. Telocentric: terminal

 A chromosome consists of 2 halves called chromatids.

 10 constrictions  centromere
 Kinetochores - disc shaped structures on the sides of
centromere
 Some chromosomes have non-staining 20 constrictions at a
constant location (satellite).

15. Microbodies Membrane bound minute vesicles Store various enzymes

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BTNY-MM: XI 11. PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS

 Photosynthesis: Process by which green plants prepare their  Chlorophyll a (blue-green)- reaction centre
food in the form of glucose, in the presence of sunlight.  Chlorophyll b (yellow-green)
Expt. related to photosynthesis  Xanthophylls (yellow) Absorb diff. wavelength of light
Scientist Contribution  Carotenoids (yellow-orange)
Priestley Showed that air is essential for growth of plants.
MECHANISM OF LIGHT REACTION
Jan
Ingenhousz
Showed that the green parts of plant release of O2. Light falls on PSII  e- from the reaction centre are excited 
Provided evidence for production of glucose. picked by an e- acceptor  e- are passed to electrons transport
Julius von system (PQ - Cyt. B6f - PC)  transferred to the reaction centre of
Also showed that the chlorophyll is located in
Sachs
chloroplasts. PS I 
T.W
Plotted the first action spectrum of photosynthesis. Simultaneously, light falls on PS I  e- from the reaction centre
Engelmann excited  picked by e- accepter  e- moved to NADP+ to form
Showed that the O2 evolved by the green plant NADPH.
Cornelius comes from H2O, not from CO2.
van Niel

CHLOROPLAST- Site of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts, which is filled with
a fluid called the stroma. The stroma contains stacks of membranous
sacs (thylakoid) called grana.

Chemiosmotic hypothesis of ATP synthesis:

As a result of light reaction, here develops an H+ gradient
across the thylakoid membrane.
Mechanism of Photosynthesis:- Factors responsible for H+ gradient-
The process of photosynthesis can be divided into 2- 1. Splitting of water in the lumen.
I. Light reactions which take place in grana. It includes light 2. Plastoquinone pump H+ into the lumen from the stroma.
absorption, water splitting, O2 release & formation of ATP and 3. NADP reductase reduce NADP+ by utilizing an H+ from
NADPH. stroma to NADPH.
II. Dark reactions which take place in stroma. It includes synthesis of These steps decrease H+ in the stroma, while in the lumen
sugars. there is accumulation of H+.

Glucose

I. Light reaction H+ diffuse back through ATP synthase from the lumen into
SET-UP OF LIGHT REACTION- the stroma, produces ATP.
4 protein complexes are involved in the light reactions which are  Photo-phosphorylation is the synthesis of ATP from ADP and
embedded in the thylakoid membranes. They are- Pi in the presence of light.
(i) Photosystem I and II It occurs in 2 ways- Non cyclic & Cylic.
(ii) Electron Transport System (ETS)
(iii) ATP synthase
Photosystems (I & II) is composed of Light Harvesting
Complex (LHC- containing photosynthetic pigments) and an
electron acceptor.
 4 pigments seen in LHC are –
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Difference between Non-cyclic & cyclic phosphorylation

Non-cyclic photo-phosphorylation Cyclic photo-phosphorylation In bundle sheath cells,
1. Occurs in the thylakoid 1. Occurs in the stroma Malate or aspartate breaks  release CO2  enters the C3
membrane. lamellae.
pathway.
2. PS II & PS I are involved. 2. Only PS I is involved.
3. It is a non-cyclic process because
3. The excited e- from PS-I is
the e- lost by PS II is passing on to
cycled back through the ETS.
NADP+ (Z scheme).
4. Water split into H+, e- and O2. 4. No
5. Here ATP & NADP+ are
5. It is only ATP is synthesised.
synthesised.

II. Dark reaction

 This is a light-independent cyclic process that converts CO2 and
H2O molecules into sugar or (CH2O)n using energy of ATP and
NADPH produced in the light reaction
The process of CO2 fixation is of 2 types-
a) C3 pathway- In this, the first product of CO2 fixation is a 3-C acid
(PGA).
b) C4 pathway- In this, the first product is a 4-C acid (OAA).

a) The Calvin Cycle (C3 pathway)

This pathway occurs in all photosynthetic plants (in C4 also).
 It has 3 stages:- Carboxylation, reduction and regeneration.

Differences between C3 plants & C4 plants

C3 plants C4 plants
1. Include most crop plants. 1. Include maize, sorghum etc.
2. Leaves do not exhibit ‘Kranz’
2. Shows
anatomy.
3. Photosynthesis occurs in 3. In mesophyll and bundle
mesophyll cells. sheath cells.
4. Primary CO2 acceptor is RuBP
4. PEP (3C)
(5C).
5. CO2 fixing enzyme is RuBisCO. 5. PEP carboxylase
6. The first stable product of CO2
6. OAA (4C)
fixation is PGA (3C)
7. Photorespiratory loss is high. 7. Absent or Negligible
8. Optimum temp. for
8. About 30-400C.
photosynthesis is 20-250C.

FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

 Internal (plant) factors:-
 The number, size, age and orientation of leaves, mesophyll
cells and chloroplasts,
 Internal CO2 concentration
Photorespiration  The amount of chlorophyll.
 Photorespiration is the binding of O2 on RuBisCO, at higher
conc. of O2.  External factors:-
 Availability of sunlight
 Here RuBP (5C) PGA (3C) + phosphoglycolate (PG-2C).
 CO2 concentration
 In this pathway, CO2 that is fixed is released with the utilisation
 Temperature
of ATP.
 Water

b) The Hatch & Slack pathway (C4 pathway) - Blackman’s Law of Limiting Factors: If a chemical process is
 It is present in plants adapted to dry tropical regions. affected by more than one factor, then its rate will be determined
C4 plants are special because:- by the factor which is nearest to its minimal value.
They have Kranz anatomy in leaf
They tolerate higher temperatures
They show a response to high light intensities
They lack photorespiration and hence have greater productivity
of biomass.
Steps:-
In mesophyll cells,
CO2 is accepted by phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP)  form
Oxaloacetic acid (OAA- 4C)  convert to malic acid or
aspartic acid  transported to the bundle sheath cells.

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 BTNY-MM: XI 12. RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
 Respiration: Oxidation of food materials in the cells to synthesis
ATP.
 Respiratory substrates: Compounds that are oxidized during
respiration. E.g. Carbohydrates, proteins etc.
 In plants, gaseous exchange occurs through stomata and lenticels.

RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
 Aerobic respiration is the complete breakdown of glucose in the
presence of O2.

In plant cells, aerobic respiration is completed in 4 stages-

(1st-Stage) GLYCOLYSIS / EMP pathway

 Glycolysis: Glucose  2 x pyruvic acid. (2nd-Stage) OXIDATIVE DECARBOXYLATION
Location: Cytoplasm.
 Oxidative decarboxylation: Pyruvate  acetyl CoA + CO2
Mechanism of glycolysis:- Location: mitochondria matrix.

 2 molecules of NADH+H+ produced = 6 ATP.

 The acetyl CoA then enters tricarboxylic acid cycle.

(3rd-Stage) TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE

(Krebs’ cycle / Citric Acid cycle)

 This cyclic reaction was first elucidated by Hans Krebs.

 TCA cycle : Acetyl CoA  2 x CO2
Location: mitochondria matrix.
Mechanism of TCA cycle:-

 Total ATP formed= 4, ATP used= 2, Net gain of ATP= 2.

 2 molecules of NADH2= 6 ATP  6 molecules of NADH2 = 18 ATP
 2 molecules of FADH2 = 4 ATP
Fermentation  2 molecules of GTP = 2 ATP
 Fermentation is the incomplete oxidation of glucose in anaerobic
conditions. (4th-Stage) OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
Fermentation  Oxidative phosphorylation is the synthesis of ATP using the
oxidation-reduction energy released during the electron transport
Alcoholic Lactic acid system.
Pyruvic acid Pyruvic acid Location: inner mitochondrial membrane
pyruvic acid decarboxylase lactate  This stage is to release and utilize the energy stored in NADH+H+
alcohol dehydrogenase dehydrogenase and FADH2 (formed during Glycolysis & Krebs’ cycle) in
CO2 + ethanol Lactic acid synthesising ATP.
E.g. Yeast. E.g. Some bacteria,  1 NADH2 ≈ 3 ATP molecules
In muscle cells
 1 FADH2 ≈ 2 ATP molecules
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 Mechanism of Oxidative phosphorylation:-

For each ATP produced, 4H+ passes through ATP synthase

from the inter-membrane space to the matrix.

Net gain of ATP molecules from 1 glucose molecule = 38 ATP

AMPHIBOLIC PATHWAY

The respiratory pathway is an amphibolic pathway as it

involves both anabolism (synthesis) and catabolism (break down).

Respiratory quotient / Respiratory ratio

RQ for carbohydrates= 1,
RQ for fats < 1.
RQ for proteins = 0.9.

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 BTNY-MM: XI 13. PLANT GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
GROWTH DEVELOPMENT
 Growth is an irreversible increase in size of an organ or cell.  Development includes all changes from seed germination to
senescence.
Characteristics of Plant growth
 Open form- New cells are always being added to plant body due to Plasticity
meristem.  Plasticity is the formation of different kinds of structures in
 Indeterminate - Capacity of unlimited growth throughout the life. response to environment.
Types- Heterophylly (plant with more than 2 types of leaves)
1. Primary growth: It is the elongation of the plants due to the
activity of apical and intercalary meristem. Due to phases of life Due to Environment
2. Secondary growth (In gymnosperms & dicots): It is the increase Cotton Butter-cup
in the girth due to the lateral meristems. Coriander
Larkspur
Phases of Growth
PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
Phase Cells in this phase have-
 Rich in protoplasm
(PHYTOHORMONES)
 Large nuclei.  Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are chemicals that regulate
Meristematic phase growth and development of plants.
 Posses thin 10 cell wall with
numerous plasmodesmata Auxins
Promoters Gibberellins
 Enlarging cell
Cytokinins
Elongation phase  Posses large vacuoles
 New cell wall deposition Inhibiters Abscisic acid
Ethylene
 Posses thick 20 cell wall
Maturation phase
 Protoplasmic modifications.

abscission of leaves,
closure of stomata.

flowers and fruits.

* Stress hormone –
Abscisic acid

Growth Rates

In chloroplast of
abscission II &

*It inhibits seed

derivatives of
 Growth rate is the growth per unit time.

germination.

*It promotes
carotenoids
inhibitor-B,
Reported as

It can be arithmetic or geometrical increase- dormin.

leaves
Arithmetic growth Geometrical growth
Meristematic cell Meristematic cell
mitosis mitosis

ripening. (respiratory

set E.g. in pineapples.

Meristematic cell Mature cell Meristematic cell Merist. cell Synthetic- Ethephon

abscission of leaves

*Synchronising fruit-
Cousins - gas from

*It breaks seed and

Ethylene

bud dormancy.
ripened oranges

senescence and
Ripening fruits

*It induces fruit

Seen in all cells, tissues and
Seen in roots

and flowers.
*It promotes
organs of a plant

climactic).
Linear curve Sigmoid (S) curve
Miller- kinetin from

* Overcome apical
F. Skoog -tobacco

Root apices, shoot

buds, young fruits
Cytokinins

* Produce new
* Cytokinesis.
herring sperm.

chloroplasts.
derivative of

dominance.

senescence.
*Delay leaf
leaves with
adenine.
callus

*Increase the length.

First Gibberellin-GA3

Lt = L0 + rt W1 = W0 ert
*For promote bolting
E.g. for grapes stalks,

*improve the shape

seedling  ‘bakane

*Delay senescence.
of fruits. E.g. apple.
Gibberellins

Kurosawa - rice

Quantitative comparisons
in sugar cane.

Absolute growth rate= Final growth – Initial growth

in cabbages

(i)
disease’

Final growth – Initial growth

(ii) Relative growth rate=
Initial growth
--

Conditions for Growth

Charles Darwin & Francis

*Induce parthenocarpy in
*Rooting in stem cuttings.

in tea plantations, hedge-

dominance . Decapitation
* flowering in pineapples.
canary grass), isolated by

Water, O2, Nutrients, Temperature, Light & gravity

Synthetic- NAA, 2, 4-D
Darwin (coleoptile of

*Used as herbicides.
Natural- IAA , IBA.

DIFFERENTIATION,
Auxins

Stem & root apex

*Promote apical

DEDIFFERENTIATION &
E.g. 2, 4-D.
F.W. Went

REDIFFERENTIATION
making.

tomato.

 Differentiation : Meristematic cell  mature cell.

 Dedifferentiation: Mature cell  Meristematic cell
 Redifferentiation: Meristematic cell  mature cell. Chem.
Discovery Syn. Physiological effects
nat.

Botany Instant Notes for [Link] , by: M. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

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