A

PROJECT REPORT
on
GREEN REINFORCEMENT; ENHANCING CONCRETE WITH ECOFRIENDLY
ADDITITVES.
Submitted by
ANKIT KUMAR
ARNAV ARYA
RITIKA KUMARI
ANJALI KUMARI
NAVNEET KUMAR
SHASHI RANJAN

In the partial fulfillment of requirement for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Under the guidance of

AJAY PRABHAKAR
(Assistant Professor)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE BUXAR
MAHDAH-802103 (INDIA)
 CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the work which is being presented in this project report entitled,
“Effect of Partial Cement Replacement with Fly Ash, GGBS, and Silica Fume on the
Properties of M40 Grade Concrete” in partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of the
degree of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering, submitted in the department of Civil
Engineering, GEC Buxar, is an authentic record of our own work carried out under the guidance
of, Ajay Prabhakar, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, GEC Buxar.

The matter embodied in this report has not been submitted anywhere by us for the award
of any other degree or diploma.

Sl. No. Name of Student Registration No. Signature

01 Ankit Kumar 21101155041
02 Arnav Arya 21101155023
03 Ritika Kumari 22101155902
04 Anjali Kumari 21101155024
05 Navneet Kumar 21101155052
06 Shashi Ranjan 21101155029

Date: 04/03/2025

Place: Buxar

i
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that project report entitled “Effect of Partial Cement Replacement
with Fly Ash, GGBS, and Silica Fume on the Properties of M40 Grade Concrete” which
is submitted by “Ankit Kumar, Arnav Arya, Ritika Kumari, Anjali Kumari, Navneet
Kumar, Shashi Ranjan” in partial fulfilment of the requirement of project work for the degree
of Bachelor of Technology in department of Civil Engineering of Government Engineering
College Buxar is a record of the candidate own work carried out by them under my supervision.
The matter embodied in this project report is original and has not been submitted anywhere for
the award of any other degree or diploma.

(Prof. Ajay Prabhakar) (Dr. Jivesh Ujjwal, HOD) (External Examiner)

Project Supervisor Department of CIVIL Engineering
GEC Buxar
GEC Buxar

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The success and final outcome of this project required a lot of guidance and assistance
from many people. We are extremely fortunate to have this all along the completion of our
project. First and foremost, we would like to thank our supervisor Ajay Prabhakar, Assistant
Professor, Civil Engineering of this project for the guidance and advice. He inspired us greatly
to work in this project. His willingness to motivate us contributed tremendously to our Project.

Finally, an honorable mention goes to our Principal Dr. Ram Naresh Rai, Head of
Department Dr. Jivesh Ujjwal and other faculty members for their support and suggestion.
Also, we would like to extend our sincere regards to all non-teaching staff of our college for
their timely support and co-operation.

Sl. No. Name of Student Registration No.

01 Ankit Kumar 21101155041
02 Arnav Arya 21101155023
03 Ritika Kumari 22101155902
04 Anjali Kumari 21101155024
05 Navneet Kumar 21101155052
06 Shashi Ranjan 21101155029

iii
 ABSTRACT

The construction industry is increasingly focusing on sustainability, driving the need for
innovative solutions to reduce the environmental impact of concrete production. This study
investigates the effects of partially replacing cement with fly ash, silica fume, and ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) in M40 grade concrete. The primary objective is to
evaluate the potential of these industrial by-products to enhance the mechanical properties of
concrete while reducing cement content, thereby contributing to sustainability goals. A
comprehensive experimental program was conducted to assess the compressive strength,
workability, and durability of concrete samples with varying proportions of fly ash, silica fume,
and GGBS as partial cement replacements. The results indicate that optimal combinations of
these supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) not only meet the strength requirements
for M40 grade concrete but also improve certain durability characteristics. Additionally, a cost
analysis was performed to evaluate the economic feasibility of incorporating these materials
and reduction in carbon emission.

The findings suggest that the partial replacement of cement with fly ash, silica fume,
and GGBS in M40 concrete offers a viable pathway to producing more sustainable and cost-
effective concrete without compromising structural performance. This study contributes to the
growing body of knowledge on sustainable concrete technologies and provides practical
insights for their application in construction.

KEYWORDS: - SCMs (Supplementary Cementitious Material), GGBS (Ground Granulated

Blast Furnace Slag), Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Superplasticizer, Carbon emission, Economic
feasibility.

iv
 CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE NO.

• Candidate’s declaration i
• Certificate ii
• Acknowledgement iii
• Abstract iv
• Contents v
• List of tables viii
• List of figures ix

1. Introduction 1
1.1. General 1
1.2. Objectives 2
2. Materials Description 3
2.1. Constituent Materials 3
2.1.1. Concrete 3
2.1.2. Cement 4
2.1.3. Supplementary cementitious material 4
2.1.4. Aggregates (fine and coarse) 10
2.1.5. Water 11
2.2. Theoretical background of Mix design 12
2.2.1 Mix design steps 12
3. Literature review 13
3.1. Investing the compressive strength of concrete by partial 13
replacement of cement with high volume fly ash
3.2. Effect of addition of fly ash and GGBS on cement in fresh 14
concrete and hardened concrete
3.3. Effect of fly ash as a partial replacement of cement in PPC 16
3.4. Performance of concrete with partial replacement of cement 17
by fly ash and natural sand by artificial sand
3.5. Durability studies on concrete with fly ash and GGBS 18
3.6. The utilization of fly ash aggregates in structural elements 19
with a focus on durability enhancement
3.7. The impact of fly ash on concrete properties 19
v
 3.8. Strength properties of roller compacted concrete containing 20
GGBS as partial replacement of cement
3.9. Experimental investigation on silica fume as partial 23
replacement of cement in high performance concrete
3.10. The hydration and microstructure of ultra-high strength 25
concrete with cement-silica fume-slag binder
• References 26

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. PAGE NO.

2.1 Physical and chemical properties of OPC, GGBS, Silica fume and Fly ash 11

3.1 Percentage of cement GGBS and Fly ash in various mix design 15

3.2 Specific gravity of different aggregates 21

3.3 Percentage of GGBS used for various mixes 22

3.4 Shows optimum moisture content 22

3.5 Shows sample prepared for mix proportioning 24

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. PAGE NO.

2.1Preparation of Concrete 3

2.2 Fly ash 4

2.3 Percentage utilization of fly ash 5

2.4 Torre Picasso, Spain 5

2.5 Great Belt East Bridge 6

2.6 Sample of GGBS 6

2.7 Petronet LNG Tanks, Dahej 7

2.8 Bandra Worli Sea Link, Mumbai 8

2.9 Bengaluru-Mysore Expressway 8

2.10 Construction of Mumbai Coastal Project 9

2.11 Metro Project from Pune 10

3.1 Compressive Strength of HPC with various 24

proportion of Silica Fume

3.2 Split Tensile Strength of HPC with various 25

proportion of Silica Fume

3.3 Flowability compressive strength, porosity and 26

Ca(OH)2 content of UHSC

viii
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

In the past few years, urbanization has surged globally, leading to a significant increase in
the use of concrete, a cornerstone material in construction. This surge has resulted in substantial
annual consumption of concrete. Concrete is a construction material composed primarily of a
mixture of cement, water, aggregates (such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone), and sometimes
admixtures. The cement acts as a binding agent that, when combined with water, undergoes a
chemical reaction to form a hard, durable substance. Aggregates provide strength and bulk to
the concrete, contributing to its structural integrity. Admixtures may be added to enhance
specific properties of the concrete, such as workability, durability, or setting time. Once mixed,
concrete can be poured into molds or formwork to create various shapes and structures, making
it a widely used building material in construction. By 2050, it's anticipated that cement
consumption will climb from its current annual level of about 4.2 billion tons to approximately
5.2 billion tons. This projection is based on current trends. However, with each ton of clinker
produced, around a ton kg of CO2 is emitted into the atmosphere using existing cement
manufacturing methods. According to an estimate, around 6-8% of the total CO2 globally
emitted comes from ordinary cement product. As a result, there's a pressing need to discover
alternative materials to replace cement, thereby mitigating the adverse environmental effects
associated with concrete production.

One highly efficient method for reducing CO2 emissions in the cement industry involves
replacing a portion of cement with alternative materials. Supplementary cementing materials
(SCMs) are materials used in combination with Portland cement to improve certain properties
of concrete or to reduce the amount of cement required in concrete mixtures. These materials
are typically industrial by-products or waste materials that would otherwise be discarded,
making their use environmentally beneficial. Common examples of SCMs include:

• Fly ash: Fine powder residue generated from coal combustion in thermal power plants.
• Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag: By-product of the iron-making process,
produced during the smelting of iron ore.
• Silica fume: Ultrafine silica particles produced during the manufacturing of silicon or
ferrosilicon alloys.
• Natural pozzolans: Naturally occurring materials, such as volcanic ash or calcined clay,
that possess pozzolanic properties.

SCMs can improve concrete properties such as workability, durability, and resistance to
chemical attack. According to ACI Committee 201, durability of Portland cement concrete is
defined as its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion, or any other process
of deterioration. The framework of partially substituting cement, favorable to sustainable

1
development, is distinguished by the utilization of industrial by-products to mitigate the
depletion of natural resources and energy consumption, as well as environmental pollution.

1.2 OBJECTIVES

Objective of this study conducted are:

1. To assess the effectiveness of incorporating Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

(GGBS), Fly Ash, and Silica Fume as partial replacements for Ordinary Portland
Cement in concrete mixtures.
2. To examine the impact of these supplementary materials on the properties of both fresh
and hardened concrete, with particular emphasis on workability and compressive
strength at different curing periods.
3. To Investigate cost reduction strategies through the use of GGBS, Silica Fume, and Fly
Ash, while ensuring that concrete strength is not compromised.

2
 CHAPTER 2
MATERIALS DESCRIPTION

2.1 Constituent Materials

2.1.1 Concrete

Concrete is a durable construction material made from a mixture of cement, water,

aggregates (such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone), and sometimes additives or admixtures.
It is one of the most widely used materials in construction due to its versatility, strength,
and durability. Concrete can be molded into various shapes and sizes before it hardens,
making it suitable for a wide range of applications, including foundations, walls, floors,
roads, bridges, and dams. Once mixed, concrete undergoes a chemical reaction known as
hydration, which causes it to harden and become strong over time. It is an essential
component of modern infrastructure and building construction.

Figure 2.1: Preparation of concrete

Source : 0403040001-01-Workability-of-fresh-concrete_38609156_xxl.jpg (1024×688)

([Link])

Concrete primarily consists of a blend of water, aggregate, and cement. When

combined, aggregates (both fine and coarse) account for approximately 70% of the total
volume of concrete, leaving the remaining 30% to be occupied by water, cement, and air
voids. In order to attain the intended physical characteristics of the final product,
supplementary cementitious materials are often incorporated into a concrete mix.

3
2.1.2 Cement

Cement is a binding agent used in construction to bind other materials together and
form a solid mass. It is a key component in concrete, mortar, and grout. For this given
project we are going to use OPC 43. OPC 43 refers to Ordinary Portland Cement with
a strength grade of 43 MPa (megapascals) as per the Indian Standard IS 8112:2013.
This type of cement is commonly used in general construction works where moderate
strength is required. OPC 43 cement is manufactured by grinding Portland cement
clinker, gypsum, and sometimes additional materials such as fly ash or slag.

2.1.3 Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs)

• Fly Ash: Fly ash is a fine powder consisting of spherical particles that is produced as a
by-product during the combustion of pulverized coal in coal-fired power plants. It is
carried away by the flue gases and collected in electrostatic precipitators or bag filters
before being stored in silos or landfills.

Figure 2.2: Fly ash (from a brick factory near Jagdamba Sthaan)

• Fly ash is classified as a pozzolanic material, meaning it reacts chemically with calcium
hydroxide and water to form compounds that contribute to the strength and durability
of concrete. It can be used as a partial replacement for cement in concrete mixtures,
thereby reducing the environmental impact of concrete production and improving its
performance.

• Fly ash can be separated into two main types, known as Class F and Class C. Class F fly
ash contains particles covered in a type of melted glass allowing it to reduce the risk of
concrete expansion and increase resistance to sulphates and alkali-aggregate reactions.
Class C fly ash contains a higher percentage of calcium oxide, making it more effective
in strengthening structural concrete.

• For the project at hand, we sourced fly ash from a brick manufacturing facility situated
near Jagdamba Sthaan, Bakhtiyarpur Bihar.

4
 Miscellaneous
5%
% Utilization of Fly Ash
Dyke raising
5%
Fillings
Cement Fillings
13% 21% Road Embankment
Concrete
Agriculture Brick Manufacturing
5%
16 Agriculture

Concrete Cement
Brick 23% Dyke raising
Manufacturing
7% Miscellaneous

Figure 2.3: Percentage Utilization of Fly Ash

(Source: [Link]

• Throughout the world, there are numerous examples showcasing the practical use of fly
ash in concrete for construction. Few of them are:

• Torre Picasso (1988) Spain: The construction of the Picasso Tower, Madrid's tallest
building standing at 171 meters, utilized concrete enhanced with fly ash. A total of
11,000 cubic meters of concrete were pumped into the structure, with variations in
admixture tailored to the building's height. Extensive testing and formulation were
undertaken to develop the concrete mixture, experimenting with various lightweight
aggregates, cements, fly ash types, and additives.

Figure 2.4: Torre Picasso, Spain

Source: La subida a la Torre Picasso. Del mismo arquitecto que diseñó el… | by Runator | Medium

5
• Great Belt East Bridge, Denmark: The high-performance concrete mixture employed
for the East Bridge is known as a three-powder blend, comprising Portland cement, fly
ash (at a rate of 47kg/m3 for the pylons), and micro silica as its key cementitious
ingredients. Notably, the concrete features an impressively low water-cement ratio. The
construction of the bridge is engineered to last for a projected lifespan of 100 years.

Figure 2.5: Great belt east bridge, Denmark

(Source: [Link]

• Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS): Blast furnace slag is a residual by-
product generated during the smelting process, which involves the combustion of coke,
limestone, and iron ore at temperatures reaching 1500°C. This process yields molten
iron and molten slag, with the latter having a lower density, causing it to rise to the
surface and become easily separable from the remaining mass. Subsequently, the
molten slag is cooled by the application of water.

Figure 2.5: Sample of GGBS

(Source: [Link] )

6
 GGBS enhances various properties of concrete, including workability, durability, and
resistance to sulfate attack and chloride ingress. Its use in concrete production also helps
to reduce the environmental impact of cement manufacturing by decreasing the
consumption of clinker, a primary component of cement, and lowering greenhouse gas
emissions.

Certainly! GGBS (Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag) has been widely used in
numerous completed and ongoing construction projects across India. Here are some
notable examples:

Completed Projects:

• Petronet LNG Tanks, Dahej Gujrat: L&T Hydrocarbon Engineering, in collaboration

with Petronet LNG, recently concluded the expansion of the LNG Storage Tanks
Project in Dahej, Gujarat. The project involved the addition of two new LNG storage
tanks, bringing the total facility count to six. To address the harsh marine environment,
the project stakeholders opted for JSW Cement's GGBS as a partial replacement for
cement and supplementary cementitious mineral admixture. JSW GGBS mixes were
employed in both substructure (such as pile concrete) and superstructure (including tank
base and walls) applications. Each of these massive tanks has a capacity of 170,000
cubic meters.

Figure 2.6: Petronet LNG Tanks, Dahej

(Source: [Link] )

7
• Bandra-Worli Sea Link, Mumbai: The Bandra-Worli Sea Link, a landmark bridge
connecting Bandra and Worli in Mumbai, utilized concrete containing GGBS in its
construction. GGBS was added as a supplementary cementitious material to improve
the performance and longevity of the bridge structure.

Figure 2.7 Bandra-Worli Sea Link, Mumbai

(Source: A Photo of a Bridge During Sunset · Free Stock Photo ([Link])

• Bangalore-Mysore Infrastructure Corridor: The construction of the Bangalore-Mysore

Infrastructure Corridor, a high-speed expressway connecting Bangalore with Mysore,
incorporates GGBS in concrete construction. GGBS helps improve the performance
and longevity of the expressway infrastructure. The construction roughly estimated
used 2,72,203.65MT GGBS.

Figure 2.8 Bengaluru- Mysore Expressway

Source: Bengaluru-Mysuru Expressway To Get New Amenities; Here's All You Need To Know |
Bengaluru News, Times Now ([Link])

8
Ongoing Construction Projects:

• Mumbai Coastal Road: The Coastal Road, currently under construction, is set to
become an 8-lane freeway stretching 22.2 kilometers along Mumbai's western
coastline. This ambitious project aims to link Marine Lines in the south to Kandivali in
the north, drastically improving connectivity in the region. Once completed, the Coastal
Road is anticipated to accommodate a daily traffic volume of 130,000 vehicles,
providing a significant reduction in travel time between South Mumbai and the Western
Suburbs. Commuters can expect their journey to be cut from a lengthy 2 hours to a mere
40 minutes, enhancing overall transportation efficiency and convenience, utilizes
concrete with GGBS. GGBS is being used to enhance the durability and longevity of
the coastal road infrastructure.

Figure 2.9 Construction of Mumbai Coastal Project

(Source: [Link] )

• Pune Metro Rail Project: GGBS is being utilized in the ongoing construction of the
Pune Metro Rail Project, which involves the development of a metro network in Pune.
GGBS is added to concrete mixtures to improve the strength, durability, and
sustainability of metro stations and viaducts.

9
 Figure 2.10 Pune metro rail project
Source: [Link] (550×480) ([Link])

These examples highlight the significant role of GGBS in enhancing the performance,
durability, and sustainability of construction projects across India. The widespread
adoption of GGBS in concrete construction underscores its effectiveness in contributing
to sustainable infrastructure development.

• Silica Fume: Silica fume is a byproduct of producing silicon metal or ferrosilicon

alloys. Because of its chemical and physical properties, it is a very reactive pozzolan.
Concrete containing silica fume can have very high strength and can be very durable.
Silica fume, also known as micro silica. It is a fine, powdery material composed of
highly reactive silicon dioxide particles. When added to concrete, silica fume fills the
voids between cement particles, leading to a denser and more compact matrix. This
results in several beneficial properties for concrete. Silica fume (SF) is a byproduct of
the smelting process in the silicon and ferrosilicon industry. It is also known as micro
silica, condensed silica fume, volatilized silica or silica dust.

Silica fume color is either premium white or grey. Silica Fume consists of very fine
vitreous particles with a surface area between 13,000 and 30,000m2 /Kg. Its particles
are approximately 100 times smaller than the average cement particle. Because of its
extreme fineness and high silica content, silica fume is a highly effective pozzolanic
material. Silica fume is used in concrete to improve its properties. It has been found
that silica fume improves compressive strength, bond strength, and abrasion resistance;
reduces permeability; and therefore, helps in protecting reinforcing steel from
corrosion.

When Silica fume is incorporated to concrete, the silica present in these materials react
with the calcium hydroxide released during the hydration of cement and forms
additional calcium silicate hydrate (C – S – H), which improve durability and the
mechanical properties of concrete.

10
Table 2.1: Physical and Chemical Properties of OPC, GGBS Silica Fume and Fly ash

Properties Cement GGBS Fly Ash Silica

Fume
Specific gr. 3.15 2.79 2.43 2.22
Al2O3 4.0 9.0 11.1 0.71
Fe2O3 3.1 2.58 5.2 1.31
CaO 62.8 44.8 14.7 0.45
MgO 2.6 4.43 1.98 -
Na2O - 0.62 0.48 0.45
K2O - 0.5 0.4 1.52
SO3 3.1 2.26 0.35 0.71
LOI 1.8 1.32 2.1 0.67
Source: [Link]

2.1.4 Aggregates (Fine and coarse)

• Fine Aggregate: For this project, the fine aggregate component of the concrete mixture
has been sourced from a local trader. Fine aggregate, commonly referred to as sand,
plays a crucial role in concrete production by filling the voids between coarse aggregate
particles and binding together with cement paste to form the matrix of the concrete.

The decision to obtain fine aggregate from a local trader was based on several factors.
Firstly, sourcing materials locally can often result in cost savings and reduced
transportation expenses, contributing to overall project efficiency and budget
management. Additionally, obtaining materials from nearby suppliers can minimize
lead times and logistical challenges, ensuring timely delivery and availability of the
required materials.

• Coarse Aggregate: Coarse aggregate consists of particles larger than 4.75 millimeters
in diameter, typically ranging from 9.5 mm (3/8 inch) to 37.5 mm (1.5 inches).

For this project, the maximum size of the coarse aggregate that will be utilized in the
concrete mix is 20 millimeters (mm). Coarse aggregate plays a critical role in concrete
construction, providing structural stability, strength, and bulk to the mixture. By
specifying a maximum aggregate size of 20 mm, the project aims to achieve optimal
concrete performance while meeting design requirements and specifications.

11
2.1.5 Water

Water used in concrete should ideally have a pH value between 6 and 8. Additionally,
it should be free from salt, especially when used in reinforced concrete, as salt content
can lead to corrosion of the reinforcement steel.

2.2 Theoretical Background of Mix Design

Concrete mix design requires determining the proper cement, water, aggregate and mix ratios
to achieve desired properties under fresh and stable conditions. In this work we use fly ash,
GGBS (Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag), and silica modified cement partial
vaporization to enhance concrete strength. This chapter describes in detail the methodology
and material considerations in concrete mix design.

Objectives of mix design:

• Get the performance you want for fresh concrete.

• Ensure that adequate power is available for the application you intend to use.
• Increase durability and sustainability through the use of industrial products.
• Optimize the cost-effectiveness of concrete mixes.

2.2.1 Mix Design Steps

• Step I - Target Strength for Mix Proportioning.

• Step II - Selection of Water/Cement Ratio.
• Step III - Selection of Water Content.
• Step IV Calculation of Cement Content.
• Step V Proportion of the Volume of Coarse Aggregate and Fine Aggregate
Content.
• Step VI Mix calculation.

All the steps mentioned above were meticulously executed with strict adherence to
the Indian Standard (IS) codes, which served as the guiding framework throughout
the experimental process. The two IS code used are:

• IS 456:2000 Plain and Reinforced Concrete- Code of Practice

• IS 10262-2009 Concrete Mix Proportioning

12
 CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 Investigating the Compressive Strength of Concrete by Partial Replacement

of Cement with High Volume Fly Ash

Authors: Abdullah Anwar et al. (2005)

Objectives:

• Investigate the effect of high-volume fly ash as a partial replacement for cement on the
compressive strength of concrete.
• Evaluate the performance of concrete mixes containing varying proportions of fly ash
in terms of compressive strength.
• Analyze the relationship between the percentage of fly ash replacement and the
resulting compressive strength of concrete specimens.
• Assess the feasibility and potential benefits of utilizing high-volume fly ash in concrete
production for enhancing compressive strength while reducing cement content.

Methodology: Fly ash, a byproduct of industrial processes, has garnered significant attention
for its potential to replace Portland cement in concrete production. Abdullah Anwar highlighted
that fly ash, rich in cementitious properties, can effectively substitute up to 30% of cement
without compromising the 28-day compressive strength of the mix. Moreover, increasing the
percentage of fly ash replacement reduces the water-to-binder ratio, thereby enhancing
compressive strength.

Results: Anwar's research involves laboratory experimentation to investigate the compressive

strength of concrete mixtures containing high volumes of fly ash. The study evaluates various
factors such as fly ash content, water-to-cement ratio, curing conditions, and mix proportions
to assess their influence on compressive strength. The findings suggest that while high-volume
fly ash mixtures may exhibit lower early-age strength compared to conventional concrete, they
can achieve comparable or even higher strength at later ages with proper curing and
optimization of mix parameters.

Conclusion: In conclusion, Anwar's study contributes to the understanding of high-volume fly

ash concrete and its impact on compressive strength. The research highlights the potential of
fly ash as a sustainable alternative to cement in concrete production, offering environmental
benefits and resource conservation. By optimizing mix design and curing practices, concrete
mixtures with high volumes of fly ash can achieve the desired strength and performance
characteristics, making them suitable for various construction applications. Further research
and experimentation are recommended to explore the full potential of fly ash in enhancing
concrete properties and advancing sustainable construction practices.

13
3.2 Effect of addition of Fly Ash and GGBS on cement in fresh concrete and
hardened concrete

Authors: B.K Varun, Harish B.A (Feb, 2018)

Objectives:

• Assess the impact of incorporating Fly Ash and GGBS on the properties of fresh
concrete, including workability and setting time.
• Investigate the influence of Fly Ash and GGBS additions on the hardened properties
of concrete, focusing on compressive strength, tensile strength, and durability.
• Compare the performance of concrete mixtures with varying proportions of Fly Ash
and GGBS to conventional concrete mixes without these additions.
• Determine the potential benefits and drawbacks of using Fly Ash and GGBS as
supplementary cementitious materials in concrete production for improving both fresh
and hardened concrete properties.

Methodology: The paper titled "Effect of Addition of Fly Ash and GGBS on Cement in Fresh
and Hardened Concrete" authored by B.K Varun and Harish B.A explores the impact of
incorporating fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) on cement in both fresh
and hardened concrete. Fly ash and GGBS are commonly used as supplementary cementitious
materials in concrete production to improve performance, durability, and sustainability.
Mix design for M30 grade was prepared of the ratio 1: 1.41: 2.49.

Materials used:

• Cement – Ultratech Cement OPC 43 Grade

• Fine aggregate – grading zone II, having specific gravity 2.6, fine modulus 2.57
• Coarse aggregate – Max size of 20mm
• Fly ash – from Bellary Thermal Plant
• GGBS – JSW cement
• Water – Potable water

14
Table 3.1 Percentage of Cement, GGBS and Fly Ash in various mix design during the
experiment.

Mix design % Cement % Fly Ash % GGBS

M0 100 0 0

M1 60 10 30

M2 60 20 20

M3 60 30 10

M4 40 10 50

M5 40 20 40

M6 40 30 30

M7 40 40 20

M8 40 50 10

M9 50 25 25

Results: The authors conduct laboratory experiments to investigate the influence of fly ash and
GGBS on fresh and hardened concrete properties. The study evaluates parameters such as
slump, setting time, compressive strength, flexural strength, and durability performance of
concrete mixtures containing varying proportions of fly ash and GGBS. The findings suggest
that the addition of fly ash and GGBS can improve workability, delay setting time, enhance
strength development, and increase resistance to environmental factors such as sulfate attack
and chloride penetration in concrete.

• Mix M2 (20% fly ash + 20% GGBS + 60% OPC) gives good result in all ages of curing
in low volume replacement category.
• Mix M7 (40% fly ash + 20% GGBS + 40% OPC) gives good result in all ages of curing
in high volume replacement category.

Conclusion: In conclusion, Varun and Harish's study contributes to understanding the effects
of fly ash and GGBS on cement in fresh and hardened concrete. The research highlights the
potential of fly ash and GGBS as effective supplementary cementitious materials for improving
the performance and sustainability of concrete mixtures. By optimizing mix design and
incorporating fly ash and GGBS in appropriate dosages, concrete producers can achieve desired
properties such as workability, strength, and durability, making them suitable for various
construction applications. Further research and experimentation are recommended to explore

15
the full potential of fly ash and GGBS in enhancing concrete properties and advancing
sustainable construction practices.

3.3 Effect of Fly Ash as a partial replacement of Cement in PPC.

Authors: Vinit Kumar Singh et al. (2015)

Objectives:

• Investigate the impact of incorporating Fly Ash as a partial replacement for cement in
Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC).
• Assess the influence of varying proportions of Fly Ash on the properties of PPC,
including workability, setting time, and strength development.
• Analyse the compatibility of Fly Ash with other components of PPC and its effect on
the hydration process and microstructure of concrete.
• Evaluate the feasibility and potential advantages of using Fly Ash in PPC production
for enhancing sustainability and reducing environmental impact.

Methodology: Singh's study investigates the influence of fly ash on the properties of PPC-
based concrete mixtures. The research methodology involves laboratory experimentation,
where various proportions of fly ash are substituted for cement in PPC mixtures. The study
evaluates the fresh and hardened properties of concrete, including workability, compressive
strength, durability, and microstructure analysis.

Results: Incorporating fly ash in PPC mixtures leads to enhanced workability, allowing for
easier placement and compaction of concrete. Singh's study demonstrates that concrete
containing fly ash exhibits comparable or even higher compressive strength compared to
conventional PPC concrete. This suggests that fly ash can effectively contribute to the strength
development of concrete mixtures. The research indicates that fly ash incorporation positively
impacts the durability characteristics of PPC-based concrete, including resistance to chloride
ingress, sulfate attack, and alkali-silica reaction (ASR).

Conclusion: Singh's research sheds light on the positive impact of incorporating fly ash as a
partial substitute for cement in PPC. It underscores the significant potential of fly ash as a
valuable supplementary material in enhancing the performance and sustainability of PPC
mixtures. By fine-tuning the composition of concrete mixes and judiciously integrating fly ash,
concrete manufacturers can attain desirable attributes such as improved workability, enhanced
strength, and increased durability, thereby making PPC suitable for a wide range of
construction projects. Moving forward, continued research and experimentation are
encouraged to fully unlock the benefits of fly ash in enhancing the properties of PPC and
furthering sustainable construction practices.

16
3.4 Performance of Concrete with Partial Replacement of Cement by Fly ash and
Natural Sand by Artificial Sand

Authors: A. Chandana Jyothi & S. Shameem Banu (2015)

Objectives:

• Evaluate the performance of concrete with partial replacement of cement by fly ash.
• Investigate the effects of replacing natural sand with artificial sand on the properties of
concrete.
• Assess the combined influence of fly ash and artificial sand replacements on the fresh
and hardened properties of concrete, including workability, compressive strength, and
durability.
• Analyze the feasibility and potential benefits of using fly ash and artificial sand as
sustainable alternatives in concrete production for enhancing performance and reducing
environmental impact.

Methodology: Jyothi and Banu's study investigates the impact of incorporating fly ash and
artificial sand on the properties of concrete. The research methodology involves laboratory
experimentation, where various proportions of fly ash and artificial sand are introduced into
concrete mixtures. The study evaluates the fresh and hardened properties of concrete, including
workability, compressive strength, durability, and microstructure analysis. Jyothi and Banu
delve into existing studies on the use of fly ash and artificial sand in concrete manufacturing,
examining their effects on different concrete properties. Previous research suggests that fly ash
can enhance concrete's workability, reduce its heat of hydration, bolster long-term strength,
and improve overall durability. Likewise, artificial sand has been found to possess qualities
similar to natural sand, rendering it a feasible substitute in concrete production.

Results: Their findings stem from laboratory experiments aimed at analyzing how fly ash and
artificial sand impact concrete properties. Parameters such as slump, compressive strength,
flexural strength, and durability were assessed in concrete mixes with varying proportions of
fly ash and artificial sand. The results indicate that replacing a portion of cement with fly ash
and using artificial sand instead of natural sand can enhance workability, promote strength
development, and augment concrete durability.

Conclusions: In summary, Jyothi and Banu's research contributes valuable insights into the
performance of concrete incorporating fly ash and artificial sand as partial replacements for
cement and natural sand, respectively. Their findings underscore the potential of these
materials as effective alternatives in concrete production, offering benefits such as improved
workability, strength, and durability. By fine-tuning mix designs and incorporating fly ash and
artificial sand in appropriate ratios, concrete producers can achieve desired properties,
rendering concrete suitable for diverse construction applications. Further research and
experimentation are encouraged to fully explore the capabilities of fly ash and artificial sand
in enhancing concrete properties and fostering sustainable construction practices.

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3.5 Durability Studies on Concrete with Fly Ash & GGBS

Author: A.H.L. Swaroop (July – August, 2013)

Objectives:

• Investigate the durability properties of concrete incorporating Fly Ash and GGBS
(Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag) as partial replacements for cement.
• Assess the effects of Fly Ash and GGBS on key durability aspects such as permeability,
resistance to chemical attacks, and long-term durability under various environmental
conditions.
• Compare the durability performance of concrete mixes containing different proportions
of Fly Ash and GGBS with conventional concrete mixes.
• Determine the potential benefits of using Fly Ash and GGBS in concrete production for
enhancing durability and extending the service life of concrete structures.

Methodology: The paper authored by A.H.L. Swaroop, published in July-August 2013,

investigates the durability of concrete incorporating fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace
slag (GGBS). Fly ash and GGBS are commonly used as supplementary cementitious materials
in concrete production to enhance durability and sustainability. Swaroop's study reviews
existing literature on the utilization of fly ash and GGBS in concrete and their effects on
durability-related properties. Previous research indicates that incorporating fly ash and GGBS
can improve concrete's resistance to various forms of deterioration, including sulfate attack,
alkali-silica reaction (ASR), chloride penetration, and carbonation. Furthermore, fly ash and
GGBS can enhance concrete's long-term performance by reducing permeability, increasing
resistance to freeze-thaw cycles, and mitigating corrosion of reinforcement.

Results: The author conducts experimental studies to assess the durability of concrete mixtures
containing fly ash and GGBS. The study evaluates parameters such as water absorption,
chloride permeability, sulfate resistance, alkali-silica reactivity, and carbonation depth of
concrete specimens with varying proportions of fly ash and GGBS. The findings suggest that
the incorporation of fly ash and GGBS can significantly improve the durability of concrete,
thereby extending its service life and reducing maintenance requirements.

Conclusion: In conclusion, Swaroop's study contributes to understanding the durability

performance of concrete with fly ash and GGBS. The research highlights the potential of fly
ash and GGBS as effective supplementary materials in enhancing concrete durability and
sustainability. By incorporating fly ash and GGBS in appropriate proportions, concrete
producers can achieve enhanced resistance to various forms of deterioration, leading to longer-
lasting and more resilient concrete structures. Further research and experimentation are
recommended to explore the full potential of fly ash and GGBS in improving concrete
durability and advancing sustainable construction practices.

18
3.6 The utilization of Fly Ash aggregate in structural elements with a focus on
durability enhancement.

Authors: K. Uma Shankar & K. Suganya (2014)

Objectives:

• Investigate the feasibility of using Fly Ash aggregate in structural elements for
enhancing durability.
• Assess the effects of Fly Ash aggregate on key durability parameters such as resistance
to abrasion, chemical attacks, and environmental degradation.

Methodology: In their study, K. Uma Shankar and K. Suganya investigated the utilization of
fly ash aggregates in structural elements with a focus on durability enhancement. Fly ash, a by-
product of coal combustion, offers potential as an alternative aggregate material due to its
pozzolanic properties and abundance in availability. Shankar and Suganya's study build upon
existing literature on the use of fly ash aggregates in concrete and its impact on durability-
related properties. Previous research suggests that incorporating fly ash aggregates can improve
concrete's resistance to various forms of deterioration, including acid attack, sulfate attack,
alkali-silica reaction, and chloride penetration. Fly ash aggregates have been shown to reduce
the weight loss during acid resistance tests, indicating their potential for enhancing durability
in structural elements.

Results: The authors conducted experimental studies to assess the durability performance of
structural elements containing fly ash aggregates. They evaluated parameters such as weight
loss during acid resistance tests, compressive strength, flexural strength, and resistance to
environmental factors. The findings suggest that higher proportions of fly ash in the aggregate
composition led to lower weight losses during acid resistance tests, indicating improved
durability of structural elements.

Conclusion: In conclusion, Shankar and Suganya's study highlights the potential of fly ash
aggregates as a sustainable alternative in structural elements to enhance durability. The
research underscores the importance of utilizing fly ash aggregates to improve the performance
and longevity of concrete structures. By optimizing mix designs and incorporating fly ash
aggregates in appropriate proportions, engineers and construction professionals can achieve
enhanced durability and sustainability in structural elements. Further research and
experimentation are recommended to explore the full potential of fly ash aggregates in
advancing durable construction practices.

3.7 The impact of Fly Ash on Concrete Properties

Authors: K. Matong and T.P. Agrawal (2012)

19
Objectives:

• Analyze the impact of Fly Ash on the hydration process, microstructure, and long-term
performance of concrete.
• Determine the potential benefits and drawbacks of using Fly Ash as a supplementary
cementitious material in concrete production for enhancing properties and
sustainability.

Methodology: In their study, C. Matong and T. P. Agrawal explored the influence of fly ash
on compressive strength, durability, and shrinkage of concrete. Fly ash, a by-product of coal
combustion, is commonly used as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete
production due to its pozzolanic properties and potential for enhancing various concrete
properties. Matong and Agrawal's study builds upon existing literature on the utilization of fly
ash in concrete and its effects on compressive strength, durability, and shrinkage. Previous
research suggests that incorporating fly ash can improve concrete properties such as
compressive strength, durability against environmental factors, and reduction of shrinkage.
However, the specific impact of fly ash may vary depending on factors such as fly ash content,
cement type, curing conditions, and mix proportions.

Results: The authors conducted experimental studies to investigate the impact of fly ash on
concrete properties. They evaluated parameters such as compressive strength, durability
against chloride penetration and sulfate attack, and shrinkage of concrete mixtures containing
varying proportions of fly ash. The findings indicated that including fly ash improved concrete
properties up to a certain replacement percentage in all grades of Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC), suggesting its potential as a beneficial supplementary material in concrete production.

Conclusion: In conclusion, Matong and Agrawal's study contributes valuable insights into the
impact of fly ash on concrete properties. The research highlights the potential of fly ash as an
effective supplementary material in enhancing compressive strength, durability, and reducing
shrinkage of concrete. By optimizing mix designs and incorporating fly ash in appropriate
proportions, concrete producers can achieve improved performance and sustainability in
concrete structures. Further research and experimentation are recommended to determine the
optimal fly ash content and its effects on various concrete properties under different conditions.

3.8 Strength Properties of Roller Compacted Concrete Containing GGBS as

Partial Replacement of Cement

Authors: Sorabh Saluja et al. (March, 2019)

Objectives:

• Assess the influence of varying proportions of GGBS on the compressive strength,

flexural strength, and tensile strength of RCC.

20
 • Analyze the durability-related properties of RCC with GGBS, including resistance to
abrasion, permeability, and freeze-thaw durability.

Methodology: In their study, Saurabh Saluja, Bishwajit Bhattacharjee and Shweta Goyal
investigated the strength properties of roller compacted concrete (RCC) incorporating ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) as a partial replacement of cement. GGBS is a by-product
of the iron and steel industry, known for its pozzolanic properties and potential to enhance
concrete properties. Their study builds upon existing literature on the use of GGBS in concrete
and its effects on strength properties. Previous research suggests that incorporating GGBS in
concrete mixtures can improve compressive strength, flexural strength, and durability. GGBS
is known to enhance the hydration process, reduce heat of hydration, and increase long-term
strength of concrete. However, the specific impact of GGBS on strength properties may vary
depending on factors such as GGBS content, mix proportions, curing conditions, and aggregate
type.

Materials used for the experiment

• OPC satisfying BIS: 8112 – 1989

• GGBS as binders (slag activity index 1.73)
• Coarse aggregate of 2 sizes

Table 3.2 Specific Gravity of different aggregates

Size Specific Gravity Water absorption

10 mm 2.65 1.4

20mm 2.63 1.38

Propagating of aggregate

• Fine aggregate – 55%

• 20 mm coarse aggregate – 15%
• 10 mm coarse aggregate- 30%

Two sample prepared

• 150*300 mm cylinders for determination of compressive and split tensile.

• 150*150*700mm prism for flexural strength.

21
Four mix designation prepared:

Table 3.3 Percentage of GGBS used for various mixes

G10 0% GGBS

G20 20%AGGBS

G40 40% GGBS

G60 60%GGBS

Results: The authors conducted experimental studies to investigate the strength properties of
RCC containing GGBS. They evaluated parameters such as compressive strength, flexural
strength, and splitting tensile strength of concrete mixtures with varying proportions of GGBS.
The findings indicated that incorporating GGBS as a partial replacement of cement in RCC led
to improvements in compressive strength, flexural strength, and splitting tensile strength.
However, the extent of improvement depended on the GGBS content and curing conditions.

• Early age of HFRCC was poor, while long curing age strength was good.
• Drax (Class F) fly ash gives 8.4% higher compressive strength than normal Portland
cement when 50% replacement is done.
• Aber thaw (Class F) fly ash gives lower compressive strength at both 50% and 70%
replacement.

Optimum moisture content:

Table 3.4 Shows optimum moisture content of the experiment

GS 0 5.833%

GS 20 6.310%

GS 40 6.393%

GS 60 6.644%

Compressive strength- 27.6 Mpa at 28 days of curing.

Split tensile strength- Ranges between 2.8 to 4.1 Mpa.

Flexural tensile strength- Flexural strength gain from 28 days to 365 days in mix GS 0, GS20,
GS40, GS60 WAS 23.84%, 43.18%, and 41.20% respectively.

22
Conclusion: In conclusion, Saluja and Goyal's study provides valuable insights into the
strength properties of RCC containing GGBS as a partial replacement of cement. The research
highlights the potential of GGBS to enhance the strength performance of RCC, thereby
improving its suitability for various applications such as pavements, dams, and other
infrastructure projects. By optimizing mix designs and incorporating GGBS in appropriate
proportions, engineers and construction professionals can achieve improved strength properties
and durability in RCC structures. Further research and experimentation are recommended to
explore the full potential of GGBS in enhancing the performance of RCC and advancing
sustainable construction practices.

• RCC designed by compaction approach leads to minimum voids in mix with maximum
density, which ultimately reduces cement and water requirement.
• Addition of GBBS into mix increases the water requirement to obtain a zero-slump
concrete.
• Optimum water content of RCC mixture decreases with the increases in maximum dry
density.

3.9 Experimental Investigation on Silica Fume as Partial Replacement of Cement in High

Performance Concrete

Authors: T. Shanmugapriya & Dr. R.N. Uma (5, June, 2013)

Objectives:

• Analyze the influence of silica fume on the microstructure and durability of HPC,
including resistance to chloride ingress, sulfate attack, and carbonation.
• Determine the feasibility and potential advantages of incorporating silica fume in HPC
production for enhancing performance and sustainability in construction applications.

Methodology: The Experimental Program was designed to compare the mechanical properties
of High-Performance Concrete with M60 grade of concrete with different replacement levels
of ordinary Portland cement 53 grade with silica fume. The replacement levels of cement by
silica fume are selected as 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10%, and12.5%. The specimens of Cubes
specimen of size 150 x 150 x 150 mm, Cylinder specimen of size 150 mm diameter and 300
mm height and Beam specimen of size 100 x100 x 500 mm were prepared with and without
silica fume.

Materials used for the experiment:

• OPC 53 grade
• Silica fume (Grade 920D)
• Fine aggregate
• Coarse aggregate of maximum size 12.5mm

23
 • Superplasticizer-CONPLAST SP 430

Table 3.5 Shows samples prepared for Mix proportioning for high performance
concrete

Silica Silica Fine Coarse

Cement Cement W/B
Materials Fume Fume aggregate aggregate
(%) (kg/m3) Ratio
(%) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
C 100 0 551.87 - 672 1149.8
SF 2.5% 97.5 2.5 532.35 13.8 672 1149.8
SF 5% 95 5 512.51 27.59 672 1149.8
SF 7.5% 92.5 7.5 492.66 41.39 672 1149.8 0.32
SF 10% 90 10 472.5 55.19 672 1149.8
SF 12.5% 87.5 12.5 453.6 68.98 672 1149.8

Specimens were tested for 7, 14 and 28 days with each proportion of silica fume replacement.
After this specimen were tested for its compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural
strength as Indian Standard.

Result: Cubes were tested on 7th, 14th and 28th day on compression testing machine with
capacity of 2000 KN.

• Compressive strength of concrete:

Figure 3.1 Compressive strength of HPC with various proportions of silica

fume

24
 • Split Tensile Strength of Concrete

Figure 3.2 Split tensile strength of HPC with various proportion of silica
fume

Conclusion: High performance concrete produced from cement replacement upto 7.5% silica
fume leads to increase in compressive strength, split tensile and Flexure strength of concrete.
Beyond 7.5 %there is a decrease in compressive strength, split tensile and Flexure strength of
concrete. The compressive strength mainly depends on the percentage of silica fume because
of its high pozzolanic nature to form more densely packed C-S-H gel. High Performance
Concrete with silica fume can be effectively used in high rise buildings since high early strength
is required, and the construction period can be reduced. The percentage of increase in the
compressive strength is 15%, Split tensile strength is 20% and the flexure strength is 23% at
the age of 28 days by replacing 7.5% of cement by silica fume. The optimum percentage of
replacement of cement by silica fume is7.5%.

3.10 The Hydration and Microstructure of Ultra High-Strength Concrete with

Cement-SilicaFume-Slag Binder

Authors: Shi et al. (16, May 2016)

Objectives:

• Analyze the influence of varying proportions of silica fume and slag on the hydration
kinetics, hydration products, and microstructure evolution of UHSC.
• Evaluate the mechanical properties, including compressive strength and durability, of
UHSC with the cement-silica fume-slag binder.
• Determine the feasibility and potential benefits of utilizing the cement-silica fume-slag
binder in UHSC production for achieving superior performance and sustainability.

25
Methodology: Specimens were prepared using silica fume, natural quartz as aggregate

Material used:

• Portland cement
• Silica fume
• Natural Quartz sand

Mix proportion, specimen preparation and curing:

The mixing proportion of UHSC was: binder materials: sand: water: superplasticizer
= 1:1:0.16:0.02 by mass. The binder com- position of UHSC was designed using
factorial design method. Initially dry materials (cement, silica fume, slag and natural
quartz sand) were mixed using a high-speed mixer for 1 min. Water and
superplasticizer were added and mixed for about 3 min at a low speed, and then mixed
for about 8 min at a high speed until the mixtures were uniform. When UHPC mixture
was ready, it was casted into 40 × 40 × 160 mm and U10 × 150 mm cylinder molds
by two layers, and were vibrated 60 times at each layer to consolidate the mixtures.
The specimens with moulds were kept in a room at about 20 °C for 24 h. The cast
moulds were covered by plastic sheets until demolding to prevent moisture losing.
After demolding, specimens were cured in calcium hydroxide saturated solution at 20
°C until testing ages.

Result: The flowability, compressive strength, porosity and Ca (OH)2 contents of

UHSC are summarized in table given below. The results are plotted and discussed in
detail in the following sections

Figure 3.3 Flowability, compressive strength, porosity and Ca (OH)2 contents of UHSC

Results:

• Silica fume could improve the flowability of UHSC, but the silica fume content should
be in an appropriate range. When the silica fume content increased from 0% to 22%,
the flowability of UHSC increased from 110 mm to 195 mm.

26
 • Silica fume altered the hydration after the induction period and reduced the rate of
accelerated hydration. The rate of hydration heat of the mixture with 15% silica fume
surpassed that with Portland cement. When the silica fume content increased from 0%
to 15%, the accelerated hydration decreased from 7.23 h to 4.77 h.
• Silica fume increased the compressive strength of UHSC but the content should not
exceed 25%. When the silica fume content increased from 0% to 15%, the 56d
compressive strength of UHSC increased from 108 MPa to 125 MPa. The slag reduced
the early strength of UHSC.
• The porosity of UHSC decreased with the increase of silica fume content due to the
filling and pozzolanic effects of silica fume.

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