What is MANET?

A MANET is a decentralized wireless network consisting of mobile devices (nodes) that

communicate with each other without relying on a fixed infrastructure. MANET forms a
highly dynamic autonomous topology with the presence of one or multiple different
transceivers between nodes. MANETs consist of a peer-to-peer, self-forming, self-healing
network MANETs circa 2000-2015 typically communicate at radio frequencies (30MHz-
5GHz). This can be used in road safety, ranging from sensors for the environment, home,
health, disaster rescue operations, air/land/navy defense, weapons, robots, etc.

Characteristics of MANET
 Dynamic Topologies: Network topology which is typically multihop may change
randomly and rapidly with time, it can form unidirectional or bi-directional links.
 Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links: Wireless links usually have lower
reliability, efficiency, stability, and capacity as compared to a wired network
 Autonomous Behavior: Each node can act as a host and router, which shows its
autonomous behavior.
 Energy Constrained Operation: As some or all the nodes rely on batteries or other
exhaustible means for their energy. Mobile nodes are characterized by less memory,
power, and lightweight features.
  Limited Security: Wireless networks are more prone to security threats. A
centralized firewall is absent due to the distributed nature of the operation for security,
routing, and host configuration.
 Less Human Intervention: They require minimum human intervention to configure
the network, therefore they are dynamically autonomous in nature.
Advantages of MANET
 Separation from central network administration.
 Each node can play both the roles ie. of router and host showing autonomous nature.
 Self-configuring and self-healing nodes do not require human intervention.
 Highly scalable and suits the expansion of more network hub.
Disadvantages of MANET
 Resources are limited due to various constraints like noise, interference conditions,
etc.
 Lack of authorization facilities.
 More prone to attacks due to limited physical security.
 High latency i.e. There is a huge delay in the transfer of data between two sleeping
nodes.
Improvement in MANET
 Quality of Service (QoS): Researchers are working to improve the quality of service
of MANET by developing efficient routing protocols that provide better bandwidth,
throughput, and latency.
 Security: To ensure the security of the MANET, researchers are developing efficient
security mechanisms that provide encryption, authentication, and
authorization facilities.
 Power management: To enhance the lifetime of MANET nodes, researchers are
working on developing efficient power management techniques that reduce the energy
consumption of nodes.
 Multimedia support: Researchers are working to provide multimedia support to
MANET by developing efficient routing protocols that can handle multimedia traffic
efficiently.
 Standardization: To ensure the interoperability of different MANET devices,
researchers are working on developing standard protocols and interfaces that can be
used by different MANET devices.
Applications of MANET
  Military and Defense Operations
 Healthcare
 Sensor Networks
 Wireless Sensor Networks
 Internet of Things (IoT)
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), is an infrastructure-less wireless network that is deployed
in a large number of wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is used to monitor the system,
physical, or environmental conditions.

Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that manages and monitors the
environment in a particular area. They are connected to the Base Station which acts as a
processing unit in the WSN System. The base Station in a WSN System is connected through
the Internet to share data. WSN can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of
the data.

Wireless Sensor Network Architecture

A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) architecture is structured into three main layers:
 Physical Layer: This layer connects sensor nodes to the base station using
technologies like radio waves, infrared, or Bluetooth. It ensures the physical
communication between nodes and the base station.
 Data Link Layer: Responsible for establishing a reliable connection between sensor
nodes and the base station. It uses protocols such as IEEE 802.15.4 to manage data
transmission and ensure efficient communication within the network.
 Application Layer: Enables sensor nodes to communicate specific data to the base
station. It uses protocols like ZigBee to define how data is formatted, transmitted, and
received, supporting various applications such as environmental monitoring or
industrial control.
These layers work together to facilitate the seamless operation and data flow within a
Wireless Sensor Network, enabling efficient monitoring and data collection across diverse
applications.
WSN Network Topologies
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) can be organized into different network topologies based
on their application and network type. Here are the most common types:
 Bus Topology: In a Bus Topology, multiple nodes are connected to a single line or
bus. Data travels along this bus from one node to the next. It's a simple layout often
used in smaller networks.
 StarTopology: Star Topology have a central node, called the master node, which
connects directly to multiple other nodes. Data flows from the master node to the
connected nodes. This topology is efficient for centralized control.
 Tree Topology: Tree Topology arrange nodes in a hierarchical structure resembling a
tree. Data is transmitted from one node to another along the branches of the tree
structure. It's useful for expanding coverage in hierarchical deployments.
 Mesh Topology: Mesh Topology feature nodes interconnected with one another,
forming a mesh-like structure. Data can travel through multiple paths from one node
to another until it reaches its destination. This topology offers robust coverage and
redundancy.
Each topology has its advantages and is chosen based on factors such as coverage area,
scalability, and reliability requirements for the specific WSN application.
Types of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN)
Terrestrial Wireless Sensor Networks
 Used for efficient communication between base stations.
 Consist of thousands of nodes placed in an ad hoc (random) or structured (planned)
manner.
 Nodes may use solar cells for energy efficiency.
 Focus on low energy use and optimal routing for efficiency.
Underground Wireless Sensor Networks
 Nodes are buried underground to monitor underground conditions.
 Require additional sink nodes above ground for data transmission.
 Face challenges like high installation and maintenance costs.
 Limited battery life and difficulty in recharging due to underground setup.
Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks
  Deployed in water environments using sensor nodes and autonomous underwater
vehicles.
 Face challenges like slow data transmission, bandwidth limitations, and signal
attenuation.
 Nodes have restricted and non-rechargeable power sources.
Multimedia Wireless Sensor Networks
 Used to monitor multimedia events such as video, audio, and images.
 Nodes equipped with microphones and cameras for data capture.
 Challenges include high power consumption, large bandwidth requirements, and
complex data processing.
 Designed for efficient wireless data compression and transmission.
Mobile Wireless Sensor Networks (MWSNs)
 Composed of mobile sensor nodes capable of independent movement.
 Offer advantages like increased coverage area, energy efficiency, and channel
capacity compared to static networks.
 Nodes can sense, compute, and communicate while moving in the environment.
Each type of Wireless Sensor Network is tailored to specific environmental conditions and
applications, utilizing different technologies and strategies to achieve efficient data collection
and communication.
Applications of WSN
 Internet of Things (IoT)
 Surveillance and Monitoring for security, threat detection
 Environmental temperature, humidity, and air pressure
 Noise Level of the surrounding
 Medical applications like patient monitoring
 Agriculture
 Landslide Detection
Challenges of WSN
 Quality of Service
 Security Issue
 Energy Efficiency
  Network Throughput
 Performance
 Ability to cope with node failure
 Cross layer optimisation
 Scalability to large scale of deployment
A modern Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) faces several challenges, including:
 Limited power and energy: WSNs are typically composed of battery-powered
sensors that have limited energy resources. This makes it challenging to ensure that
the network can function for long periods of time without the need for frequent
battery replacements.
 Limited processing and storage capabilities: Sensor nodes in a WSN are typically
small and have limited processing and storage capabilities. This makes it difficult to
perform complex tasks or store large amounts of data.
 Heterogeneity: WSNs often consist of a variety of different sensor types and nodes
with different capabilities. This makes it challenging to ensure that the network can
function effectively and efficiently.
 Security: WSNs are vulnerable to various types of attacks, such as eavesdropping,
jamming, and spoofing. Ensuring the security of the network and the data it collects is
a major challenge.
 Scalability: WSNs often need to be able to support a large number of sensor nodes
and handle large amounts of data. Ensuring that the network can scale to meet these
demands is a significant challenge.
 Interference: WSNs are often deployed in environments where there is a lot of
interference from other wireless devices. This can make it difficult to ensure reliable
communication between sensor nodes.
 Reliability: WSNs are often used in critical applications, such as monitoring the
environment or controlling industrial processes. Ensuring that the network is reliable
and able to function correctly in all conditions is a major challenge.
Components of WSN
 Sensors: Sensors in WSN are used to capture the environmental variables and which
is used for data acquisition. Sensor signals are converted into electrical signals.
 Radio Nodes: It is used to receive the data produced by the Sensors and sends it to
the WLAN access point. It consists of a microcontroller, transceiver, external
memory, and power source.
 WLAN Access Point: It receives the data which is sent by the Radio nodes
wirelessly, generally through the internet.
  Evaluation Software: The data received by the WLAN Access Point is processed by
a software called as Evaluation Software for presenting the report to the users for
further processing of the data which can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and
mining of the data.
Advantages
 Low cost: WSNs consist of small, low-cost sensors that are easy to deploy, making
them a cost-effective solution for many applications.
 Wireless communication: WSNs eliminate the need for wired connections, which
can be costly and difficult to install. Wireless communication also enables flexible
deployment and reconfiguration of the network.
 Energy efficiency: WSNs use low-power devices and protocols to conserve energy,
enabling long-term operation without the need for frequent battery replacements.
 Scalability: WSNs can be scaled up or down easily by adding or removing sensors,
making them suitable for a range of applications and environments.
 Real-time monitoring: WSNs enable real-time monitoring of physical phenomena in
the environment, providing timely information for decision making and control.
Disadvantages
 Limited range: The range of wireless communication in WSNs is limited, which can
be a challenge for large-scale deployments or in environments with obstacles that
obstruct radio signals.
 Limited processing power: WSNs use low-power devices, which may have limited
processing power and memory, making it difficult to perform complex computations
or support advanced applications.
 Data security: WSNs are vulnerable to security threats, such as eavesdropping,
tampering, and denial of service attacks, which can compromise the confidentiality,
integrity, and availability of data.
 Interference: Wireless communication in WSNs can be susceptible to interference
from other wireless devices or radio signals, which can degrade the quality of data
transmission.
 Deployment challenges: Deploying WSNs can be challenging due to the need for
proper sensor placement, power management, and network configuration, which can
require significant time and resources.
 while WSNs offer many benefits, they also have limitations and challenges that must
be considered when deploying and using them in real-world applications.
 Adhoc Network Wireless Sensor Network

The medium used in wireless ad-hoc The medium used in wireless sensor networks is radio waves,
networks is radio waves. infrared, and optical media.

Application independent network is used. The application-dependent network is used.

Query-based (data-centric routing) or location-based routing

Hop-to-Hop routing takes place.
takes place.

It is heterogeneous in type. It is homogeneous in type.

The traffic pattern is any-to-any, many-to-one, many-to-few,

The traffic pattern is point-to-point.
and one-to-many.

Wireless router is used as an inter-

Application level gateway is used as an interconnecting device.
connecting device.

The data rate is high. The data rate is low.

Supports common services. Supports specific applications.

Traffic triggering depends on application

Triggered by sensing events.
needs.

IP address is used for addressing. Local unique MAC address or spatial IP is used for addressing.

Network Type Peer-to-Peer Network type Hierarchical or Mesh

Nodes Can be any wireless device Nodes Limited to sensor nodes

Communication Range Variable depends Communication Range Limited by the sensor node's
on node placement transmission power

Communication Range Standard network Communication Range Customized protocols for efficient data
protocols (TCP/IP) transfer and low energy consumption

Data Type General data (voice, video,

Data Type Sensor data (temperature, humidity, light, etc.)
files, etc.)

Power Consumption Can be high due to Power Consumption Designed to minimize energy consumption
constant communication to extend network lifetime

Security Security protocols are critical as sensor data can be

Security protocols can be implemented
sensitive

Applications General wireless Applications Environmental monitoring, industrial automation,

communication home automation, etc.

Deployment Can be deployed in any Deployment Typically deployed in remote or hard-to-reach

environment locations, such as forests, oceans, or industrial sites.
2.3 Enabling Technologies for Wireless Sensor Networks

The building of wireless sensor networks has only become possible with some fundamental
advances in enabling technologies.

2.3.1 Hardware Design : First and foremost among these technologies is the miniaturization
of hardware. Smaller feature sizes in chips have driven down the power consumption of the
basic components of a sensor node to a level that the constructions of WSNs can be
contemplated. This is particularly relevant to microcontrollers and memory chips as such, but
also, the radio modems, responsible for wireless communication, have become much more
energy efficient. Reduced chip size and improved energy efficiency is accompanied by
reduced cost, which is necessary to make redundant deployment of nodes affordable.

2.3.2 Energy Consumption: The sensor nodes consume the power for important three
functional domains such as sensing, communication, and data processing. The sensor node
lifetime typically exhibits a strong dependency on battery life. The constraint most often
associated with sensor network design is that sensor nodes operate with limited energy
budgets. Typically, sensors are powered through batteries, which must be either replaced or
recharged when depleted. For non-rechargeable batteries, a sensor node should be able to
operate until either its mission time has passed or the battery can be replaced. The length of
the mission time depends on the type of application.

A sensor node also has a device for energy scavenging. Energy Scavenging (also known as
power harvesting or energy harvesting or ambient power) is the process by which energy is
derived from external sources (e.g., solar power, thermal energy, wind energy, salinity
gradients, and kinetic energy, also known as ambient energy), captured, and stored for small,
wireless autonomous devices, like those used in wearable electronics and wireless sensor
networks. Such a concept requires the battery to be efficiently chargeable with small amounts
of current, which is not a standard ability.

2.3.3 Software :

Energy is the scarcest resource of WSN nodes, and it determines the lifetime of WSNs.
WSNs may be deployed in large numbers in various environments, including remote and
hostile regions, where ad hoc communications are a key component.

For this reason, algorithms and protocols need to address the following issues:
 Increased lifespan

 Robustness and fault tolerance

 Self-configuration

Lifetime maximization: Energy/Power Consumption of the sensing device should be

minimized and sensor nodes should be energy efficient since their limited energy resource
determines their lifetime. To conserve power, wireless sensor nodes normally power off both
the radio transmitter and the radio receiver when not in use

2.3.4 Routing protocols :Wireless sensor networks are composed of low-energy, small-size,
and low-range unattended sensor nodes. Recently, it has been observed that by periodically
turning on and off the sensing and communication capabilities of sensor nodes, we can
significantly reduce the active time and thus prolong network lifetime.

However, this duty cycling may result in high network latency, routing overhead, and
neighbour discovery delays due to asynchronous sleep and wake-up scheduling. These
limitations call for a countermeasure for duty-cycled wireless sensor networks which should
minimize routing information, routing traffic load, and energy consumption.

2.3.5 Operating systems : Operating systems for wireless sensor network nodes are
typically less complex than general-purpose operating systems.

They more strongly resemble embedded systems, for two reasons. First, wireless sensor
networks are typically deployed with a particular application in mind , rather than as a
general platform. Second, a need for low costs and low power leads most wireless sensor
nodes to have low-power microcontrollers ensuring that mechanisms such as virtual memory
are either unnecessary or too expensive to implement.

ISSUES OF WSN:

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) face several critical issues due to their deployment in
remote environments and the physical limitations of sensor hardware.

1. Energy Consumption & Battery Life

This is widely considered the most fundamental problem in WSNs.

  Limited Power: Nodes are typically battery-powered and often deployed in
inaccessible areas (e.g., battlefields, volcanoes), making battery replacement
impossible.

 High Communication Cost: Wireless transmission consumes significantly more

energy than data processing. Maintaining network longevity requires energy-efficient
protocols like S-MAC or cluster-based routing.

2. Security and Privacy

The open nature of wireless mediums makes WSNs highly vulnerable.

 Common Attacks: Networks face denial-of-service (DoS), eavesdropping, jamming,

and node compromise attacks.

 Key Management: Implementing robust encryption (like AES or ECC) is

challenging because these algorithms often exceed the limited computational and
memory resources of the sensors.

3. Coverage and Connectivity

 Coverage Holes: Gaps in the sensing field can occur due to random deployment or
node failure, leading to incomplete monitoring.

 Signal Attenuation: Obstacles and distance weaken signals, requiring more

transmission power or multihop communication to maintain a connection to the base
station.

4. Scalability and Management

 Network Size: As the number of nodes grows to thousands, managing data traffic
and routing overhead becomes exponentially difficult.

 Dynamic Topology: Nodes may move or fail, requiring the network to be self-
organizing to maintain stable communication paths without human intervention.

5. Hardware & Resource Constraints

 Limited Capabilities: Small sensor nodes have restricted processing power

and minimal storage, which limits their ability to perform complex data fusion or run
advanced software.
  Heterogeneity: Managing a mix of different sensor types (e.g., those with cameras
vs. simple temperature probes) adds complexity to network design.

Challenges of WSN

In spite of their highly practical usefulness there are some challenges in wireless sensor
network system –.

Scalability – There are a vast difference in scale of such sensor networking system as the
number of sensor nodes may vary from few to several. Added to this the deployment density
is correspondingly adjustable.

Energy efficiency – As wireless sensor nodes have to work on a limited power supply, the
designing of the software and the hardware has to be so optimized that it can perform
efficiently the designated job.

Maintenance – WSN has several constraints like power supply, storage, large amount of
algorithms, so there is a serious challenge in maintenance of all these.

Security – Like all internet dependent applications, WSN also has insecurity scare. Proper
data transmission management should be adopted to counter data theft by every possible way.

Quality of service – The data must be provided in time as the real time based applications
heavily dependent on the timely distributed data.