COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

EPS 3201

Meaning of Comparative Education

Naturally, human beings are in the habit of making comparison of the things that are around
them particularly when such things exist in different places. This may be done as a result of
man's desire to know the relationship existing between, or among the things being
compared.
Man may also involve himself in this kind of a business when he wants to choose between
two things before him. The idea of comparison is not peculiar to the people in the business
of education alone. The children at home or anywhere do make comparison between their
parents because one of them may be more loving than the other. The school pupils also make
a comparison of their teachers particularly when the teachers are not with them. The parents
themselves can make a comparison of their children morally and academically.
Comparison can take place wherever we have two or more things at the same time either for
the purpose of having a better understanding of the relationship existing between them or
for the purpose of having a better choice. Like other concepts, comparative education is a
concept that attracts varied interpretations or definitions. In other words, there are as many
definitions as there are many Educational comparativists.
Adeyinka (1994) gives the following definitions of comparative education.
a) A study of two or more education systems.
b) A study of how the philosophy, objectives and aims, policy and practice of education
in other countries influence the general development, policy and practice of education
in a particular country.
c) A study of how the development of education in the past, across the ages and
continents, has influenced the development of education in particular countries.
d) A study of the school systems of two or more countries, and of the administrative
machineries set up to implement or to control the implementation of government
policies at various levels of education systems.
Nicholas Hans, (1958) - defines comparative education as a step-by-step study of different
and often contrasting educational systems with a view of understanding their differences and
similarities.
Comparative Education according to Good (1962) is a field of study dealing with the
comparison of current educational theory and practice in different countries for the purpose
of broadening and deepening understanding of educational problems beyond the boundaries
of one's own country. From the above definitions, the study of Comparative education allows
the person involved to have a better understanding of the system of education outside his
own country.
To Kandel (1957), Comparative Education is the comparison of various philosophies of
education based not only on theories but the actual practices which prevail from this above
definition, Kandel is of the opinion that comparative education goes beyond the comparison
of education philosophies but also includes the comparison of the real education practices.
Perhaps, from the definition, comparative.
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Mallinson (1975) defines the subject as: a systematic examination of other cultures and other
systems of education deriving from those cultures in order to discover resemblances and
differences, and why variant solutions have been attempted (and with what result) to
problems that are often common to all.
Adejumobi (1994) defines the concept as a critical study of educational similarities and
differences prevailing with a particular society or culture or among various societies and
cultures. From the definition given, it is obvious that the idea of comparing educational
systems is not peculiar to countries or societies alone but it can as well take place within a
country or society.
In the same vein, Osokoya (1992) observed that: Comparative Education could be the
comparison of educational theory and practice within a society, state, region and nations.
Scholars could engage in the comparison of educational programmes, theories and practices
even within one society. Therefore, there could be a comparative study of educational
programmes within the local governments of a state, between states of a country and
between countries of a continent.
Alabietal (1998) sees comparative education as; a way of comparing and contrasting
different educational systems at national, infra-national as well as international levels. The
major implications of their definitions are that comparison of educational philosophies,
systems and practices is not peculiar to two cultures or countries alone but it can also be
localized as it has been rightly pointed out by the other scholars in the field.
On the other hand, Awolola (1986) defines the subject as the study of aims and objectives
of education, the curriculum methods of teaching, teacher-student relationships, school
calendar, mode of discipline, design of school buildings, school administration among others
which may be at the international or national levels.
The Scope of Comparative Education
The term "scope" means the area within the limit of a question, subject, action etc. It may
also refer to space or chance for actions or thought.
From the above, scope of comparative education means the area or areas covered by the
discipline. The scope of the subject also connotes the various subjects or disciplines from
where Comparative education draws its information directly or indirectly.
The various definitions of the discipline of Comparative Education reveals that it is an
interdisciplinary subject since it relies on other subjects to be able to accomplish its
objectives. As an interdisciplinary subject, its scope covers the historical development of
education right from the Roman as well as the Greek civilization. It also includes the
historical development of non-formal education in any country of study. The discipline has
its scope extended to the purpose or purposes of education systems of the countries being
studied, an investigation into the similarities as well as differences existing in the educational
practices of the countries under investigation. Subjects from where Comparative Education
draws its contents include the following: (a) History of Education (b) Philosophy of
Education (c) Sociology of Education (d) Anthropology (e) Economics (f) Geography (g)
Psychology (h) Statistics (i) Literature (j) Political geography (k) Political science and (l)
International relations.
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The above explanation clearly shows that the subject is not independent of other subjects; it
is a discipline that relates to other subjects for the accomplishment of its aims and objectives.
It may be reasonably concluded that the interdisciplinary nature of the subject has
contributed to the wideness of the discipline.
There are five perspectives that capture the scope of comparative education. These are;
i) The subject matter and content; this covers the essential components of educational
systems such as structure, aims, content or curriculum, administration, financing, teacher
education.
ii) Geographical units of study; these comprises intra-national, international, regional,
continental and global or world systems studies and analysis.
iii) Ideological scope; this compares countries' educational systems on the basis of different
political, social and economic ideologies. For example, democratic, communism, socialist,
capitalist, free market and mixed economies.
iv) Thematic scope; this scope focuses on educational themes, topical issues or problems
and compares them within one or more geographical units. For example, free primary and
secondary education, universal primary education, education for all and universal higher
education.
v) The historical or spatial scope; this deals with the study of the historical development of
the discipline from the earliest (pre-historic) phase known as the period of Travelers' Tales
to the modern phase known as the period of social science perspectives.

Aims of Comparative Education

As a student of Comparative Education, you will have different aims of studying the
discipline, but the following will help you in keeping focus of the study;
a) To provide a picture or profile of the education systems in various countries or
regions of the world.
b) To enable one come up with a global description and classification of education in
various parts of the world.
c) To determine the relations and aspects in education and society, for example, how
does family size affect education? How does social status affect education? Or what
are the motivations of different social classes to participate in education? Among
other aspects.
d) To distinguish the fundamental elements of educational persistence and change and
relate these with philosophical laws.
e) To facilitate practical reform and planned development of the school system, that is,
improvement of education at home. In order to achieve this aims one requires
establishing the correlation of aims, customs, social norms and the education system.
f) To enable one have a greater understanding of the wider educational process.

To promote the spirit of international understanding and co-operation among those who
study it, by promoting friendship, understanding other people's points of view and appreciate
other people's cultures.

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Comparative education is often incorrectly assumed to exclusively encompass studies that
compare two or more different countries. In fact, since its early days researchers in this field
have often eschewed such approaches, preferring rather to focus on comparisons within a
single country over time.

The practical uses of Comparative Education to teachers and policy makers

1) At its most basic, comparative education offers a starting point for improving our
educational systems and our classroom practices.
2) It also challenges us to think broadly about the link between local practices and global
issues, and to explore the overlapping values and social systems that underpin the
educational enterprise itself.
3) For teachers, an understanding of the comparative education literature helps teachers
reflect on issues of concern in their own classrooms such as diversity, conflict/peace,
teaching approaches, curriculum and classroom organization in a wider global
context and aids learning from the innovations, experiences and practices of other
teachers, schools, countries and regions.
4) More Knowledge: Men study foreign educational systems simply because they want
to know. The foremost justification for the studies in comparative education is
intellectual.
5) More Understanding: By studying foreign educational systems one would be able to
understand one’s own system better.
6) More Comparative Readiness: The study of comparative education helps to develop
‘Comparative Readiness’.
7) More Information: This study is taken up to have encyclopedic information about
educational system and related problems of foreign countries.
8) More Borrowing: The study is taken up for a search for institutional forms and
practices for transplantation. The study is taken up for selective cultural borrowing.
9) More Reform: The study is taken up with a view to reforming one’s own educational
system.
10) Better Leadership: The study aims at developing the ability based on the knowledge
of ends as well as means, to exercise intelligent leadership in educational enterprise.
11) Universal Theories: The study may lead to establishment of general theories which
would have universal application.
12) Enrichment of Education: The study is expected to lead to the enrichment of
education considered as a philosophy, a science and a cultural process.
13) Discovering Differences: The study may enable us to discover the differences in the
forces and causes that produce differences in educational systems.
14) Global View: The study enables us to appreciate educational issues from global
perspectives.
15) Humanitarian Ideals: The study helps us to enhance humanitarian ideals and
practices.
16) Reliable Prediction: The study may enable us to give reliable prediction of the
solutions to the prevalent educational problems.

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 Major Problems Associated with Comparative Education
1. There is cost difficulty of assembling data from foreign sources. Those supposed to
give information may be skeptical of the purpose and use of the data asked for and
may thus give wrong information.
2. Lack of comparability of data collected due to lack of valid scales along which
national units may be gauged.
3. There is the problem of scale. Comparative education deals with a dynamic process.
Education is changing and by the time you wish to compare, the data may be outdated,
something else may be taking place in the country.
4. Differences in political and social organizations make it necessary to exercise caution
when borrowing from abroad. That which appears functional in a given society may
not apply in a different social set up.
5. Borrowing of other educational systems tends to promote dependency on expatriates,
finances, etc.
6. Uncritical borrowing of educational systems brings with it other inherent problems.

7. NB: Things outside the school matter even more than those inside the school.

Problems Associated with Selective Education Borrowing

1. Success in the institutions of one country is no guarantee that similar results will be
realized in another. This is because national institutions are meant to serve the
communities or societies that house them.
2. The cross-national transplants often find a difference and uniqueness in the
nationality and national character that makes cultural borrowing difficult. While the
general principles of education might be common to all nations, efforts must be made
to ensure that there is compatibility between the innovation to be imported and the
entire complex of history, aspiration and institution of the receiving country for such
principle to be viable.

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

There are various methods used in the study of comparative education which have kept on
changing right from the beginning of the discipline and these include;
1. Cross-cultural studies
This refers to similar studies made across many cultures and countries. Such studies do not
give general descriptions of national systems; instead, they pick out a stage of education for
example primary, secondary, vocational, higher education, teacher education and examine
aspects of it in a number of countries.
It can also consider socio-economic problems which arise because of social class
differences. As you may be aware in most countries class differences exist such as the in
various countries.
The major aspect of this approach is to try and establish generalizations which derive from
studying relationships. More so cross-cultural studies are of importance to policy makers
who want a yard stick on which to base their decisions.

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 2. Case Study Approach:
This leads to an in-depth understanding of a particular situation. It might be a study of a
certain level of education, a socio-economic political problem in a given country, or even an
examination of a specific issue in education such as the girl child education.

You have to be aware that such studies are chosen as a result of interest of a person dealing
with an issue or the basis of an issue of concern. It is usually assumed that somebody
carrying out, such a study has a fairly thorough knowledge of the education system of that
country and its social background.
Importance of Case Studies
o Throws light on many situations that exists in society.
o Provides guidelines and background of various policies and systems in education, to
policy makers.
o Gives a holistic view of situations that can be used to improve educational practice
3. Descriptive and Explanatory Approach:
The fundamental task of comparative study entails the collection, classification and array of
data about educational efforts of other nations. The findings are then correlated, tabulated
and published, thus providing a standard against which each nation might measure its
progress or shortcomings. The International Bureau of Education (IBE), UNESCO and
UNICEF have played a leading role in the provision of such data.
4. Historical Approach:
This approach concerns itself with historical explanation and investigations of cultural
traditions connected with education. It aims at studying origins of education policy and
traditions which should enable us to discover the underlying principle that control all nations
systems of education. You need to remember that in using this approach the following
should be taken into consideration;
o Have facts before making judgment drawing conclusion.
o Carefully examine underlying factors in order to understand why.
o Have prior knowledge about the conduct of education in our countries. This will help
you to find out why events occurred when they did and why certain characteristics
occurred in the places they did.
5. Sociological Approach:
This is a social science approach and focuses on the dynamics of an education system and
its relationships with other aspects of society. The emphasis is more placed on the
possibilities of prediction, for example it can involve an analysis of the extent to which
things outside the school may influence things inside the school or how teaching staff or
classes of pupils relate themselves to the system.
o It creates awareness that educational innovation could have under the social
implications for example while analysing social issues.
o It establishes the dynamics of an education system and its relationship with other
aspects of society.

NOTE: This approach aims at formulation of theories that can be applied to educational
issues in all societies and can be a useful instrument to planners and policy makers to predict
outcomes of certain education phenomena.

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 6. The Problem-Solving Approach
A problem-solving approach is a technique people use to better understand the problems
they face and to develop best solutions. They empower people to devise more innovative
solutions by helping them overcome old ways of thinking.
It is an approach in which education problem is identified, the conditions under which it is
found examined, possible solutions thought out and the most likely outcome predicted.

FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE AND AFFECT THE GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION SYSTEMS
Question: What are determinants/factors that help to shape the educational system of a
nation?
It should be noted that each system of education is unique because of certain factors which
influence its growth and development. Usually, these factors act in combination but their
emphasis varies. This variation in emphasis gives each education system its character and
makes each education system behave differently.
The concept of the national system of education refers to the education system that considers
national aspirations and needs when it is structured. Every nation is different from others,
and its development is aligned with various aspects and factors. Hence, it needs a different
education system to be followed.

Every developing nation aspires to create its own identity all around the world. Hence, it
needs a strong national system of education that promotes its image in front of the world.
The following are the various factors that influencing the national systems of education.

National factors of a country are closely related with nationalism and national system of
education. In the study of Comparative Education, we will discuss the factors which make
the education of a country national.
1. Geographical Factors
The various countries of the world have different geographical positions. Therefore, their
modes of living, culture, civilization, social institutions and education systems are also
different. Geography affects every sphere of life and in many ways shapes the lives of a
people.
o The geography of any particular place is often natural, which means that it is
undefined by man. Education system is influenced by the geography of the particular
region. The geography of a particular area dictates the type of building and
equipment, means and methods of transporting children to school, school going age
of pupils among others.
o Three major geographical aspect of climatic conditions, population distribution and
land configuration.
o In regard to Climatic Conditions, they influence the system of education in terms of
content of education depend on the continental climate, training of doctors in the
tropics is likely to emphasize more on tropical disease like malaria. Extreme low
temperatures in Continental Europe, affects accessibility to school by young children.
In Norway, for example, the sun does not rise during winter until ten o'clock in the
morning and often temperatures fall to negative 20 degrees. Thus, in the Scandinavian

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 countries there are no infant schools or early childhood education departments in
some schools because of extreme temperatures.
o In regard to Population Distribution, which is often as a result of geographical
influence also affects the educational system; worldwide, population is either
concentrated in the urban centres, or scattered in the country side having two systems
of education, that is, one for the urban areas and the other for rural areas.
o In regard to Land Configuration, this also influences the education system in terms
of architectural structure of farm houses, school buildings, village location and also
the whole way of life and thinking of people. By and large land configuration
determines settlement and location of schools.
2. Economic Factors
The type of education largely depends on the economic strength of any country, it
determines the content & method of an education system. Formal education is often possible
where production exceeds consumption.
o From an economic perspective, expenditure on education refers to the amount or
%age of national revenue spent on education by both individuals and the govt.
o If the economic condition is poor, education becomes backward in many aspects
while if the economy of a country is strong, then educational aims & the curriculum
are given a special direction for making the country prosperous.
o Examples of Britain, France, Japan and the USA, enough grant allocation and enough
funds are allocated to support education.
o The case of developing countries, very scarce funds, which affect even payment of
teachers’ salaries, essential resource materials. This greatly affects the nature of the
systems of education in terms of the content and methods in learning institutions and
in essence the whole system of education.
3. The Social & Cultural Factors
Schools at large often and closely reflect the social patterns prevailing in a particular
country. Education system is usually seen as a social factor which must reflect the
philosophy of the people that it serves.
o The prime aim of education is to ensure cultural continuity through fostering the
growth and development of national characteristics that often act as stabilizing forces.
A culture of a society is the total way of life of the society.
o Every society consist of human beings and in whatever state they find themselves
they always have some kind of educational system. This form of education of the
society always strives to effect and protect its traditions and aspirations.
o A close study and analysis of each education system always reveal the cultural
concept and pattern of the community. Also, the social patterns of the people in any
particular community or country are reflected in its system of education.
o The culture of the people often changes at a slow pace. In each culture, there are
certain values which are not affected by time and place, for example, faith in God,
love for truth and non-violence and the ideal of universal motherhood and justice are
the permanent values of many cultures of the world. However, radical reforms in a
society may be slowed down or blocked at the level of implementation because of the
cultural lag.

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 o Another view of cultural & social change is in the reshaping of the educational
machinery to make for equality of educational opportunity for all. This has led to
widening of school curriculum and increased emphasis on the importance of right
kind of technical education for new technological age.
4. The Historical Factor
Each country of the world has its own history that shapes the national aims, aspirations,
activities and destiny, often reflected through the educational system.
o Colonialism has been an important historical factor that can be said to have shaped
the education system of many countries in the world.
o The missionary factor also contributed a great deal in shaping the system of education
in most countries.
o Christian missionaries in particular from Britain, France, Holland, Germany,
Switzerland, US largely influenced the development education system in Africa.
o The present systems of education in many countries of Africa, Asia, North and South
America are actual products of past colonial influence.
o Similarities and differences of education systems all over the world have a history
behind them.
5. Political Factors
Throughout history the kind and amount of education given has depended on the waxing or
waning of political outlook or belief.
o If a political party gains power it wants the education system to be consistent with its
ideology. Thus, the government controlled by that political movement or party will
institute programs it feels are necessary for the good of the nation.
o The political philosophy which controls the Govt. of a country often has its inevitable
impact on education.
o The political factor dictates the kind of administration the system of education will
have. They also underlie the features in education system and the functioning of the
same.
o A close relationship between the national character and the national system of
education and the former has been universally accepted as an important basis of
national system of education.
o For example, the national character of USA & Japan is democratic as such its
education system is democratic in most of its aspects.
6. Language Factors
Many languages may be spoken in a country, but only one enjoys the status of a national
language. In every country the national language occupies a special place. Also, every
government tries to ensure that every one acquires the capacity to express himself through
the national language. Without one's own national language, no country can be said to be
strong.
o Language in itself is a symbol of the people. Each community or group has an original
language of its own which often suits its environment and stage of cultural
development. It is through language that individuals become members of a
community and this is important in building the national character.
o Through the native language, the child has the first expression of himself/herself and
the world.
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 o However, in the modern world increasing use of foreign language especially in the
school system. This requires a child before entering school to learn the foreign
language.
o In most cases, before entering school the child acquires proficiency in mother tongue
or native language and in so doing builds up vocabulary covering most of the objects
of sense, impression and daily activities. This means using a different and a foreign
language in school system means applying on this basis a language of ideas expressed
entirely in a foreign medium and this often poses a problem to the learners.
7. Religious Factor:
Religion is one such factor which has influenced education more than any other single factor.
The religion one chooses to follow can determine whether one’s children go to school or
not. For instance, in Zimbabwe some members of the Apostolic Faith sect refuse to allow
their children to go to school at all.
Religious loyalties dictate aims, content and even methods of instruction in education.
Indeed, religion and beliefs have also been known to influence and shape aspects in
education system.
8. Race/Ethnicity:
You need to know the meaning of the words “Race and Ethnicity”. Race refers to any of the
different sub divisions of human beings possessing certain physical (characteristics) traits
e.g. shape of head, skin colour etc. on the other hand, ethnicity in our local term means tribes.
It is quite clear that a country with diverse races and ethnic groups has a problem of equal
distribution of education. For example, South Africa had to give 126 types of education
systems to its races and ethnic groupings during the apartheid era. There was a policy to give
separate education to the whites, the coloured and the blacks.
[Link] Factors
Technological changes cannot also be ignored in education. Technology and especially
modern technology also influence the education system of the country. Historically,
emphasis on industrial and technical education followed the industrial revolution.
Technology affects the type of education as well as the means of instruction.
With the emergence of computer technology, internet technology, this has revolutionised
the whole education system especially in the developed countries. Through information
communication technology, home learning has been made possible. Universities are also
adopting projects like e-learning. Today the influence of technology in education cannot be
ignored. Indeed, the challenge is for the educational administrators and policy makers to see
to it that the right infrastructure is in place in order to allow the use of information
communication technology fully and be able to reap its maximum benefits in the education
system especially in the developing world.

Assignment I
In pairs, examine how the above factors can be minimized with focus on Uganda’s
experience.

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 PERSISTENCE OF DILEMMAS IN EDUCATION
Theoretically, dilemmas are conflicts in which there are multiple, equally viable alternatives,
each of which has advantages and disadvantages.
Other than a problem that can be solved, a dilemma cannot be fully resolved without leaving
some residue. It is not just the prospect of a particular loss, which makes the choice from
different options for action difficult; the dilemma arises from the difficulty of weighing the
consequences of various options, which complicates the choice.
It is important to note that dilemmas are subjective, because the advantages and
disadvantages of a similar option might be identified and valued differently. Hence,
dilemmas require a choice between courses of action, based on considerations of the
perceived values of the advantages and disadvantages of the alternative choices. A dilemma
is basically about handling a situation where there is often no one right way of acting, but
only a way of ‘acting for the best’.
For example, in the process of globalization, although the global wealth continues to grow,
the number of people suffering from hunger is also rising, indicating that hunger is not
caused by food shortages, but caused by unfair distribution of new wealth arising from
global competition and dominant values.
a) Widened gap Between the Rich and the Poor. Inequality is arguably one of the most
pressing current issues in education today and a culmination of all the many
educational dilemmas. Due to the lack of resources both at school and at home in
deprived regions, children from low-income families or with special education needs
are more severely affected by these problems than more affluent students.

The gap between the rich and the poor has been widened sharply, that is, the largest
beneficiary of economic globalization is the rich population, yet most developing
countries are still confronted with poverty, hunger, malnutrition and poor water
quality. Since the globalization is rooted in the free-market economy emphasizing
competition and dominant values, despite the rapid growth of social wealth, the
distribution of wealth between the rich and the poor is seriously imbalanced, and the
reality of “imbalanced development” has broken the fantasy that the poor population
will be the beneficiary of globalization. According to American statistics, 2.8 billion
people are still living in poverty, and more than 20,000 people die every day because
they are too poor to live. The widened gap between the rich and the poor has brought
about intensified social inequality and social unrest.
b) Environmental Disaster. The natural environment is destroyed, and there may be
serious natural disasters in the future. UN World Commission on Environment and
Development, the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg
warned against the sustainable way of life, the globalization has brought an
undeniable reality that the natural environment has been severely and accelerating
destructed. In the face of changes in the environment, the earth's sustainable
repairing, updating and rebalancing ecological capacities are seriously threatened. If
the environment continues to deteriorate, humans will face an environmental disaster
in the uncertain future.

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 c) Increase in urban poor. More than half of the population are now living in an urban
environment for the first time in history. The United Nations estimates a quarter of
the world's population will live in urban slums by 2030. Globalization leads to mass
migration; they will immigrate to other countries with the legitimate, illegal or
refugee status, or enter the country's cities to search for jobs, education, health care
and other social services. The main reason is uneven economic interest distribution
between the urban and rural areas, and the technological development promotes the
transport to realize population mobility within a short time. If the governments fail to
take precautions in housing, drinking water, sewage, public health and safety,
education and other fields, the human beings will face the large-scale outbreak of
tuberculosis, cholera and other diseases, and the social phenomena that cause serious
harm to the society will exacerbate, such as human trafficking, prostitution and drug
trafficking.
d) AIDS Threat. HIV continues to multiply, whose threat to the society is more serious
than its threat to the economic development. HIV reproduction is almost
synchronized with the globalization process and movement of population, and
becomes a major illness of the poor. Its diffusion capacity can be imagined. AIDS
threat to society is more serious than its threat to economic development, which will
lead to a sharp reduction in social race.
e) Conflict of values and Interests. On the one hand, the contradictions between cultures,
between countries, and even civilizations began to highlight; on the other hand,
globalization has led to the development of multicultural society, the world becomes
smaller, and the connections between countries get increasingly closer. With the
deepening of globalization, the connection between people and between countries is
getting closer and more interdependent. As is known to all, the world grows smaller,
exhibiting the features of “Global Village”. With the large population movements,
globalization enables the society to appear unprecedented internal social stratification
and cultural and moral values conflict, such as there is a serious conflict between free
and democratic Western social values and Islamic cultures and its social values.

In the past, all countries cooperate to win the competition, and the present world
coordinates the fundamental goal, values and interests, which have become the major
topic. Unfortunately, in the globalization process, the world does not reach much
consensus on major problems. Even if the consensus on respecting the human dignity
and environmental safety, the human beings have to be at the cost of weaken values,
which is contrary to the direction of our pursuit of more equal and more lasting global
relations.
f) Deterioration in Mental Health of students. Another major dilemma facing education
is the challenge of supporting students’ mental health in a sometimes-stressful
environment. A 2018 survey carried out in the US found that almost two-thirds of
college students experienced anxiety and/or depression within the previous year, and
nearly 57% reported higher-than-average stress levels.
g) Refugees and internally displaced people, now numbering over 70 million, constitute
a global education dilemma. Two-thirds of the people in this group are women and

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 children; host countries, many fragile themselves, struggle to provide access to
education to such people.
h) Rising Student Poverty Levels. Nearly 11 million children live in poverty in the
United States, which makes up almost one-third of all people in financial need. More
than four in ten children live in households struggling to meet basic expenses, and
seven to 11 million children experience regular food insecurity.
i) Teachers find themselves in a dilemma of an overly narrowly descriptive
unprofessionalised environment, sandwiched between a culture of managerialism and
performativity, and a culture of entitlement among students, boldened by the time-
spirit of democratization, individualism, and Human Rights. Such an environment
stifles all autonomy, individuality, ingenuity and creativity, and is extremely
dispiriting for teachers. The new multicultural society puts the teacher before new
demands of Intercultural Education.
j) On the part of students, the first salient dilemma is that of massification of educational
institutions as enrolment numbers at all levels of education are swelling. A second
feature is the increase of diversity among the student group. Thirdly, the emphasis in
education has shifted from teaching to learning. This is due to the rise of modern
learning theories such as constructionism, replacing the behaviouristic models of the
past. Another way to describe this trend is the change from teacher-centred education
to student-centred education.
Solutions/Alternative Way out to the Dilemmas in Education
a) Adoption of education multicultural viewpoint. Multiculturalism involves people
respecting the cultural differences among countries, and emphasizes the diversity of
culture and education. To respect diversity, people must regard “inclusiveness" as an
extremely important common philosophy in the present society. Even if people
cannot accept or agree with the different cultural practices, they should at least be
“inclusive”, yet inclusiveness is conditional. All cultures should accept the legal
status of other cultures, and make it co-exist with its own unique idea.
As long as these ideas and practices conform to the moral appeal of multiculturalism
itself, that is, multiculturalism should not recognize the legitimacy of all cultural ideas
and practices, but instead, they should recognize the culture which is not violating
the multiculturalism itself as well as the culture not violating the principle of fairness.
For example, some cultures might recognize oppression of women, while other
cultures cannot recognize, because it violates the principle of universal
multiculturalism which is not respecting others. Multiculturalism opposes to use any
culture to press other cultures with “cultural hegemony”, which considers that the
universal moral code and educational concept are indeed present, whether this code
and concept are originated from specific cultures and whether they are accepted by
different cultures. The core moral principle of multiculturalism emphasizes respect
of every individual’s right as a person as well as the principles of equality, freedom,
equality of opportunity, judicial fairness and critical thinking cultivation.
b) Curriculum Revision: There is a need to continuously revise the curriculum for
instructional programs in an effort to meet society’s demands for changing the 2lst
century workforce. Determining what these needs are, how to address them, and how
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 to revise the established curriculum is a challenging and critical task. This demand
for change to meet the needs of a 2lst century educational program is challenging
even for the best educational leaders because society's values and needs change over
time. The world has turned into a global village where new ideas and information are
pouring in a constant stream. It is, therefore, imperative to update our curricula by
introducing the recent developments in the relevant fields of knowledge. However,
the curriculum should be revised on regular basis to keep the students updated with
the current affairs. Sticking to the conventional curriculum will not produce hybrid
results.
c) Autonomous Structure: Some nations are innovative in their quest for the optimal
school structure, while others pursue policies with little deviation from the orthodox
model of the local or community school. Research suggests that moving to a more
autonomous school structure generates a significant improvement in the quality of
their pupil intake and a significant improvement in pupil performance. A successful
system supports an autonomous structure for the schools to freely decide their
framework and resources required to meet the same.
d) Improving standards: The policies and programs in the education structure should be
developed to aim higher achievement standards and goals. Standards are formal
documents that establish uniform education criteria, methods, processes, and
practices developed through an accredited consensus process. Standards should be
developed based on guiding principles of openness, balance, consensus, and due
process and should be duly established in order to meet technical, safety, regulatory,
societal, and market needs and should also be catalysts for technological innovation
and global market competition.
e) Developing a non-bias education system. Governments should come up with
initiatives to come up with innovations that will discourage any form of
discrimination. Education systems must strive to attain a global village where we are
not separated by our race, gender or religion in learning. These processes can be in
the form of an interactive diversity talk show where we organize conversations and
discussions in a thoughtful way to discourage discrimination. If this is implemented,
it will help to solve discrimination, bias, stereotype, and assumptions hindering
provision of effective education by promoting good environment for learning.
f) Educating the poor. To make education thoroughly inclusive, it must not be
restrictive. Innovative and well-themed student organizations should be encouraged
to serve as a platform for students (youth) to volunteer and take part in rural
education. These projects will help teachers in rural areas to design a student-centred
course around problem-solving.
g) Building partnerships with non-state actors. A very important innovative approach is
a partnership which is critical for improving educational capacity. Partnership
encourages governments to fulfill education promised benefits in the ecosystem to
meet the challenges ahead. With relaxed regulations and effective partnerships, non-
governmental organizations, businesses, and employers can work closely to build an
outstanding learning generation.
h) Building a flexible curricula system. Open online courses should be supported in
order to facilitate learning so as to enhance approaches to skills acquisition. In order
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 to match the diversity of flexible learning opportunities, there is need to encourage
online learning. This includes computer-aided learning that will make it possible to
factor in cultural differences and learning paces into modes of technological
educational delivery.

In conclusion, in order to overcome education dilemmas, there is need to have well-taught

humans who can always think of solutions. Challenges may abound but a very good
approach will enhance education.

Persistence Dilemmas Faced in the Teaching Practice

The following are some of the dilemmas teachers face:
1. Caring climate versus formal climate. This category focuses on the teacher pupil
interaction whereby the teacher’s dilemma lies in choosing between personal needs
and obeying school rules; each of the five subcategories is a different response to the
same type of dilemma. The first example is one of six critical incidents in the
subcategory “be more familiar with the rules before action” in which the teacher’s
response was a resolve to be more familiar with the rules before deciding on an action
in the future, especially regarding issues that may be seen as taking care of personal
affairs.
2. Confidentiality versus school rules. This category depicts the dilemma between a
teacher’s desire to be discreet and the obligation to obey school rules. Teachers’
works often includes confidentiality issues. When pupils confide in a teacher, they
create a dilemma for the teacher whether to betray that trust or not.
3. Loyalty to colleagues versus school norms. Relationships between colleagues and
pupils and relationships among colleagues are the topic of this category. Two
examples will illustrate the topic. The first example is one of four critical incidents
in the subcategory “take colleagues’ interest into consideration”. The teacher
witnessed a colleague (her principal) treating a pupil unfairly, but didn’t confront her.
4. Distributive justice versus school standards. Here the focus is on teachers’
perceptions of tension between distributive justice (rewards appropriate for effort)
and school standards which follow clear criteria regarding decision making at school.
In the following example, a single-item subcategory, the teacher was unhappy with
the school criteria and vowed that in the future, he would “follow his conscience”
5. Family agenda versus educational standards. Teachers are often physically close to
their pupils and notice emotional problems. They wish to act professionally according
to educational standards and help the pupil, but are reluctant to do so out of respect
for family beliefs. The first example is one of two critical incidents in the subcategory
“do not let parents undermine your professional autonomy”, a subcategory
characterised by a sense of failed responsibility towards a pupil and a problematic
situation regarding teachers’ professional autonomy. It describes a clash between a
teacher’s desire to make a professional decision and family norms, with which
teachers do not always agree. In this incident the teacher bent under the parents’
pressure.

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 Teachers’ Persistence Dilemmas and Alternative Ways Out/ Solutions

Among some of the studies examining teachers’ strategies to cope with dilemmas, Helton
and Ray (2006) focused on the strategies practicing teachers would employ to overcome
ethical dilemmas. The study revealed four strategies as “preventing dilemmas from
occurring;
1) Educating and/or threatening others;
2) Involving others in solutions; and combining strategies.
3) Sharing dilemmas with trusted others
4) Having institutional structures in schools, and
5) Educating colleagues about specific issues.
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN EDUCATION
The word contemporary means modern, current, present-day or existing issues. In this
context, Contemporary issues in Education refer to the various events, policies and
developments of an educational nature which exist in the modern world. Most of these are
influenced by the changes and initiatives caused by modern trends and innovations in
Education, Science and Technology, the spread and Influence of Information and
Communication Technologies, among others.

At the same time, many societies, like those in Africa, experience widespread poverty,
inadequate funding and facilitation in education, health, infrastructure and other related
issues. Similarly, civil strife, political turbulence and socio-cultural issues also impact
strongly the modern world.

In the area of education, the above phenomena influence elements of access, quality, equity
and relevance in education. Using your country as an example, ask yourself the following
questions:
1. What are the major challenges that face the education system in my country at the
moment?

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 2. Is there equal distribution of educational opportunities for everybody regardless of
one’s social, economic or political status (whether poor or well to do, young or old,
female or male, rural or urban, etc.)? Why?
3. What can be done to improve access and quality of the existing education system?
4. How are these issues being addressed in the country?
5. Are there any successes or failures? Why? etc.
Note that the answers to the above questions vary from one country to another and, change
as time goes by. This variation is also reflected in the Contemporary Issues in Education.
Indeed, they are diverse in terms of causes, magnitude, impact and other dynamics.
However, there are a number of current issues that are of critical concern to the world in
general and Africa in particular.

The following are some of the Contemporary Issues in Education that are of critical concern
to your country, to the African Continent as a whole and elsewhere in the world in this 21st
century:
o Technology in Education. The educational methods of the 21st century has made
easier for the teachers to impart knowledge, as well as recognize their students’
potential. On the other hand, the students’ learning itself is hugely facilitated through
the use of audio-visual and interactive software and gadgets. This strategic synergy
of technology and teaching is has opened up new possibilities in education.
Education technology constitutes the foundation of contemporary development and
advancement of students. Encountering gadgets, programming and modern means of
communication at an early age has made it much easier to adopt new standards and
methods of work later. For example; video conferencing cameras, video meeting
apps, learning management platforms, Gaming apps etc.
o The dilemma of relating the curriculum to regional manpower needs and the region’s
economy. This is a glaring fact that education in Africa generally has not been
adapted to the needs and aspirations of the people. Education in most African
countries, like Nigeria, Cameroun, Senegal, Gambia, Mali, Uganda etc is still too
literary, not practical, not adapted to the needs of a developing agricultural nation.
o Low literacy and Numeracy rates. Many of the learners in the African region lack
proper foundations in literacy and numeracy. This has served as a stop-watch for
African learners in their struggles to progress in the education system and even into
post-school education and training. Studies have shown that in some African
countries, there is too much low level of literacy and numeracy. In fact, without a
secured foundation of literacy and numeracy, the learners will never obtain the high-
level skills needed by any nation to address issues of poverty and inequality for
development and growth. In Africa therefore, only 30% of the population are literate
enough and this dilemma can never lead us to the realization of our dream of progress.
o Conflict is the key issue especially in the Middle East. For example, students in Syria
are being described as the “lost generation” due to the impact of possible years of lost
schooling. Many of these students are now refugees and have moved to neighbouring
countries and other nations.
o Quality of Teachers. The low quality of the teaching personnel constitutes a serious
dilemma in the quest for sound education in Africa. It is a truism that the educator

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 must first be educated if the visions of the region are to be realized. The unqualified
teacher is therefore a problem, because he lacks the power to carry those, he is
teaching beyond much of what they already know. Knowing little more than the
learners, he cannot discern relationships or give varied interpretations of a concept
out of which greater understanding can be derived.
Accordingly, teaching becomes dry and mechanical, a situation which limits students
grasp of content and consequently application, so vital for purposes of transforming
society. Teachers’ quality is affected also by teachers’ conditions in most African
countries in terms of management benefits and professional support are poor and
teacher motivation and performance is low. This situation has been detrimental to the
quality of basic education in some countries e.g. Cameroun, Nigeria, Botswana,
Togo, Niger, etc.
o There is also an issue around violence particularly towards girls and parents do not
feel safe sending their children to school.
o Inadequate Classroom Accommodation. In Africa, you find a situation where
majority of students at secondary and tertiary level is without enough classroom
accommodation and seating arrangement grossly inadequate. As a result of the large
enrolments in schools in this region, the classroom and lecture halls are overcrowded.
You find a situation where one hundred students at the secondary level and tertiary
institution, one thousand, five hundred and above receiving lectures. In most cases
the chairs and desks are not enough, you see students standing, sitting on broken
desks. When students are overcrowded like this, there is a stalling of the teaching-
learning process and a disruption of the children mental activity, a situation that
generally militates against effective teaching and intellectual development of the
learner.
o Inadequate education Statistics. The quality of research-based data in Africa is
extremely low compared to that of the developed countries and most of the
educational policies do not have such imperial-based support. Well managed and
responsive statistical information services are essential to viable policy formulation
and efficient investment in education.
o In Latin America: Two major issues were identified by Deutsche Well in Latin
America, namely the failure of the public education system due to low government
expenditure in this area and the fact that for young people, education appears to
provide little benefit, due to limited economic opportunities for work upon
completion. This ‘lack of hope and optimism often leads to a life of crime as it appears
to be a more lucrative option and gang violence is a major issue especially in Central
America according to the United Nations.
o Low enrolment of females in schools. Several millions, according to Brenda (2012)
remarked that, approximately 30 million African girls are out of school either because
they have never enrolled in school or because they have dropped out of the education
system. Access to school for girls in some African countries is not guaranteed because
of discriminatory practices against girls. This is due to some social and cultural
practices that stand on the ways of girls’ education. Some parents have not seen the
benefits of girls’ education. Women education promotes a shared responsibility for

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 the training of children, for social improvement, low regard attached to women
education constitutes a dilemma in Africa.
o In Asia there is also an increasing focus on rural education in with literacy and
numeracy rates far lower in these areas. The other area of concern according to
UNICEF (2012), was children living in urban slums: 18% of children in slums
attended secondary school, 53% of children in Urban areas as a whole attended
secondary school and 48% of children in rural areas attended secondary school. This
disparity was also noted in other regions of India, Myanmar and generally throughout
the Asian region. Other concerns were cited by the Asia Foundation who noted that
girls drop out from schooling sooner than boys and there is a strong reliance on rote
learning as a methodology for teaching.
o Funding Constraints. The gross under-funding of the educational sector in some
African countries is another dilemma facing the region. A good picture of the
educational dilemma can be seen in the neglect of the maintenance of the physical
facilities, instructional and learning conditions have deteriorated in many schools,
classrooms, libraries, and laboratories are nothing to write about. Africa’s education
system is poorly resourced, the difficulties ranging from the lack of basic school
infrastructure to poor-quality instruction. According to the Learning Barometer of the
Brookings Institution, a US-based think tank, up to 50% of the students in some
countries are not learning effectively.
o Increase in enrolment. Africa’s current primary school enrolment rate is above 80%
on average, with the continent recording some of the biggest increases in elementary
school enrolment globally in the last few decades, according to the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), which is tasked with
coordinating international cooperation in education, science, culture and
communication. More children in Africa are going to school than ever before.
o Inequalities and inefficiencies remain a critical issue in the education sector. Despite
the successes in primary school enrolment, according to the African Union (AU), the
recent expansion in enrolments “masks huge disparities and system dysfunctionalities
and inefficiencies” in education subsectors such as pre-primary, technical, vocational
and informal education, which are severely underdeveloped. It is widely accepted
that most of Africa’s education and training programs suffer from low-quality
teaching and learning, as well as inequalities and exclusion at all levels. Even with a
substantial increase in the number of children with access to basic education, a large
number still remain out of school.
o A newly released report by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),
Income Inequality Trends in sub-Saharan Africa: Divergence, Determinants and
Consequences, identifies the unequal distribution of essential facilities, such as
schools, as one the drivers of wide income disparities.
o Another issue facing policy makers and pedagogues is low secondary and tertiary
enrolment. While Africa has made significant advances in closing the gap in primary-
level enrolments, both secondary and tertiary enrolments lag behind. Only four out
of every 100 children in Africa are expected to enter a graduate and postgraduate
institution, compared to 36 out of 100 in Latin America and 14 out of 100 in South
and West Asia.
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 In fact, only 30 to 50% of secondary-school-aged children are attending school, while
only 7 to 23% of tertiary-school-aged youth are enrolled. This varies by subregion,
with the lowest levels being in Central and Eastern Africa and the highest enrolment
levels in Southern and North Africa.
The low transition from primary to secondary and tertiary education is attributed to:
limited household incomes, which limit children’s access to education and lack of
government investment to create equal access to education also plays a part.
o Another barrier to advancing from primary to secondary education is the inability of
national institutions in Africa to ensure equity across geographical and gender
boundaries. Disabled children are particularly disadvantaged. Often in Africa,
decisions to educate children are made within the context of discriminatory social
institutions and cultural norms that may prevent young girls or boys from attending
school.
o Regarding gender equality in education, large gaps exist in access, learning
achievement and advanced studies, most often at the expense of girls, although in
some regions boys may be the ones at a disadvantage.
o High dropout rates among the girls. More girls than boys remain out of school in sub-
Saharan Africa, where a girl can expect to receive only about nine years of schooling
while boys can expect 10 years (including some time spent repeating classes). More
girls than boys drop out of school before completing secondary or tertiary education
in Africa. Globally, women account for two-thirds of the 750 million adults without
basic literacy skills.
o Poor learning outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa. Despite upward trend in average
learning achievements. Many children who are currently in school will not learn
enough to acquire the basic skills needed to lead successful and productive lives.
Some will leave school without a basic grasp of reading and mathematics.

OVERCOMING THE CURRENT ISSUES IN EDUCATION

1. African governments should promote and ensure sound policies for inclusive growth,
the eradication of poverty and exclusion, increased investment in education and
human development, and good governance to ensure a fairer distribution of assets.
2. Countries should start to build and upgrade education facilities and provide safe, non-
violent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all.
3. The AU, keeping in mind that the continent’s population is rapidly growing, should
seek through its Continental Education Strategy for Africa 2016-2025 to expand
access not just to quality education, but also to education that is relevant to the needs
of the continent. Governments must address the need for good education and
appropriate skills training to stem rising unemployment.
4. Institutions of higher learning in Africa need to review and diversify their systems of
education and expand the level of skills to make themselves relevant to the demands
of the labour market.
Institutions of higher learning are churning out thousands of graduates each year that
cannot find jobs because the education systems are traditionally focused on preparing
graduates for white-collar jobs, with little regard to the demands of the private sector,
for innovation or entrepreneurship.

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 5. Ensure access to early childhood development programmes, especially for children
from disadvantaged backgrounds to help reduce inequality by ensuring that all
children begin formal schooling with strong education foundations.
6. Development partners such as UNDP should work to deliver development solutions
for diverse contexts and a range of development priorities, including poverty
eradication, jobs and livelihoods, governance and institutional capacity and disaster
preparedness and management.

Note: Read more about the following and identify other contemporary issues in education:
government funding for education, school safety, disciplinary policies, technology in
education, common core in subjects, standardized testing, teacher salaries, classroom size,
poverty, family factors, bullying, student attitudes and behaviors and parent involvement in
education etc.
COMPARATIVE EDUCATION REFORMS
The term ‘reform’ can be used in a variety of ways. It may mean to put or change into an
improved form or condition. It may also mean to amend or improve by change of form or
removal of faults or abuses or to put an end to (an evil) by enforcing or introducing a better
method or course of action.

The term education reform refers to the chronology of significant, systematic revisions made
to amend the educational legislation, standards, methodology, and policy affecting a nation's
public school system to reflect the needs and values of contemporary society. Or simply put,
education reform is that which comprises any planned changes in the way a school or school
system functions, from teaching methodologies to administrative processes.

Education reform is the term for the goal of changing public education in terms of
educational theory and practice. It should be noted that, the meaning and education methods
have changed through debates over what content or experiences result in an educated
individual or an educated society. Historically, the motivations for reform have not reflected
the current needs of society. A consistent theme of reform includes the idea that large
systematic changes to educational standards will produce social returns in citizens' health,
wealth, and well-being.

Elements of Educational Reforms

Over the past several decades, developing countries have made remarkable progress in
achieving quantitative education targets. For example, since the turn of the millennium,
almost 50 million children around the world have gained access to basic education and most
are reaching completion. However, available data shows that this is not typically the case
for qualitative improvements in education. A persistent learning gap remains for an
estimated 250 million children who are unable to read and do math, even after spending
three or more years in the classroom. Education systems reforms are needed in many
countries to turn the tide.

The following are the necessary components (referred to as the 6A’s) to achieve educational
reforms:

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 1) Assessment. Benchmarks and comparative-based assessments are the cornerstone of
education planning and reform aiming to improve quality. Countries that are unable
to determine where their education system stands currently will find it difficult to
make improvements or to reach their goals. One example of success in this area can
be found in Jordan, where use of international tests for benchmarking and the use of
feedback loops led to impressive gains.
Assessments used for education reform often are referred to as state-wide or district-
wide assessments because they are designed to measure the status of the education
system for all students. They may also be called large-scale assessments because
large groups of students are tested in a relatively short period of time and under
uniform conditions so that results can be compared across groups of students.
2) Autonomy. This involves empowering schools to determine quality improvement
strategies. This includes giving schools ownership, resources, and voice while
enhancing school competitiveness. Across Australia, Canada, Finland, Japan and
Korea the five OECD countries with both an above-average student performance in
science and a below-average impact of socio-economic background on student
performance – 80% of 15-year-olds are in schools which report competing with one
or more other schools in the area for students. Students in districts with 85% of
schools competing with other schools tend to perform better. Autonomy’s potential
for transforming education systems depends on whether increased autonomy is
accompanied by enhanced accountability mechanisms.
3) Accountability. As mentioned, autonomy and accountability are closely related.
Accountability increases time on task and academic achievement. As decision-
making power is redistributed, local authorities, school principals, teachers, and
students are given new responsibilities for resource deployment and school activities.
In an autonomy-based structure, school principals are held accountable for efficient
use of financial resources.
Likewise, school principals are held accountable to both parents and local authorities
for improving the learning environment and outcomes. An accountability-based
system usually entails a shift of decision-making authority from the government to
the community, which is represented by school governing boards and integrated by
teachers, parents, and community members.
4) Attention to teachers. Studies across the world show that a good teacher is one that
adds value to the learning process and who can be effective in helping students to
improve their learning outcomes. The top-performing school systems recruit their
teachers from the top third of each graduate cohort: top 5% in South Korea, top 10%
in Finland, and top 30% in Singapore and Hong Kong SAR, China. This screening
helps to ensure that teachers possess the skills and knowledge necessary to be
effective educators. Additionally, in-service training helps teachers to maintain those
skills.
5) Attention to early childhood development. Early childhood development (ECD)
may be the most cost-effective educational investment. Empirical evidence
demonstrates that quality ECD interventions increase educational success and adult
productivity, and decrease public expenditures later on. For example a study in
Jamaica found that children, whose mothers were taught ways to promote cognitive,
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 physical, and emotional development during their child’s early years, earned on
average 42% more as young adults compared to children who did not receive these
benefits.
6) Attention to culture. Culture is important and often neglected. The use of the mother
tongue as the language of instruction is one cultural area frequently disputed in many
countries. For some, the topic has political overtones, for others it can be associated
with religious values, and still for others costs are used as an excuse for opposition.
In many countries, a significant number of students do not speak the national
language in the home, which has practical implications for education. Use of mother
tongue as the language of instruction increases attendance and promotion rates, and
lowers repetition and dropout rates. This is because students better learn their national
language by the end of basic education if they first become literate in their mother
tongue.
It should be noted that successful education system reform requires a combination of
institutional factors and structural quality elements. In order to improve the quality
of education, countries must enable a benchmarking system to determine current
learning levels and future learning aims; provide schools and communities with
ownership of their systems; and set up mechanisms to ensure and monitor various
responsibilities, all while supporting teacher quality, promoting the importance of
ECD, and being mindful of context and culture. Policymakers must consider each
aspect of the education system in defining an appropriate reform that will provide an
inclusive and holistic approach to improving education outcomes.

PURPOSE OF EDUCATIONAL REFORMS

The general purpose of comparative educational reforms includes the following:
o To create more equitable learning environments so that all students can learn.
o Historically, public education movements focus on creating an accessible
environment for students to learn so that they contribute to society.
o Education reform is also aimed at addressing inequities including those pertaining to
poverty, gender and class.
o Where educational reform once focused on inputs, it now focuses on outputs, such as
student achievement.
o Evidence-based education guides reform, where scientific studies point to the
methods that are most effective.
o Finally, the purpose of education reform is to prepare students to compete in a global
marketplace as independent consumers and producers.

EDUCATIONAL REFORMS IN UGANDA

Uganda unlike other newly independent countries in sub-Saharan Africa during the 1960s,
did not experience similar educational expansion and the gross primary school enrolment
ratio of around 50% in 1980 was effectively the same as that in 1960. By contrast, other sub-
Saharan African countries for which data are available increased their gross primary school
enrolment ratios from an average of 43.2% in 1960 to 79.5% by 1980.

Following the overthrow of the Amin dictatorship in the mid-1970s, Uganda began to catch
up with the rest of the continent and attained a gross primary enrolment rate of 73% by 1985.
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This was mainly due to the cost of primary education to parents these rates remained
relatively constant until 1995, the period immediately prior to the launch of the GoU’s
Universal Primary Education (UPE) policy.

Many of the post-independence crises in the education system are well articulated in the
Education Policy Review Commission (EPRC) report of 1989, and continue to hamper
progress. High dropout rates, low completion and graduation rates, understaffing, teacher
absenteeism, lack of scholastic materials, inadequate funding, poor infrastructure, and
achievement gaps along geographical location, all contribute to poor educational outcomes
at all levels. The attempts at reform over the past 30 years have aimed at improving access,
equity, and the quality of education in Uganda.

Therefore in 1998 the Government of Uganda (GoU) began implementing an ambitious

programme of educational reform, the Education Strategic Investment Plan (ESIP) (GoU-
MoEs, 1998). It had been sparked off by President Museveni’s election campaign promise
in 1996 to provide free primary education for up to four children in every family.

Four critical factors led to education sector reform and progress in Uganda namely: political
commitment to reform, especially to UPE and decentralisation; facilitative/coordinated
institutional and financial frameworks; a comprehensive approach to UPE (access, quality
and financing); The following are educational reforms in Uganda:
a) Universal Primary Education (UPE) in Uganda
It should be noted that most countries have implemented UPE and this can help Uganda to
learn from them. Historically, after World War II the demand for education grew on the
basis of two arguments; that education is a human right and a form of investment for
economic growth (Holmes, 1965; 221), thus immediately after the war, there was worldwide
pressure to extend educational opportunity as a human right.

You should note that the charter of the United Nations Article 26 of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights maintains that everyone has a right to education. Primary
education should be provided in accordance with an ability of children to benefit from it
rather than on the basis of the parental ability to pay for it. It should be quite clear to you
that the right to learn is today accepted as fundamental human right with Universal
legitimacy. This means that the entire population is entitled to receive education without
discrimination as suggested by Okongo, (1988, 29).

All races, ethnic groups, the trinities to present themselves appropriate levels and types of
education institutions this explains why universal education remains a declared objective in
most countries, Uganda inclusive.

In May 1961, the African Ministers of Education met in Addis Ababa and noted that
education is a fundamental ingredient in social and economic development of their nations
(Report 1984). Therefore, they resolved that basic education should expand gradually so
that by 1990 UPE could be achieved. Later on, in Tomptien (Thailand) March 1990 a world
conference on education for all was convened to draw attention to the importance and impact

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of basic education and to forgo a commitment to provide basic education for all. It is indeed
true that Uganda was a party to the Declaration and the Framework of Action.

The Education Policy Review Commission report of 1989 recommended the need for UPE
and so did the government White paper of 1992. You remember that in May 1996,
Presidential Candidate Y.K. Museveni pledged UPE to four children per family. This pledge
indeed was a response to the various conferences of 1980s to 1990s.

Note: Uganda can be said to have succeeded if quality, access and equity guide the
implementation of UPE and is delivered to the people. Indeed, the success of UPE translates
itself in the performance of education at other levels beyond primary.
b) Universal Secondary Education (USE)
Another form of reform is the USE program. Uganda launched Universal Secondary
Education (USE) reform in 2007, following the ruling National Resistance Movement’s
manifesto of 2006 which promised all children would be able to attend secondary school. At
the time, Uganda’s net enrolment rate at secondary level stood at between just 19.8 and 21.3
percent. To address this, and with funding support from the World Bank, Uganda launched
the USE programme which had the following objectives:
1. Increasing equitable access to universal post primary education and training
Universal Post Primary Education and Training (UPPET);
2. Assuring achievement of the Millennium Development Goal of gender parity in
education delivery by 2015;
3. Enhancing sustainability of the universal primary education (UPE); and
4. Reducing the high costs of UPPET.

To achieve the above, USE had three main modalities:

1. An experiment with double-shifting in Government-aided secondary schools;
2. A programme of construction of Government-aided ‘seed’ secondary schools in sub-
counties without secondary schools;
3. A Public Private Partnership (PPP) with existing private schools to
provide greater access to secondary schooling. This was to “improve efficiency,
strengthen partnerships with the private sector, improve targeting of resources to
schools that are in particular need of support, and mobilize external resources”
c) Vocationalization of the curriculum
Another reform is that of Vocationalization of the curriculum. You realize that this reform
has been applied in other countries as we shall see noted while analyzing different countries’
education system.

You will find that the curriculum needs to be revised reviewed and changed to make it more
relevant to societal needs. The emphasis is to be placed on more practical work than theory
academic work. You should note that this is expected to begin from primary schools in a
modest way and increase progressively upwards.
d) Examination reform through continuous assessment
You will also find that one of the areas of primary education reforms is the review in the
primary, secondary and teacher education systems. Uganda National Examination Board
(UNEB) has embarked on the process of improving on the quality of the examination

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through the incorporation of continuous assessment with the examination system among
others. In the previous topic we realized that the inadequacies of the present form of
assessment require the need to reform it. However, its success or failure will depend on the
teachers.

Question: As a secondary teacher, what is your role towards implementation of

Vocationalization of the curriculum and continuous assessment?
e) Primary curriculum development.
This was one of the first stages of the reform of the primary school curriculum in 2000/2002.
However, this did not augur well for the reform process overall. It comprised four core
subjects (language, mathematics, science and social studies) and eight other subjects, but
nowhere did it pay sufficient attention to listening, speaking, reading and writing skills, and
indeed any transferable skills, especially in the first three years of primary school. The
failure to address literacy and numeracy specifically had severe implications for raising
levels of achievement.
f) Thematic curriculum.
This is also referred to as the Language of Instruction (LOI) Policy for the lower primary
grades. Under thematic curriculum, pupils are taught in their native language in the first
three years of primary school. Primary four is the transitional year, as English becomes the
primary language of instruction from P.5 onwards. Thematic curriculum is premised on the
belief that when children start their learning in their first language/mother tongue, they
would learn more effectively and efficiently, and also appreciate English language better in
their later years.

In 1989 the Education Policy Review Commission identified 25 main Ugandan languages.
The 1999 National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC) circular entitled Teaching of
Mother Tongue in Primary identified 63 main Ugandan languages and this number is
currently confirmed by the Institute of Languages at Makerere University, Kampala (MUK).
It should be noted that Uganda has not yet developed an additional 38 local languages since
the inception of the program. Instead, it seems that larger language groups have begun to
break down into smaller and more distinct local variants and dialects. However, within this
diverse linguistic environment there are a number of larger generalised language groups that
could serve as regional LOIs (in the form of Main Area Languages (MALs) for an estimated
80–90% of the population. These are: Luganda, Ateso (including Ngakaramajong and its
variants), Luo (including Acholi, Alur, Langi and Dopedhola), Lugbara, Runyakitara.
It should be seen clearly that Uganda has faced serious challenges in implementing the
thematic curriculum:
o Children not only struggle to learn in their local tongue but also struggle to transition
to English. Basic requirements like instruction materials, trained teachers are
nowhere.
o The rural-urban and government-private divide in terms of quality and standards of
education has exacerbated the problems that arise because of the thematic curriculum.
For example, most schools in urban areas teach in English for all levels due to

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 multicultural nature of the urban settings. They pass highly in national exams, set in
English, as poor rural schools continue struggle.
o Thematic curriculum also uses a one teacher one classroom model, where one teacher
is expected to handle all the teaching of one class even for subjects they are not
trained to teach. One teacher per class is asking too much and cumbersome.
o Also, teachers may not be adequately trained to teach in the widely spoken languages
of their regions because they don’t belong to that specific tribe. Teaching in a region
that hosts multiple ethnicities, and the language may not have an established
orthography, resulting in a lack of materials to teach in that specific language.

Comparatively, in 2017, Tanzania adopted Swahili as the official language of instruction in

both primary and secondary schools to improve the quality of education, learner engagement
and academic performance. The implementation of this Policy was easier and more
successful because most Tanzanians speak Swahili as a first or second language. Uganda
has more than 76 local languages without adequately trained teachers and teaching
(supplementary) materials for most languages.
g) The provision of basic learning materials.
Despite the delays in relation to curriculum and language policy, progress in developing
basic learning materials has been one of the more significant aspects of the reform process.
As elsewhere in Africa, for many years in Uganda textbook publishing, printing and
distribution was a poorly performing state monopoly. It was controlled by the National
Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC), which saw itself not simply as a
curriculum development organisation but also as an originator and approver of core textbook
manuscripts and other teaching and learning materials.

From the mid-1980s the major source of instructional materials (IM) funding for primary
schools came from funding agencies who helped to establish a new national textbook policy
in 1993. It was based on the principles of competition from a MoES list of approved
textbooks, school-based choice and selection using annual school-based purchasing power
allocations from the government, and the full involvement of private sector publishers as the
source of textbooks.

The introduction of UPE in 1997 doubled primary enrolments and caused a worsening ratio
of textbooks to pupils, as available funding did not keep pace with the increase in demand.
Following wide consultation, the MoES launched the Instructional Materials Reform
Programme in December 2000 within the ESIP framework.

The introduction of a transparent competitive tendering process resulted in a reduction in

the unit costs of primary textbooks to approximately 60%. This represented an approximate
250% increase in school purchasing power for textbooks and enabled textbook: pupil ratios
to improve at a faster rate than anticipated, leaving the GoU and its partners more confident
that a pupil: textbook ratio of close to 1:1 could be achieved in all classrooms over the next
three years within the existing resource envelope.
h) Primary teacher development.
As elsewhere in Africa, the challenge for Uganda continues to be the development of
affordable and effective mechanisms to ensure that primary school teachers are committed,
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motivated and have the professional skills and ethics to provide quality teaching and learning
for every student. While the quantitative gains in the Ugandan education system have been
impressive, they have not been matched by improvements in learning outcomes. Indeed,
National Assessment of Progress in Education (NAPE) test results show a deterioration in
student performance.
As a consequence of these poor results and, indeed, of UPE itself, the role of primary
teachers has come under intense scrutiny, with numerous demands for a critical review of
the impact of UPE on both student and teacher performance.

Uganda’s strategy for improving the quality of teaching and learning has focused on
improvements to the Teacher Development and Management System (TDMS) which was
originally launched in 1994 as a USAID funded project but became a central part of the ESIP
following the introduction of UPE. It was intended to increase access to quality learning
opportunities for students and teachers and to improve school management and instructional
quality, through a training delivery system based on outreach departments in 23 Primary
Teachers Colleges (PTCs) which in turn established a network of 540 co-ordinating centres
and tutors for clusters of about 18 schools.

The Primary Teacher Development and Management Plan (PTDMP), implemented from
2004, is the successor to the TDMS. It is concerned with continuous professional
development and improving quality in schools through increasing the entry qualification to
PTCs and developing the teacher training programmes which focus on better subject
knowledge and more practical skills. The PTDMP is also concerned with developing
accountability, efficient inspection and supervision, strengthening the roles and functions of
PTAs and SMCs and developing the role of the head teacher. Other important features are
its focus on the development of a career structure for primary teachers and the development
of quality assurance within teacher education.
i) Establishing and maintaining education standards.
Alongside reforms of curriculum learning materials and teacher development, the MoES
saw the importance of establishing an effective and sustainable inspection and support
service to teachers and schools. Until 1989, the inspection of primary schools was managed
on a regional basis whilst secondary school and teacher training inspection was headquarters
(MoES) based. The final report on the post-constitutional reform restructuring of the MoES
document of 1998 by the Ministry of Public Service (MoPS) recommended the
establishment of an Education Standards Agency (ESA) to replace the MoES Inspectorate.
The ESA began its operations in July 2001, although its early work
was constrained by delays in staffing and inadequate resourcing.

The ESA’s work was set out in a five-year medium-term plan incorporating a three-year
rolling programme. National programmes for inspections, setting out numbers and types of
inspections to be undertaken at each educational level, the types and frequencies of reports,
together with the uses to be made of reports, are described on a three-year basis and
confirmed annually. They are confirmed in the Annual Performance Contract between the
ESA and the Government.

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Note: ESA (Education Standards Agency) has however currently been transformed to DES
(Directorate of Education Standards).

The key components of the inspection approach include a predetermined structure of Quality
Indicators (QIs), a focus on evidence, an emphasis on reporting both strengths and
weaknesses, and encouraging self-evaluation on the part of the institution and its head
teacher or principal. The intended approach represents a major shift in the inspection of
schools away from the previous focus on the institution and educational inputs, such as
teachers, books and facilities to outcomes in terms of improved teaching and learning.
However, the former is not neglected as they are covered in specific indicators and in the
profile.
The ESA’s key tasks to date have included:
o the development, testing and refinement of quality indicators;
o organisation of a National Inspections Programme (NIP) (including the development
of instruments, procedures, inspection models, selection of associate assessors and
training, implementation and reporting);
o developing costing and workload models for inspections;
o development of partnerships with other education institutions and agencies;
o establishment of the Education Standards Agency (ESA) database systems with links
to the EMIS;
o establishing a set of inspection procedures and inspection instruments.
j) New Lower Secondary Curriculum.
The government rolled out the new lower secondary education curriculum in February 2020
with the aim of creating meeting the learners’ needs especially in regard to skills training
and enhancement. The Minister for Education, Hon. Janet Museveni, in her statement to
Parliament, said that the need to review the curriculum was overdue since it had not been
revisited since the colonial education system was introduced. The Minister revealed that the
old curriculum was channelling out graduates with no practical skills to meet the demands
in the labour market.

The National Curriculum Development Centre has made adjustments in the teaching sub-
jects for the lower secondary, for example, teaching subjects have been reduced from 43 to
21. In the new approved curriculum, schools will teach 12 subjects at Senior One and Two,
out of which 11 will be compulsory while one will be from an elective menu (optional).
Students at levels Three and Four will exit with a minimum of eight or a maximum of nine
subjects with seven of them compulsory.

Consequently, some subjects have taken different forms: Music has now included dance and
drama to become Performing Arts; Fine Art has been redesigned to include elements of
design and it is now called Art and Design; Technical Drawing has been integrated with
elements of woodwork and metalwork and technology and it is now called Technology and
Design; History has been integrated with Political Education; Accounts and Commerce have
been integrated in Entrepreneurship education, and History has been integrated with Politi-
cal Education.

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 Under the new curriculum, teachers will compile the learners’ achievements under the For-
mative Assessment in the four-year cycle, find an average score and submit it to the Uganda
National Examinations Board to contribute at least 20 per cent in the final national exami-
nations grading. The Chinese language has been added to the menu of foreign languages
while Kiswahili, Physical Education and entrepreneurship will be compulsory for all stu-
dents in Senior One and Two.

Aim of curriculum change

The new pedagogy aims at providing to the learners 21st Century skills which include; crit-
ical thinking, creativity, collaboration or teamwork, communication, information literacy,
ICT, and flexibility. This is obviously good news to the nation, however, the perturbing
question is whether this will be implemented amidst the facility inadequacies in most of the
Ugandan schools. For the learners to become creative especially in ICT and the natural sci-
ences, there must be necessary equipment such as well-furnished laboratories, effective in-
ternet and obviously knowledgeable trainers. These are not present in most of the rural
schools in Uganda which are predominantly knowledge hubs for most of the young people.

SUMMARY OF THE KEY EDUCATION REFORMS IN UGANDA

Policy Development Policy Development Outcomes
1989: Report of the Education Review Recommendation for UPE Policy
Commission
1992: Education White Paper. Recommendation for UPE Policy within the
framework of a three-tiered reform programme.
1993: New Textbook Policy. Liberalisation of textbook market, access to
private sector, multiple textbook choice and
school-based purchasing power.
1993: Launch of SUPER and PETDP. Financing of new textbook policy and teacher
development management system, school
libraries, Education Management Information
System, classrooms.
1995 – 1999 Makerere University Revenue diversification at Makerere
restructuring, including alternative University has facilitated the re-allocation of
financing strategies, installing new GoU funding across other levels of the
management structures and introducing education sector, mainly to benefit primary
demand-driven courses. education.
1996: Presidential endorsement of UPE. GoU approval of the UPE policy and
development of UPE programme and budget
including the UPE Capitation Grant.
1997: Poverty Eradication Action Plan Poverty eradication policy framework for the
(PEAP). whole of GoU, including UPE policy
1997: Local Government Act. Decentralisation of basic service delivery to
Districts, including primary and secondary
education.
1998: Education Strategic Investment Plan Increased access to and improved quality of
(ESIP). education at all levels.
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1999: Commencement of Education Improved development partner coordination
Sector and uniform monitoring and evaluation based
Wide Approach (SWAp). on GoU’s own systems.
1998/99: Launching of Schools Facilities Decentralised modality for constructing and
Grant (SFG). completing primary classrooms.
1999: Launching of new Primary Expansion of subjects from four to eleven and
Education introduction of local languages for first four
Curriculum. years of primary schooling.
2000: New Instructional Materials Launch of cycle 7 and cycle 8 bids using the
evaluation new systems of evaluation, approval and
and approvals policy procurement of IM.
2001: Introduction of new Instructional Reduced price and improved physical and
Materials and systems. Decentralisation presentational quality of IM and effective
piloted. partnerships between central and rural
booksellers, better service to schools.
2001: Creation of Education Standards Improved and independent school inspections.
Agency (ESA).
2003/4: Draft Education Bill. Consolidation of UPE policy, strengthening of
legislative framework for ESA and SMCs and
complementarity with the Local Government
Act.
2007 Launching of the USE reform Increasing equitable access to universal post
program primary education and training Universal Post
Primary Education and Training (UPPET);
Assuring achievement of the Millennium
Development Goal of gender parity in
education delivery by 2015;
Enhancing sustainability of the universal
primary education (UPE); and
Reducing the high costs of UPPET.

2020 Introduction of the New Lower Improve on the following: critical thinking, cre-
Secondary Curriculum ativity, collaboration or teamwork, communica-
tion, information literacy, ICT, and flexibility.

EDUCATIONAL REFORMS TANZANIA

It should be noted that Tanzania lived under two colonial masters that is Germany and
Britain who took over Tanzania from Germany after the end of the First World War. From
British colonial influence, Tanzania inherited a system of education of a traditional formal
school that was elite-oriented and took little account of the fundamental needs of a
developing society. This meant that education was characterized by some weakness which
include;
(i) Being too academic or bookish and individualistic.
(ii) Not providing employment opportunities to the rural people and producing white collar
workers with very limited education opportunities.
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(iii) Lack of high-level skilled professionals hence reliance on foreign expertise to develop
their education plans.
After independence in 1961 the government adopted some reforms in education. In addition,
it was assisted by the World Bank in the formulation of the new education policy for
Tanzania.
The aims and objectives of Tanzania education system is education for self-reliance and
independence. This means that education aims at creating right thinking a self-reliant
productive system. According to the approved recommendations of the Presidential
Commission on education. Basically, the aims and objectives of education in Tanzania
remain the same as outlined by Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere in his booklet “Education for
self-reliance published in 1967. These Shall form the cornerstone of our educational plans
and practices as we approach the twenty first century. (Tanzania 1984, 1-3)
Structure of Education
You will realize that Tanzania structure of education is not very different from that of other
countries. It includes;
i. Standard l to 7
ii. Senior secondary school
iii. Higher schools
iv. Tertiary and university level

Administration and Finance

Separate ministries and departments are in charge of educational administration. These are;
the ministry of higher education, science and technology, ministry of national education
duties, district education office, regional education offices, head teachers, Ujaama councils,
and board of governors and parents` teachers associations. All these in collaboration with
each other are responsible for administration of education in Tanzania.

You will find the two ministries of higher education science and technology and ministry of
education and cultural implement policies approved by the national assembly. However,
with those ministries, separate departments oversee the different levels and components of
the education system.

Role of the Ministry of National Education

i. Implements education policy of TANU party
ii. Supervision of education system, this involves integrating theory and practice.
iii. Developing curriculum
iv. Monitoring and examination processes through the Tanzania National
Examination Board (TANEB)
v. Interviewing registering and employing teachers.
vi. Offering resource support for education for self-reliance projects.
At the lower level, the duties of the District Education Offer and Regional Education
Officers include to;
i. Manage pre-primary and primary schools.
ii. Post primary school teachers.
iii. Monitor school establishment

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 iv. Offer resource support for education for self-reliance project in primary school.
v. Measure and evaluate progress of the curriculum through examination of
academic and productive work such as farm or technology workshop
vi. Use development fund to finance schools appropriately.
Note; Please study these duties above and compare them with those in your country`s
education system. You have already observed already that no education system is perfect.
This is reflected in a series of setbacks in an education system. However, this always calls
for a reform.

EDUCATION REFORMS IN TANZANIA EDUCATION SYSTEM

You will realize that the primary education concerns of the early years of independence were
rooted in the creation of a nationalist leadership. It is clear that the new leaders in Tanzania
believed that the lack of high-level skills was a major obstacle to development goals.

Consequently, Tanzania assigns its highest education priority to human resource

development especially at the upper levels. Therefore, initial education policy in
independent Tanzania emphasized high level skills and more schools despite the fact that
few children were attending school. You will find that education was no longer considered
to be elite privilege but “a fundamental right of citizenship”.

What does the above phrase mean?

This meant that education was a basic right of all citizen and that effective popular
participation required literate citizen. So, this necessitated educational reform in Tanzania.

You will realize that the educational reform in Tanzania may be called revolutionary because
policy makers have attempted to reshape completely the basis of the former school system
in line with the fundamental socio-economic changes proposed within the state. It is
therefore hoped that to protect socialism, a socialist agenda for education was to be
developed. The new education policy reform was outlined by Mwilimu J.K. Nyerere in
1967.

In his publication, he made an analysis of what was wrong with the current system and his
vision of what it could and should be:

It is quite clear that education for self-reliance became the heart of education reform in
Tanzania. You will note that education reform in Tanzania was reflected in.

The elimination of the elite and white-collar mentality by combining intellectual and manual
work in school activities and by involving pupils and students at all levels in community
development projects so that they become productive citizens. More so, school children and
even university students had to participate in communal activities. Political education is also
taught and examined as a compulsory subject in all schools. Just we have observed in other
countries’ education systems, promotion in the school system is based not only on
performance in written exams and continuous assessment but also in character assessment.

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Other reforms in Tanzania education system.
For the effort to provide education to all has been through UPE and extension programmes
of literacy and adult education all over the country. Since UPE was launched in Tanzania it
has made good progress despite the problems related to the lack of teachers.

It should be noted that Tanzania has become an example to be imitated by other African
countries as regards literacy and adult education which are linked to rural development. Most
important of all, it is often remarked to be successful on the cultural side which is not found
in most African countries.

Finally, you need to remember that the adoption of Kiswahili as a language of instruction
and important subjects in school curriculum at all levels has been accompanied by the
production of learning materials in that language.

However, you will realize that the use of Kiswahili as the medium of instruction in primary
schools has been undermined by the continued use of English for teaching at the secondary
and tertiary levels of education.

What do you think is the likely problems of this?

It has created problems of transition from one language to another when pupils move up the
education ladder.

Vocationalization is now implemented in all secondary schools throughout the country and
has begun to develop a momentum of its own.

The role education in Tanzania is expected to play today

1. Guide and promote the development of the citizens of Tanzania.
2. Promote culture and traditions of the people of Tanzania.
3. Promote the acquisition and appropriate use of knowledge and skills to improve
the conditions of the people.
4. Promote rational use and conservation of the environment.
5. Promote the love of and respect for work.
6. Enable every citizen to understand fundamentals of the constitution.
7. Promote the acquisition of life skills to meet the changing needs of industry.
8. Promote national integration and international cooperation.
Subjects that are emphasized in Tanzania education the curriculum
Kiswahili, which is a national language, is emphasized and is the medium of instruction in
primary schools. English is taught as a subject. Agriculture is emphasized too. Other
subjects include Mathematics, Science, Social Studies, Craft, Health Education and Home
Economics.
Financing of education Tanzania
Education is free of charge. The government carries the burden of funding education which
is over 93 per cent. Compared to Kenya, primary education is funded by the government
while for secondary education the government pays for teachers’ salaries and that of non-
teaching staff. The parents pay for all the other expenses.

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Children from needy homes are awarded bursaries to help meet their school fees at
secondary school level. The same applies to university education where parents pay for the
other expenses apart from the salaries of the lecturers and the other workers. Higher
Education Loans Board help to disburse loans to needy students.
Problems Faced by Tanzania’s Education System
1. Financial constraints in funding education are a major limitation. There is
continued greater demand for educational resources with the ever-rising
population growth in all the East African countries.
2. Shortage of teachers to cater for the increase of the primary school enrolment as
this period of implementation of free primary education.
3. Teaching of practical subjects continues to be theoretical for most part due to
shortages or lack of equipment and materials.
4. Drop-out rates or low transition rates continue to be experienced particularly for
girls partly due to circumcision, early marriages, pregnancies and lack of family
support.
5. Unemployment of school leavers due to low economic growth rate.

EDUCATION REFORMS IN KENYA

Education in Kenya is considered a basic right that should be offered to every individual.
Kenya’s education system precedes to as early as the 18th century among the Swahili people.
The earliest school was established by missionaries in Rabai. During the colonial era, the
number of Kenyans with exposure to education steadily increased and a good number of
them were privileged to proceed abroad for further education.
Kenya has manoeuvred through three education curriculums since independence with the
latest being, the Competency-Based Curriculum, rolled out in 2017 to replace the 8-4-4
Curriculum that has been in practice since 1985.
Even though efforts have been put in place to promote basic education, illiteracy levels are
still high among the Kenyan population. Poverty, teenage pregnancy, truancy, drug abuse,
among others, all affect the literacy levels of prospective pupils.
In 2017, Kenya's education system was rated as the strongest among other forty-three
mainland countries on the African continent by the World Economic Forum. In the following
year 2018, the World Bank also ranked Kenya as the top African country for education
outcomes.
Structure of Education in Kenya
a) 7–4–2–3 System.
With the collapse of the East African community in 1977, Kenya continued with the same
system of education but changed the examination names from their regional identity to a
national identity. The East African Certificate of Primary Education became the Certificate
of Primary Education (CPE), the first time the C.P.E was marked by a computer system, the
East African Certificate of Education became the Kenya Certificate of Education (KCE) and
the East African Advanced Certificate of Education became the Kenya Advanced Certificate
of Education (KACE).
b) 8–4–4 Curriculum
In 1985, President Daniel Arap Moi introduced the 8–4–4 system of education, which
adopted 8 years of primary education, 4 years of secondary education and 4 years of
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university education. With the introduction of the 8–4–4 system CPE became KCPE (Kenya
Certificate of Primary Education) while KCE became the Kenya Certificate of Secondary
Education (KCSE).
Since 1985, public education in Kenya has been based on an 8–4–4 system, with eight years
of primary education followed by four years of secondary school and four years of college
or university. To date, there has been steady growth in the advancement of education in the
country which boasts of a great number of public and private universities as well as middle-
level colleges.
c) Competency Based Curriculum (CBC), 2-6-3-3
In 2017, the Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) was launched to replace the traditional
8–4–4 system introduced by the President Moi in 1985. The Competency-Based Curriculum
was designed by the Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD) with the aim of
churning out engaged, empowered and ethical citizens.
Unlike the 8-4-4 system where learners would spend 8 years in primary education, 4 years
in secondary School and 4 years at the university, the CBC curriculum runs on a 2-6-3-3
System of Education where basic education has been organized in three levels; Early Years
Education, Middle School Education, and Senior School.
Under CBC, learners will now spend 2 years in Pre-primary, 6 years in Primary (Grade 1–
6), 3 years in Junior Secondary (Grade 7, 8, 9), 3 years in Senior Secondary (grade 10,11,12)
and 3 years in university.
The Competency-Based Curriculum puts emphasis on seven core competences namely;
communication and collaboration, critical thinking and problem-solving, creativity and
imagination, citizenship, digital literacy, learning to learn and self-efficacy.
According to KICD, the traditional curriculum is teacher-centred while the CBC is learner-
centred. Learners are constantly assessed on the seven competencies based on the following
areas; Meeting Expectations (ME), Approaching Expectations (AE) and Below
Expectations (BE).
The first cohort of learners under the CBC curriculum completed Primary Education this
year 2022. They are expected to transition to junior high school in early 2023. The
government has through the ministry of education been investing in developing the
infrastructure required in public schools across the country to accommodate the junior high-
schoolers. According to the Kenya Institute of curriculum Development (KICD), students
transitioning to Junior secondary schools will be between the ages of 12 and 14.
d) British Curriculum
Some private schools, however, offer a system of education similar to the British system of
education with ordinary level exams, "O-levels", taken at the end of four years of secondary
school and advanced levels, "A-levels", taken after two years of high school. This is
effectively the same as the 7-4-2-3 system described above.
e) Transition rates and Overall Performance
Out of all children in Kenya, about 85% attend primary school. 75% of those who complete
primary education will proceed to secondary schools and 60% of those who complete
secondary school will proceed to institutions of a higher level of education, including
business and vocational institutions, national polytechnics, public and private universities
within the country. Over 950,000 Kenyans have furthered their education abroad with a

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majority of graduates primarily from India, the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States,
Russia, and Uganda.
f) Early Childhood Education
Early Childhood Education (ECD) or Pre-primary education is a foundation for later
learning and development and it targets children aged 0–5 years with a focus on igniting the
child's potential for lifelong adaptability, innovation and communication skills while
imparting in them the values of responsible citizenship and respect for diversity. ECD is
classified into three different clusters i.e.
1. Baby-class
2. Nursery school
3. Pre-unit
Between the years of 2003-2007, the educational sector strategic plan and implementation
plan committed to eliminating poverty as an educational development hindrance, promoting
human rights through provisions of education, and attaining sustainable development of
quality basic education for all. This implementation is a positive step towards education
access in Kenya. One of the first steps to access education is at the early childhood
development (ECD), primary, and secondary levels. The government assessed the high need
for a change in access due to half of the population being composed of young people.
According to Achoka et al. (2007), 20% of these people are under the age of five years old.
ECD implementation is crucial in the school systems because the ages of 0-5 and key
developmental years. While the children are rapidly developing, they are also the most
vulnerable to environmental factors and influences. An effective ECD program could create
a beneficial foundation for further education and training. Between the years 1992 and 2002
there was a 68.9% increase in the number of ECD centres.
g) Accessibility Concerns in ECD Education
The accessibility of education is influenced by four main factors: poverty, regional and
gender disparities, policy framework, and the HIV/AIDS pandemic. In 2002, roughly 56%
of the population lived in poverty. The people living in these conditions are also unable to
acquire proper dietary needs, medical needs, and a clean and stable habitat. The children
who are born into these conditions are predisposed to the disadvantaged access of education
specifically to ECD. Not only can this influence their access to education, it can also
influence their growth and development. While the government tries to offer some support,
a majority of the costs associated with education are covered solely by the parents. Many of
the families that are living in poverty are unable to afford to send their children to school.
Geographically, Kenya is very varied and diverse. Northern Kenya are Arid and Semi-Ari
Lands (ASALs), but the Central and Western areas are wetlands. Although the government
has attempted to achieve accessible education for all citizens, many of the people living in
the ASAL regions are continuously moving in search of Wetlands for their families and their
livestock.
Due to the constant migrations, their lifestyles create conflicts in education access as they
are not in an area for long enough to begin the schooling process for their children in the
required ECD education. Additionally, there have been land/tribal conflicts which results in
families being exiled or parents being killed. The children in these conditions remain
unsupported for any education needs as the parents cannot afford it. Connected to the
geographical barriers are the cultural barriers in Kenya as well.
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Although the government attempts to provide equal educational opportunities regardless of
gender, some parents focus their attention and resources on males and their education since
they are seen as more of an asset to their family. As a result, more males than females are
enrolled in ECD programs which creates a gender disparity.
Another area of concern in ECD education is the lack of adequate policy framework which
has created inconsistent and unmeasurable curriculum. This has a major effect on the
children's primary education entry behavior. The group that is most affected by this are the
poverty-stricken parents in rural communities. Managing these behaviors are left to the
abilities of the educators, but in some areas, the extent of ECD education is processed in
rooms called “academies.” Many of the teachers/caregivers in the academies may not have
any training. With a variety of factors, some of these centers are not productive learning
environments and make it extremely difficult to detect children with special needs.
In recent years, the HIV/AIDS epidemic has been a concern for the citizens living in Kenya
as it does not spare children. Many children who have HIV/AIDS are born to infected parents
who transfer it to them. A majority of those children die within their first five years of life.
The infant mortality rate and under-five years mortality rate has significantly increased in
recent years. Since it affects a large percentage of the population, this could directly
influence the numbers of ECD centers available.
h) Primary education
Primary education marks the beginning of the 8-4-4 Curriculum. It begins at the age of 5 to
7 after completion of a year of kindergarten commonly known as nursery school or pre-unit.
The first class or year of primary school is known as Standard 1, the final year as Standard
8 and primary school children are known as pupils.
At the end of the school year, students advance to the next grade. Since repetition was
banned, students still progress to the next grade even though they fail their examinations.
Most primary schools are day schools with pupils living at home. Fewer schools at primary
level are boarding schools compared to secondary schools.
All public primary school pupils sit for the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education
examination at the end of the school year in Standard eight. In primary school, students are
taught English, Kiswahili and Indigenous language activities.
1. Lower primary: This is a 4-year period that marks the first transition into the
mainstream primary education system and starts at ages 6 or 7. The grading system
is called "standard", meaning the first four years the students transitions from
standard one, through four.
2. Upper primary: This is also a 4-year period that helps prepare the students for the
high school years. At standard 7, the students become more aware of which high
schools they want to attend. During the last year of the primary school system,
students are allowed to select 4 to 6 secondary schools that they would like to attend
including one national school and take the KCPE, which validates their transition to
high school.
i) Universal Primary Education
Universal Primary Education (UPE), an international development goal created by the
World Conference on Education, has led to Kenya's target of universal primary education
for all citizens. Since 2003, enrolments have increased drastically and today Kenya has much
closer rates of enrolment to first world countries, such as the United States. In January 2003
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President Mwai Kibaki re-introduced free primary education which previously existed
before the mid-80s when the government adopted cost-sharing measures that led to a minor
level of school fees charged by primary schools for textbooks, PTA, and extracurricular
activities. Since 2003, education in public schools became free and compulsory (Kenya
Constitution, Article 53, 2010).
j) Secondary education
Secondary schools in Kenya fall into three categories: government-funded, Harambee and
private. Government-funded schools are divided into national, provincial and district levels.
Harambee schools do not receive full funding from the government and private schools are
run by private organizations or individuals. After taking the primary school leaving exam
and successfully passing, government-funded schools select students in order of scores.
Students with the highest scores gain admission into national schools while those with
average scores are selected into provincial and district schools. Harambee schools accept
students with low scores. Students who fail their examinations pursue technical and
vocational education. The latter is divided into technical secondary school (lasting 4 years)
and apprenticeships solutions. Since 2010, technical secondary schools’ student can have
access to university programs. A number of students also drop out of school by choice due
to poor scores.
Under the current system, students attend secondary school for four years before sitting for
the school-leaving exam at the end of the fourth year. The first-class or year of secondary
school is known as form 1 and the final year is form 4. At the end of the fourth year, from
October to November students sit for the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education
examination. In 2008, the government introduced plans to offer free Secondary education to
all Kenyans.
j) Technical and Vocational Education and Training Institutions
These institutions operate under the state department of vocational and technical training
under the helm of a principal secretary.
They award artisan, craft and diploma and higher national diploma certificates after
successful completion of relevant courses. Courses offered by these institutions include
Business Education, Accounting, Secretarial Studies, Nursing, Teacher Training, Computer
Studies, Journalism, Media, Design, Culinary Studies, Foreign Languages, Tourism and
Engineering. In order of credibility or accreditation, national polytechnics rank first,
followed by government training institutes, teacher training colleges and private institutions.
Although generally termed colleges, these institutions do not award degrees. Degrees are
only awarded by Universities and Technical Universities.
Government TVET Institutions. There are three types of government TVET institutions
in Kenya. these are National Polytechnics, Technical Institutions and Vocational Education
Centres (formerly Youth Polytechnics).
k) University education
While education accessibility has been of major importance at the primary and secondary
levels in Kenya, the attempt of making education accessible has not been implemented at
the higher education level, which leaves students from a lower socioeconomic status at a
disadvantage compared to those of a higher socioeconomic status. In recent years there has
been an increase in the cost of higher education worldwide, and there is no exception for
Kenya which is limiting access to specific socioeconomic groups and those from different
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regions and ethnic groups since it favours and is more accessible to those who can afford it.
There are very few students from disadvantaged backgrounds attending higher education
institutions which is a reflection of the society and the quality of prior education. There are
many social inequalities present in Kenya which have a direct impact on education such as:
disparities in distribution of national income, security, and employment, levels of
investment, health care, and public services are also evident across populations, genders,
and ethnic groups.
Immediately after independence, Kenya's public higher education was free for all students
regardless of their socioeconomic status; it was fully funded by the government. This created
a high demand for higher education which raised a concern for donor agencies. At that time,
the demand was continuously increasing, but Kenya's economy was not improving, so the
government established a cost sharing and cost recovery model. In the cost sharing model,
the government would cover part of the cost, but the remaining cost was the institutions and
family’s responsibility. After this change, the student loan scheme was introduced. It was
the responsibility of the Higher Education Loans Board (HELB) to pay out loans to Kenyan
students that are interested in attending a higher education institution; there have been
concerns that the loans are not being distributed equitably which has not fully improved the
higher education access issues. Kenya has also explored the Module II admissions plan. In
this plan, the admitted students must pay their full tuition fees but also pay an amount that
is equivalent to attending a private institution. This has widened the accessibility gap for
families of lower socioeconomic status as they will not be able to pay the amount of tuition,
so higher education remains unaffordable and inaccessible for those students.
Due to the current policies and financial requirements, educational access is limited to
students who perform highly in academics and those who do not. If students are
academically inclined and perform well in their primary and secondary education
institutions, the educational fees and increasing tuition costs cause them to be unable to
attend a higher education institution. Cost sharing has created an even larger gap in
accessibility for students; continuing similar policies will keep creating a larger gap.
l) Digital Accessibility in University Education
There has been a recent focus on digital accessibility after the COVID-19 pandemic. In a
study done by Githinji et al. (2022), there was a focus on the accessibility of digital content
in Kenya. This was done at the higher education level. The study found that one of the major
challenges in accessibility was the internet connectivity for both educators and students. In
many areas in the country, there are not the necessary resources or funds to be able to
purchase a device to access digital content.
m) Teacher Education
Most universities in Kenya have a teacher training program, and the [Link]. programs often
have the most students compared to other programs. Kenya's population is growing, which
in turn means that the demand for teachers is growing; however, there is often a shortage of
teachers due to budget issues in schools. There are four different levels of teacher education.
Early childhood development teacher education, which is available as a certificate or 2-year
diploma, requires 300 hours of teaching practice. Primary teacher education is a 2-year
program in which teachers-in-training practice teaching in four sessions of three weeks. A
variety of subjects are studied. Diploma teacher education is a 3-year program. Teacher
trainees in this program take a wide variety of subjects. The undergraduate bachelor’s
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program is a 4-year program; trainees’ study 2 different subjects. All teaching programs
require teaching practice in which a teacher trainee prepares for lessons and teaches the
lesson while being assessed on their preparation and the teaching itself. Mentor teachers at
the school work with administration and supervisors to assess the teacher trainee. One
challenge to teacher education in Kenya is a lack of experienced teacher educators who have
knowledge of both the content and pedagogy. Additionally, some of the teacher educators
of primary programs were themselves trained at the secondary level, so they do not possess
the knowledge of primary education necessary.
n) Access to Education
In 2003, the government launched the Free Primary Education program (FPE), which
abolished primary school fees for all children. Previously, school fees, uniform costs, and
textbook costs were a substantial barrier to education for many, especially considering the
rate of poverty and economic inequality in Kenya. The aim of FPE was to remove these
barriers to education and ensure that more children with low socioeconomic status are able
to access schooling. Despite the goals of FPE to improve equitable education for all, analysis
of the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) examination scores showed that
counties with high enrolment impact and improved KCPE scores were in the arid and semi-
arid area, while counties with high enrolment impact and lower KCPE scores were in coastal
areas.
FPE led to an increased number of students who could attend school. It also led to an increase
in the number of private schools, and it resulted in a larger teacher-student ratio in schools.
Despite more students per teacher, researchers found that the implementation of FPE
resulted in only slightly decreased test scores in those who would have finished primary
school regardless of FPE. Overall, FPE succeeded in increasing access to primary school.
o) Students with Disabilities
The Free Primary Education program secured equal rights for children with disabilities and
set aside funding for schools with students with disabilities. Still, by 2005 less than 10% of
children with disabilities had access to schooling. In 2010, a new constitution was adopted
by Kenya which ensured that children with disabilities have the right to a free and
compulsory education. Also in 2010, the National Special Needs Education Policy
Framework was adopted by the Kenyan government to ensure that students with disabilities
have access to good education. The objectives of this framework include early identification
and intervention, increasing public awareness, supporting research, and providing adequate
facilities. Despite the strong intentions of this framework to make education accessible for
children with disabilities, by 2018 the framework had not been fully implemented. It is not
uncommon for policies to remain unimplemented after adoption in Kenya; this may be due
to a lack of available government funds.
Prior to the adoption of Free Primary Education, only four categories of disability were
recognized: hearing impaired, mentally handicapped, physically handicapped, and visual
impaired. After Free Primary education was adopted, autism, cerebral palsy, and Down
syndrome were included in the disability categories. The National Special Needs Education
Policy Framework further expanded the list of recognized disability categories to twenty-
two, including orphaned students, the internally displaced, and nomadic students. There
have been strides made in helping students with disabilities access an equitable education,
but challenges remain. Few teachers are trained in special education. Referral and
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assessment services do not receive adequate funding, and not all schools have access to these
resources. Additionally, there is a cultural stigma on people with disabilities in Kenya. The
stigma and marginalization on people with disabilities is particularly acute in rural areas.
p) Women's Access to Education
In 2008, the national secondary education expansion program was put in place. This program
reduced school fees at the secondary level and increased class sizes, thereby expanding
access. This policy resulted in an increase of educational attainment by women by 0.75
years. It also reduced the chance of a first childbirth by age 19 and age 20 by about 30%,
and it reduced the chance of first marriage by age 16 and age 18 by 40% and 20%
respectively. This hints that being able to continue secondary education reduces behaviors
that could stop women from pursuing education. Higher education for women is associated
with benefits for both women and their future children.
Factors affecting education in Kenya
In 2003 the Kenyan government promised free primary education to its citizens. In the early
70s primary school fees were abolished but in the mid 80s cost-sharing measures between
the government and its citizens led to the re-introduction of minor fee charges by primary
schools.
As the trend continued with schools requiring parents to pay fees such as PTA, harambee,
textbooks, uniforms, caution fees, exam fees and extracurricular activity fees, most parents
became overburdened and unable to raise such fees. Those who could not afford the money
to pay for their children's school fees often had their children drop out of school.
Many children were also forced to drop out of school when teachers would not allow them
to take exams. To pressurize parents to pay fees, schools often sent children home during
the final exams.
The growth of Kenya's education sector has exceeded expectations. After the first university
was established in 1970, six other public universities and 23 private universities have been
established. Although Kenya has its own universities, some parents prefer to send their
children to universities outside the country. This is largely because Kenyan public
universities are not as flexible with admission requirements as some foreign universities.
Another factor that has been pointed out is that youth with disabilities are facing major
obstacles to progress in higher education, and measures as affirmative action or measures
tailored to the needs of particular profiles of students could play a relevant role in this.
QUESTIONS
1. What can Kenya consider borrowing from Tanzania`s education system?
• Make our education system more meaningful and relevant.
• Link education to development and make it serve the community needs and
programmes.
• Rethink about reviewing the structure of education from 8-4-4 to march the rest of the
East Africa states of 7-4-2-3
• Have two term (semester) system where the first semester runs from January to early
July. While the second semester runs from July to November with breaks in June and
December and one-week mid-term breaks in each semester.

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 • Encouraging non-government organizations (NGOs) and the private sector to
particular more in the financing of education to ease the burden on the government
budget, which is high and yet not sufficient to provide the needed classrooms etc
• Enhancing capacity building of the head teachers and school management committees
for proper financial management.
• Strengthening educational management information systems to obtain data needed by
planners.

2. What would Kenya educational system consider borrowing from the Uganda`
system?
• Maintaining gender aspects in education so as to promote education for girls, which is
low in certain regions of the country particularly in the nomadic communities.
• Giving Kenya institute of Education (KIE) greater autonomy in curriculum
development and research.

3. Similarities drawn in the education systems of the East African countries of

(Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania)
1. All the three countries have a system of education that starts from Early childhood
Development (ECD), primary cycle, secondary up to university.
2. Except for Kenya, the other countries have two years upper secondary advanced
level.
3. In each of the three states, education is key functions such national integration,
individual/personal development and national development.
4. The curriculum offered in schools attempts to address the issue of relevance and
meeting the national needs and reduction of poverty.
5. There is an attempt to reduce the subjects offered at both the primary and secondary
cycles and thus make the syllabus less burdening.
6. There are attempts to address the challenges that are encountered in the course of
implementing the programmes of universal primary education.
7. Education in Kenya is free for the eight-year`s primary cycle and the government is
the key financier, while in Tanzania the seven-year primary education is through cost
sharing with the government spending fairly low. In Uganda, education is free for
four children per family.
8. After the primary cycle, an exam is administered leading to an award of a certificate.
The same examination results are used in placing school leavers to the next level of
education bodies and national councils for higher education.
9. In each country, a ministry of education is charged with the management of
education. Other structures include a curriculum development centre, examination
bodies and national councils for higher education.
10. The nature of education challenges are common, e.g. poor infrastructure, lack of
teaching and learning materials, low morale among the staff sustaining the increasing
education budget, retention rates, gender disparity etc.
4. What targets does the Kenya government have for attaining Universal Primary
Education
o The free primary education was launched so as fulfill an election pledge by the
National Rainbow Coalition (NARC) government, thus giving a strong political will.
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 o The government increased its budget on education by 17.4 per cent to reach Kshs.79.4
billion.
o The government disbursed the funds on the basis of enrolment to schools; calculate
at Kshs 1020 per child.
o Each school was required to open two bank accounts, namely school instructional
material bank account (SIMBA) and general-purpose account (GPA). The SIMBA
account was meant for textbooks, exercise books, supplementary references
materials, pencils and pens, dusters and chalk, charts and wall maps. The GPA has
the following vote heads:
✓ Personal emoluments (i.e salaries of secretary and watchman)
✓ Local transport and traveling (LT and T)
✓ Electricity, water and conservancy (EWC)
✓ Activity
✓ Telephone and postage
✓ Quality assurance (tests and exams)
✓ Repair, maintenance and improvement (RMI)
✓ Contingencies
o School management committees were empowered to run such funds. The SIMBA
account signatories are the head teachers, one parent and the chairman of the
procurement committee (known as school instructional materials selection committee
– SIMSC. GPA has signatories as the school head chairman and treasurer of school
management committee.
o School committees were in-serviced on sound financial management, procurement
procures and proper keeping of financial records.
o Regular auditing is carried out by the zonal education officers and district auditors.
o The government also puts aside funds to aid in administering and monitoring the
progress of the implementation.
o Over 17,000 public primary schools benefited from the scheme.
o Enrolment rose by over 1.3 additional children against 3 million who are estimated
to be out of school.
o There was a very popular demand for free primary education given the low GDP of
1.8 in the year 2003 and high poverty levels.
5. What challenges were faced in the implementation of free primary education?
o There were logistical problems faced at the beginning i.e many schools did not have
bank accounts. Also, all schools could not be reached easily.
o There were no sufficient classrooms for the extra children who wanted to join
schools.
o The teacher-pupil ratio rose to 1:300 in some schools. More teachers were needed.
o Teacher morale was low other phases of salary increases awarded in 1997 had not
been implemented.
o Curriculum change was ongoing for some levels but not for others (for example
classes 1, 2, 4 and 5 were complete, while 3, 6 and 8 were yet to be done).
o Funding of free primary education was still a major challenge. Initially the
government enjoyed the support of the development partners, but the programme
should be self-sustainable.
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 o There are those children who had not yet enrolled although education was free and
children have a right to education, over one million children were still at home.
o The orphaned children, mainly due to the effects of HIV/AIDS are threatened by lack
of support at home and thus likely to drop out of school. It has also increased internal
inefficiencies through both teacher and pupil absenteeism.
o Children of differing ages enrolled in the same classes. There are gender disparities
between ASAL and other areas. Fewer girls than boys enter and stay in school.
o In the marginal areas of the arid and semi arid lands (ASAL) and slums there are
many school age children who may never enter school hence the problem of equity.
o Gender disparity exists in primary schools thought it is minimal 53.4 per cent girls
and 53.6 per cent for boys.
o Retention rates continue to be affected by some social practices that cause pupils to
drop out of school, for example, economic hardships, circumcision, early marriages,
cattle rustling etc.
6. How are the schools with large classes and yet have insufficient teachers able to
cope with the problem.
o In those schools where the enrolment is overwhelming, the management copes by
having the classes split so that one group comes in the morning and leave at mid-day,
while the other group reports in the afternoon. That arrangement enables the same
teacher to deal with a manageable class size. The phenomenon is referred to as multi-
shift.
o Where a school has fewer teachers than they should, the ministry of education does
staff balancing. Meaning while classes of different levels, for example, standard A
and B or standard 1 and 2 can be put in the same room and have them learn different
things in their respective grades. That type of arrangement is known as multi-grade.
o The government has also employed primary school teachers to replace those who are
retiring or may have died and thus caused a shortage.
7. What lessons can we learn from Uganda which launched its free primary
education in 1997 and targeted UPE in 2003?
The lesson to learn from Uganda is that:
o Experience for primary education is expected to increase each year.
o We need to revive our economic growth to cope with the rising education budget
Uganda has an average GDP of 6.5 per cent since 1987, while the one for Kenya is
about 2.5 per cent (projected figure for 2004).
o Kenya needs to urge for cancellation of debts and allocate such proceeds to the free
primary education programme.
o There is need to mobilize participation of all stakeholders at all stages of decision-
making.
o Transparency and democracy are necessary at all levels.
o Gender equality in education can be mainstreamed. In case of Uganda four children
per family are entitled to UPE two of whom must be girls.

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 EDUCATION SYSTEM IN EAST AFRICA
The structural duration of the education systems of Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and
Burundi
Country Primary Secondary Higher Total
Kenya 8 4 4 16
Uganda 7 4+2 3 16
Tanzania 7 4+2 3 16
Burundi 6 3+3 4 16
Rwanda 6 3+3 4 16

The structural duration education is 16 years for all the five East African countries. However,
they differ in levels. The Kenyan structure used to be same as that of Uganda and Tanzania.
They also had a common examining body, but later changed in the min-1980s to one of 8-
4-4. Rwanda and Burundi follow the French system of Education. Education is undergoing
reconstruction at present after many years of civil strife in these countries.

Question: What rationale would you advance for the integration of the educational system
in East African region?
1. It would make it possible for one to further education in any of the countries.
2. It would promote regional integration in trade and industry
3. It would promote cross-cultural interaction in the region.
4. It would give greater credibility to educational standards in the region.
5. It would promote sharing resources and facilitate exchange of ideas, students and
teachers.

ROLE OF TEACHERS IN IMPLEMENTATION OF EDUCATIONAL REFORMS

Who is a teacher? A teacher, also formally known as an educator, is a person who helps
students to acquire knowledge, competence or virtue, via the practice of teaching. Informally
the role of teacher may be taken on by anyone, eg when showing a colleague how to perform
a specific task. In some countries, teaching young people of school going age may be carried
out in an informal setting, such as within the family (home-schooling), rather than in a formal
setting such as a school or college.

It should however be noted that the role of a teacher is described beyond teaching. They are
more than an educator and are counsellors, mentors, leaders, role models, external parents etc
to a student. Once a child is admitted to school, the role of a teacher shapes the life that child.
Teachers play a crucial role in our life to succeed in a career, job, business, and in short
making a successful human being and good citizens of the country.

What roles do teachers play in implementation of educational reforms?

1) Teachers as implementers play an active role of applying the existing educational
reforms into practice. Using textbooks or other instructional materials aligned with
high standards.
1) Teachers play the role as adapters of reforms and are responsible for aligning the
educational reforms with the characteristics and needs of students in particular as well
as to national educational goals.
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 2) Teachers play the role as partners in developing and implementing educational
reforms. Teachers have the responsibility in designing, evaluating curriculum changes
and determining what strategies should be developed and how to measure its success.
3) Teachers as educational researchers have the responsibility to test educational reforms
e.g. curriculum materials, test strategies and learning models.
4) Teachers play the role of making learning practical. They are responsible for helping
students understand real-life examples easily and quickly. A good teacher while
teaching should connect various subjects to real-life situations and try to make topics
understandable to them. Teachers understand what their students need as they are the
closest companions. Demonstrating even the difficult topics with the help of real-life
examples makes it easier for teachers and students as well.
5) Tracking improvement and setting performance goals. Only a teacher knows how long
their students have come. They keep reminding their students of the improvement they
have done and how far they will have to go. Teachers do many things to boost the
confidence of children from keeping self-evaluation, setting short-term goals, and
emphasizing improvement, to monitoring every minute progress of students.
6) Sharing knowledge. Giving education and teaching is the primary responsibility of a
teacher when implementing any educational reforms. In general, teachers mean to
teach students the specific syllabus and impart knowledge about the specific
curriculum. They must make sure that students understand what is being taught to
them in the classroom or online teaching or in an e-learning setup. All other roles of
an educator are derived from this primary role of a teacher.

What role do teacher leaders/ school administrators play in the implementation of

educational reforms?
1) Interacting with other school members around school reform efforts
2) Striving for pedagogical excellence
3) Confronting barriers in the school’s culture and structures
4) Translating ideas into actions
5) Participating in decision-making
6) Taking the initiative in leading school improvement.

In performing the above roles, teacher leaders aim to achieve three goals, which include:
1) To encourage others to improve their professional practice;
2) To nurture a culture of success; and
3) Continuously demonstrate professionalism i.e. active participation.
In what ways can teacher leaders/ administrators influence educational reforms?
1) By maintaining focus on teaching and learning;
2) By establishing trust and constructive relationships; and
3) By interacting through formal and informal points of influence.

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 DECENTRALIZATION IN EDUCATION
Decentralization is defined as the transfer of decision-making authority closer to the
consumer or beneficiary. Decentralisation may also refer to when responsibility/ power is
passed to local communities and schools. They can then make their own decisions about many
aspects of policy and practice. In centralised systems, a central body may control finance,
personnel and resources and also manage policy, curriculum and assessment.

This can take the form of transferring powers to lower levels of an organization, which is
called deconcentrating or administrative decentralization. A popular form of deconcentration
in education is to give additional responsibilities to schools. This is often called school
autonomy or school-based management and may take the form of creating elected or
appointed school councils and giving them budgets and the authority to make important
educational decisions. Deconcentration may also take the form of empowering school
directors or directors and teaching faculty to make decisions within the school.

Another form of decentralization, called devolution, entails transferring powers to lower

levels of government. Most often, education responsibilities are transferred to general-
purpose governments at the regional or local levels. Examples are the decentralization of
basic education to local (district) level governments in Uganda. In rare cases additional
responsibilities are given to single-purpose governments, such as the local school district.
When education responsibilities are transferred to general-purpose governments, the elected
governing bodies of those governments must make decisions about how much to spend on
education versus other local services.

It should be noted that here is currently a global trend of decentralizing education systems.
Most countries are experimenting with or contemplating some form of education
decentralization. The process transfers decision-making powers from central Ministries of
Education to intermediate governments, local governments, communities, and schools. The
extent of the transfer varies, however, from administrative deconcentration to much broader
transfer of financial control to the regional or local level. While there are solid theoretical
justifications for decentralizing education systems, the process requires strong political
commitment and leadership in order to succeed. The path, depth, and ultimately, the outcome
of decentralization reforms depends on the motivations for reforms, the initial country and
sector conditions, and the interaction of various important coalitions within the sector.

Reasons to Decentralize Education

In a world where most governments have experienced the pitfalls of centralized education
service provision, mainly: opaque decision-making, administrative and fiscal inefficiency,
and poor quality and access to services, the theoretical advantages of decentralization have
become extremely appealing.
1) In general, the process of decentralization can substantially improve efficiency,
transparency, accountability, and responsiveness of service provision compared with
centralized systems.
2) Decentralized education provision promises to be more efficient, better reflect local
priorities, encourage participation, and, eventually, improve coverage and quality.
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 3) In particular, governments with severe financial constraints are enticed by the potential
of decentralization to increase efficiency.
4) Beneficiary cost recovery schemes such as community financing have emerged as
means for central governments to off-load some of the fiscal burden of education
service provision.
5) Devolution rather than delegation of authority will be more successful because it
provides for continuity in the change process.
6) Opportunities should be transferred from the centre rather than problems.
7) Power sharing arrangements between different levels of government are more
effective when they are negotiated rather than imposed.
8) Unions can be allies of government if both institutions realise benefits from
devolution. The likely opposition of powerful unions is a central problem for reform
in Latin America.
9) Local initiative is reduced when total funding is dependent on central transfers.
10) Phased decentralisation with transfer of authority after localities have passed specific
tests of readiness works best. ‘Big Bang’ approaches are very difficult to execute
successfully.

Challenges of decentralised education systems

1) Decentralised systems can face effectiveness, equity and accountability issues when
badly co-ordinated provision leads to a fragmented system (European Agency, 2016a).
Some of these challenges arise due to central ministries not undertaking monitoring
and training functions to give real decision-making and management power to lower
levels.
2) They may also arise from difficulties in executing decisions at the local level due to a
lack of funding from the decision-makers.
3) The greatest barriers to reform are political. Decentralisation is often identified with a
specific centre of power making it difficult to generate broad and sustained support.
4) Decentralisation does not guarantee improved service delivery or quality. It provides
a new opportunity, but requires leadership and collaboration to realise these goals.
5) Education cannot be fully decentralised but must strike a balance between central
policy setting and local implementation.
Deciding Who Controls What?
There is ongoing debate about the appropriate locus of decision making within the education
sector. The debate remains unresolved because the process requires that policy makers
rationalize and harmonize a complex set of complementary functions, mainly: curriculum
design, teaching methods, student evaluation, textbook production and distribution, teacher
recruitment and pay, school construction and rehabilitation, education financing, and parent-
teacher linkages. The choices of who does what are further complicated because each of these
functions has to be evaluated for primary, secondary, and tertiary education, and often for
preschools and adult literacy as well. Some emerging areas of consensus are summarized in
this table.

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 Impact of Decentralization
The evidence about the impact of decentralization on education services is mixed. In Brazil,
it has increased overall access (enrolments) but has done little to reverse persistent regional
inequities in access to schooling, per capita expenditures, and quality.

Chile's experience also suggests that decentralization does not by itself remove inequalities
between localities of varying incomes, and quality in poorer communities continues to lag.
These results are supported by experiences in Zimbabwe and New Zealand.

However, the design of these decentralized systems has been criticized. One shortcoming
is that central governments have off-loaded responsibilities to local governments and
communities without providing adequate targeted support to poorer areas. The initial
evidence suggests that decentralization to subnational governments may not be sufficient
and that increased autonomy for communities and school actors may be necessary to
improve schools and learning.

By increasing the participation of parents, community-managed schools in El Salvador

show significantly lower rates of student and teacher absenteeism. While this type of
management does not appear to have improved student performance in tests according to a
recent evaluation, it may be just a matter of time before better student attendance translates
into higher student achievement.

Note: Decentralization of education systems demands harmonization of a complex set of

functions, each for primary, secondary, tertiary, and non-formal education. Issues of how
far to devolve decision-making in each of these subsectors, and to whom, continue to be
debated. there are a number of on-going experiments worldwide, ranging from devolution
of limited functions to intermediate governments and local governments, to community-
based management and financing of schools.

The current consensus issue is that tertiary education, and specific functions such as
curriculum design and standards setting are best retained by the centre; secondary and
primary education should be devolved as far as possible; local participation in school
management improves accountability and responsiveness, and fosters resource
mobilization. Yet, the devil is in the details, and there are many details that need to be sorted
out by respective countries.

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 MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS
The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are the eight goals set by the
189 UN member states in September 2000 and agreed to be achieved by the year 2015. The
Millennium Declaration was signed at the September global summit held at the UN
headquarters in New York and the 149 international leaders in attendance committed to
combating disease, hunger, poverty, illiteracy, discrimination against women and
environmental degradation. The MDGs were derived from this Declaration, and specific
indicators and targets were attached to them.
MDG 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Recent gains in millennium development goal 1 have seen the number of hungry people in
the world decrease to fewer than 1 billion, though the Food and Agriculture Organisation of
the United Nations believes that this number is still unacceptably high. Millennium
Development Goal 1 has three targets:
1. To halve the proportion of people whose daily income is less than $1.25
2. To achieve full and productive employment, as well as decent work for all, including
young people and women
3. To halve the proportion of individuals suffering from hunger in the period between
1990 and 2015.
Pioneering efforts have led to profound achievements including:
• A considerable reduction in extreme poverty over the last 25 years. In 1990, nearly
50 percent of the population in developing nations lived on less than $1.25 a day. As
of 2015, that proportion has dropped to 14 percent.
• The number of people living in extreme poverty worldwide has reduced by more than
50 percent. In 1990, 1.9 billion people were said to be living in extreme poverty,
compared to 836 million in 2015. Most progress was seen in the new millennium.
• The number of people living on more than $4 a day those in the working middle class-
has nearly tripled between 1991 and 2015. In 1991, this group made only 18 percent
of the population, and rose to 50 percent in 2015.
• The proportion of undernourished people in the developing world has dropped by
almost 50 percent since 1990; from 23.3 percent in 1990-’92 to 12.9 percent in 2014-
’16.
MDG 2: Achieve universal primary education. There is only one target for millennium
development goal 2:
1. To ensure that children universally including both boys and girls will be able to
complete a full course of primary education by 2015.
The Food and Agricultural Organization of the UN claims that nearly 57 million primary
school age children are not able to attend school; 80 percent of whom live in rural areas.
This has made the urban-rural knowledge and education divide today’s main obstacle to
achieving global primary education by 2015.

The fact that rural children are highly affected by hunger and malnutrition has also seriously
affected their learning ability. As such, food security and primary education should be
addressed at the same time to give rural people the capacity to feed themselves and overcome
hunger, poverty, and illiteracy. Social protection brings together all efforts for education and
food security towards increased effectiveness.

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MDG 3: Promote gender equality and empower women. There was only one target under
millennium development goal 3:
• To eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005, and in all
levels of education by 2015.
It is important to promote the total and equitable participation of both men and women in
efforts aimed at improving poverty reduction, food security, and sustainability of rural
development. Without gender equality and the economic and social improvement for rural
women, food security cannot be achieved.
Some of the achievements of MDG 3 include:
• An increase in the number of girls in school in 2015 compared to 2000. The
developing world as a whole has achieved the goal of eliminating gender disparity in
all levels of education, including primary, secondary, and tertiary.
• In Southern Asia, the number of girls enrolled in primary school was 74 for every
100 boys in 1990. By 2015, there were 103 girls enrolled for every 100 boys.
• The proportion of women in vulnerable employment compared to total female
employment has reduced by 13 percent in the period between 1991 and 2015,
compared to a 9 percent decrease for men.
• Significant gains in women’s parliamentary representation in nearly 90 percent of
174 countries for which data has been available in the past two decades. At the very
least, the average proportion of women in parliament has increased by nearly 100
percent during the last 20 years, yet this still translates to one woman for every five
men.
MDG 4: Reduce child mortality. The Millennium Development Goal 4 has only one target:
• To reduce the under-five mortality rate by two-thirds in the period between 1990 and
2015.
Undernutrition is estimated to contribute to more than 33 percent of all deaths in children
under five. So, efforts to improve household food security and nutrition have increased the
chances of children growing to adulthood.

In this regard, FAO programmes, in combination with efforts by the Renewed Efforts against
Child Hunger and Undernutrition (REACH) and WHO, WFP, and UNICEF have helped
communities and households secure access to nutritionally adequate diets to minimise child
undernutrition. Efforts include the provision of training materials, community-centred
initiatives, training programmes for local and national staff, nutrition education
programmes, and promotion of forums on community nutrition and household food security.

Improving complementary feeding for babies, or giving foods in addition to breast milk, has
led to significant reduction in the child mortality caused by undernutrition.
MDG 5: Improve maternal health. Reduce maternal mortality by 75 percent & achieve
universal access to reproductive health.
Hunger and malnutrition were observed to increase the incidence and fatality rate of the
conditions that contribute to nearly 80 percent of maternal deaths. In this regard, millennium
development goal 5 has two targets:
1. To reduce the maternal mortality ratio by 75 percent
2. To achieve universal access to reproductive health

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Improving maternal health is critical to saving the lives of hundreds of thousands of women
who die due to complication from pregnancy and childbirth each year. Over 90 percent of
these deaths could be prevented if women in developing regions had access to sufficient
diets, basic literacy and health services, and safe water and sanitation facilities during
pregnancy and childbirth.
Some of the achievements of MDG 5 include:
• A 45 percent reduction in the maternity mortality ratio worldwide since 1990, though
most of the reduction occurred since 2000
• A 64 percent reduction in maternal mortality ratio in Southern Asia between 1990
and 2013, and 49 percent in sub-Saharan Africa
• A 12 percent increase in the number of births assisted by skilled health personnel
globally in 2014 compared to 1990 – 59 percent to 71 percent.
• An increase in the proportion of pregnant women receiving four or more antenatal
visits in North Africa from 50 percent in 1990 to 89 percent in 2014.
• Increase in contraceptive prevalence among women 15 – 49 years old – whether
married or in some other union – from 55 to 64 percent between 1990 and 2015.
MDG 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other major diseases. HIV, malaria, and other
diseases directly and indirectly impact food and nutrition security, rural development, and
agricultural productivity. At the same time, malnutrition and food and nutrition insecurity
can increase vulnerability to disease. In this regard, Millennium Development Goal 6 has
three targets:
1. To halt by 2015 and have started to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
2. To achieve global access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for those who need it by 2010
3. To have ceased and started reversal of the incidence of malaria and other major
diseases by 2015.
Some of the achievements of MDG 6 include:
• 40 percent reduction in new HIV infections from 3.5 million cases in 2000 to 2.1
million cases in 2013
• A massive increase in the number of people living with HIV receiving anti-retroviral
therapy (ART) globally, from 800,000 in 2003 to 13.6 million in 2014. ART have
helped avoid over 7.6 million deaths from AIDS between 1995 and 2013.
• Averting over 6.2 million deaths associated with malaria between 2000 and 2015,
mostly of children under five years in sub-Saharan Africa. The universal malaria
incidence rate has also reduced by an estimated 37 percent, and the mortality rate by
58 percent.
• The delivery of over 900 million insecticide-treated mosquito nets to malaria-
endemic countries in sub-Saharan Africa between 2004 and 2014.
• Tuberculosis prevention, diagnosis, and treatment interventions conducted between
2000 and 2013 saved an estimated 37 million lives. The TB mortality rate reduced by
45 percent between 1990 and 2013, while prevalence rate fell by 41 percent within
the same time period.
MDG 7: Ensure environmental sustainability. It is critical that the natural resources base
and ecosystems are managed sustainably to ensure that people’s food requirements and other
social, economic, and environmental needs are sufficiently met. Climate change, conflicts
over access to resources, and increased water scarcity all pose a threat to not only
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environmental sustainability but also food security. As such, millennium development goal
7 has 4 targets:
1. To integrate the principles of sustainable development into every nation’s policy and
programme, and also reverse the depletion of environmental resources
2. To reduce biodiversity loss and achieve a substantial reduction in the rate of loss by
2010
3. To halve the proportion of the universal population without sustainable access to
clean and safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015.
4. To achieve substantial improvement in the lives of a minimum of 100 million slum
dwellers by 2020.

An estimated 30 percent of total land area on the planet is forested. An estimated 1.6 billion
people depend on forests directly for their livelihoods, plus they provide other benefits
enjoyed by all, including clean air and water. Forests also provide a habitat for millions of
plants and animals, as well as catchment for 75 percent of the world’s fresh water. They help
in the adaptation to and mitigation of climate change, though they are under threat from
deforestation.

Hunger and poverty tend to compel the disadvantaged to over-exploit resources on which
their livelihoods depend. Policies, institutions, and strategies for protecting, conserving, and
enhancing natural resources should be strengthened to deliver an enabling environment, and
be based on the specific resource challenged faced in a given location.
Some of the achievements of MDG 7 include:
• The virtual elimination of ozone-depleting substances since 1990. Consequently, the
ozone layer is expected to recover by around the middle of the century
• Substantial increase in marine and terrestrial protected areas in many areas since
1990. In Caribbean and Latin America, coverage of terrestrial protected areas
increased from 8.8 percent in 1990 to 23.4 percent in 2014.
• The number of people using improved drinking water sources has increased from 76
percent in 1990 to 91 percent in 2015.
• 2.6 billion people have gained access to better drinking water since 1990. Of these,
1.9 billion have access to piped drinking water on premises, with 58 percent of the
global population enjoying this level of service in 2015.
• 147 nations in the world have fulfilled the drinking water target; 95 nations have
achieved the sanitation target; and 77 nations have met both.
• 2.1 billion people in the universe have gained access to improved sanitation. At the
same time, the proportion of people practising open defecation has reduced by nearly
50 percent since 1990.
• A reduction in the proportion of urban population in developing nations living in
slums from 39.4 to 29.7 percent in the period between 2000 and 2014.
MDG 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development. Millennium development goal
8 has 6 targets that seek to develop global partnership for development, namely:
• To further develop an open, predictable, rule-based, non-discriminatory trading and
economic system
• To address the special needs of the least developed countries

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 •To address the special needs of small island developing States and landlocked
developing countries
• To deal exhaustively with the debt problems of developing nations
• To provide access to affordable essential drugs in the developing world – in
collaboration with pharmaceutical companies
• To avail benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications,
in collaboration with the private sector
Some of the achievements of MDG 8 include:
• A 66 percent increase in official development assistance from developed nations in
real terms in the period 2000 to 2014, reaching $135.2 billion
• In 2014, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Luxembourg
continued to exceed the UN official development assistance target of 0.7 percent of
gross national income
• Imports from developing to developed countries admitted duty-free increased from
65 percent in 2000 to 79 percent in 2014
• The proportion of external debt service to export revenue in the developing world
reduced from 12 to 3 percent between 2000 and 2013.
• 95 percent of the global population is covered by a mobile cellular signal as of 2015
• The number of mobile-cellular subscription has grown by nearly tenfold in the last
15 years, from 738 million to over 7 billion between 2000 and 2015
• Internet penetration has increased from about 6 percent of the global population to 43
percent between 2000 and 2015. Consequently, 3.2 billion people are now linked to
an international network of content and applications.

Challenges faced in attaining the MDGs

MDG had eight international development goals which were to be achieved by 2015. These
goals were related to poverty, hunger, maternal and child mortality, communicable disease,
education, gender inequality, environmental damage and global partnership. Though MDG
actions helped nations to grow and flourish on these indicators, the expected level of
progress could not be attained in all the indicators in all the countries. Different levels of
analysis and study found that there were multiple factors that hindered the full progress of
MDG.
o Lack of synergy among the goals
o Global economic crisis
o Lack of interconnectivity between the goals
o Less consideration to environmental and economic dimensions
o Narrowed focus to equity issues. Example: gender focus was only explicitly
mentioned in MDG 3 and 5 while missing on other goals
o Limited understanding about the holistic concept of MDG among public health
professionals
o Lack of full ownership and leadership
o Lack of transparency in the use of MDG resources
o Lack of enabling environment
o Limited funding for gender equality and women rights
o Lack of policy space for poorer countries
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 o Political instability
o Existing gaps between the poorest and the richest; rural and the urban areas
o Compromised focus on climate change and environmental degradation
o Conflicts and disputes within and among the countries
o Lack of access to basic health services
o Although not explicitly explained, goals of MDG were mainly centred on the issues
of underdeveloped and developing countries
o Less goals focused for developed nations.

SPECIAL NEEDS ISSUES IN EDUCATION

Special education also referred to as special-needs education, aided education, exceptional
education, alternative provision, exceptional student education, special Education, SDC, or
SPED is the practice of educating students in a way that accommodates their individual
differences, disabilities, and special needs.

Educational needs may also refer to the gaps between the learner’s current level of
knowledge, skills, and attitudes and the desired one, in order to adapt to a new situation
which can be acquired through education.

Educational needs can also be termed as learners’ needs. These are the needs that every
student has while they pursue any degree or education in general. A healthy classroom, good
teachers, a good study routine, all these can be called as educational needs of the students.

There are special students who have special educational needs. All the student needs or
learners’ needs should be considered important. And fulfilling the needs of the learners
should always be the priority of the government of any country. Examples of educational
needs are communication, speech, language needs, behavioural, social, emotional
difficulties, moderate learning difficulties, specific learning difficulties etc.

Provision of special education needs generally involves the individually planned and
systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and
materials, and accessible settings. These interventions are designed to help individuals with
special needs achieve a higher level of personal self-sufficiency and success in school and
in their community, which may not be available if the student were only given access to a
typical classroom education.

Why is it important for teachers to understand special needs issues in education?

1. Many teachers will encounter learners with different special educational needs
throughout their careers.
2. The more knowledge and understanding they have, and the more skilled they are, the
more effective they will be in helping learners with special educational needs advance
successfully through their school years. Without suitable support, some learners may
find it difficult to access the learning taking place.
3. It is important that teachers have an understanding and awareness of SEN so that they
do not make erroneous judgments about the intelligence of the learner and are able to
implement suitable strategies to assist them and ensure equality of access.

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 4. Addressing and accepting learners with special educational needs speaks to the value
of every child and models understanding, flexibility and acceptance of the differences
people will encounter not only in childhood, but throughout life.

What are the challenges of special educational needs?

1. Teachers and parents need to be mindful in labelling a learner as having a disability.
While teachers can make significant observations about a learner and his or her
behaviour, they are not qualified to diagnose. For example, are the difficulties of a
second language learner really ‘learning difficulties?
2. It is important to consider if the environment is contributing to the difficulties a
learner may be experiencing. Schools need to be sensitive to and be aware that
children’s development involves ‘readiness to learn’ and ‘readiness for school’.
o Readiness to learn-means that learners have the cognitive development needed
to learn specific concepts and ideas, and;
o Readiness for school- involves a specific set of cognitive, linguistic, social and
motor skills that enables a child to assimilate the school’s curriculum.
o Paying attention to the environment means ensuring learners feel safe,
supported, stimulated and that the classroom environment is attuned to the
individual learning, social, and physical needs of learners.
3. The challenge of the one size fits all in teaching and learning. The ‘one size fits all’
is not an effective teaching philosophy. Instead, educators should apply the principle
of ‘each child is unique’. This requires educators to be flexible and open-minded.
Children learn at different paces and have different strengths, challenges and
interests. Multiple and complex needs cannot be addressed with one model or
formula. It takes considerable time, creative thinking, collaboration, appropriate
funding, accessibility, research and educator training on an on-going basis.
4. Some countries and organisations may use different terminology other than ‘SEN’.
For example, the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development) has started to use the words ‘disabilities, difficulties and
disadvantages’ (DDD) as well as ‘SEN’.

How can schools support learners with special educational needs?

Many educational institutions have learners with Special Educational Needs in their classes.
Schools can support these students in the following ways:
1) Implementing a policy that clearly outlines the services, supports and personnel
available for children with special educational needs and make this information
readily accessible to parents.
2) Providing opportunities for parents to make informed decisions about placement
options with adequate time and support and inform them about special
arrangements available for learners.
3) Working collaboratively as a team (teachers, health care workers, social workers,
etc.) To provide care holistically for the children with special educational needs.
4) Providing on-going professional development training to all classroom teachers
and assistants so they are informed. For example, workshops, online learning,
teacher coaching and conferences are potential avenues to address this need.

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How can teachers support learners with special educational needs?
Teachers are instrumental in providing a positive and rewarding educational experience for
all children. They can do the following:
1) Integrate their insights and knowledge about both the curriculum and their students
as learners prior to planning instruction and assessment. A good fit is essential
between these two critical components in order to provide appropriate and effective
learning opportunities for all students.
2) Differentiate instruction, by providing learners with the structures needed to
maximise their strengths, address their weaknesses, and experience timely
remediation. This enables students to utilise effective learning strategies and engage
with their learning. As a result, student motivation increases and students remain
interested in learning.
3) Make it possible for children to use recommended learning strategies on an on-going
basis, not just for final exams.

UGANDA’S EDUCATION SYSTEM

Historical Background
Education in all the East African countries was introduced by their former colonial masters.
In Uganda, the British introduced a structure which was similar to what was known to mean
back home. They could not have done otherwise. The French also did the same in their
colonies.

Think: Have you ever asked yourself the question: is education in Uganda relevant to our
needs? Our analysis of education system in Uganda will help you answer such a question.

Education in any country is guided by a concept or ideology or philosophy. It should be

known to you that countries with a clear ideology have one goal guiding heir education
system. In the case of Uganda, we have broad aims which are derived from the national
goals of development and this reflects the aspirations of citizens in our country. It is such
ideologies which differentiate a citizen of one country from another.

The government of Uganda through the Ministry of Education and sports formulates broad
aims of education in order to achieve her goals and this has been debated on and revised in
the education policy Review Commission report (1989) and the Government white paper on
Education (1992).

You should note that the broad aims of education cannot show what different learners at
different levels are expected to achieve from the education system. In order to specify what
each group of learners should gain from the education system the broad aims of education
are broken down to cater for different levels of education. Let us analyse the structure of
Uganda’s education system. This includes primary, secondary technical tertiary and higher
education.

Present day education structure in Uganda

The existing structure of education has been in force since the early sixties that is since the
publication of the castle commission`s report of 1963.
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The structure consists of seven years of primary education followed by secondary cycle of
4 years leading to UCE and the upper secondary cycle of two years leading to UACE after
which there are three to five years of university studies.
a) Pre-primary Education
Before primary education there exists, pre-primary education meant for children of 4 to 5
years and below to help them on their mental health and social growth.

From your interpretation of the above phase, it should be noted that pre primary institutions
should be properly planned and monitored in order to provide education. As a (primary)
teacher you should be conversant with this level of education.
b) Primary Education
This is the most important component of the education system. It is formal education given
to children of 6-13 years old with the purpose of giving them the basic values, skills and
knowledge that are capable of helping them to live an independent life or prepare them for
further studies.

However, you are aware that primary education is still largely theoretical in nature and
approach. The school curriculum is not related to the needs of the community served by the
schools. This means that it still fails to equip leaners with the necessary knowledge, skills
and attitudes.

Extending the present seven-year cycle to eight years to enable the youth to mature
sufficiently in order to benefit from vocational training
c) Secondary Education
We hope you know what secondary education is. You will realize that since independence
and particularly during the 1980`s secondary education has expanded considerably. A
substantial increase in enrolment and number of secondary schools has been recorded. In
spite of this development very few primary school leavers, every year are absorbed in the
general secondary schools.

More so, the unplanned expansion and increase in the schools motivated by political
experience affected secondary schools in several aspects.

You will realize that the critical issues pertaining in secondary education are not very far
from those of primary education.

What are some of the critical issues in Ugandan secondary education?

These include;
Existence of unqualified and untrained teachers,
Poor management and administration
Quality of education has not been satisfactory as reflected in a theoretical curriculum
basically preparing students for entry into higher education.
Most secondary schools require rehabilitation in terms of construction or repair of physical
facilities and provision of equipment.

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Think of more issue in secondary education and suggest ways of overcoming these
problems. You will need to refer to the reforms in primary education and we shall look at
some more in topics to come.
Teacher Education
As a teacher you know that your role is meaningful in the implementation of various
education policies and programmes. Experience has shown in Africa and elsewhere that
teachers as individuals contribute to nation. Building through loyalty to the state and
participation in solving natural problems provided that are properly mobilized. You need to
know that government has always been concerned about the quality of its teachers. From
time to time, it has put programmes aimed at constantly keeping a teacher up-to-date. You
are aware that there are two types of teacher education in Uganda; that is pre-service and in-
service teacher education. These are offered within the various teacher training institutions
in Uganda at different levels.

You should know that as a country strives to develop, it requires an education which is
manned by trained teachers. However, in Uganda the education system has not been able to
produce the necessary number of trained teachers and also teachers are not quite contented
with their work. Further still there is a problem of decreasing number of people joining the
teaching service. The consequence of this is that untrained teachers are instead recruited to
replace trained teachers especially in the primary schools.

From our discussion of the structure of education in Uganda there are evident claims that
the education system has for a long time been seriously affected by many problems all of
which relate to all sectors of our education system although some are more serious at some
levels than at others.

Education Administration and Management

You notice that the management and administration of education in Uganda is under the
Ministry of Education and sports where the minister is the political leader responsible for
policies in education and answerable to Cabinet. Below him is the permanent secretary who
is the administrative executive of the ministry. The professional management and
administration of education is the responsibility of the commissioner for education and the
chief inspector of schools. Below these two are both professional and the administrative
executives who organize and supervise the implementation of educational policies.

You might already know that almost all the policy decisions were made centrally by the
ministry of Education and sports. In recent years due to decentralization some offices have
been made to decentralize the services by establishment of Education zones, covering one
to four districts; each headed by an education officer.

You realize that at school, or college level, the head teachers, principals and teachers manage
and administer the day-to-day programmes of schools and colleges. But school management
is weak in the education system of Uganda.

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Community involvement
It is indeed true that the schools in most developing countries are seen to be a means of
escaping from the usual environment and not an institution to assist directly in changing the
environment.

Unfortunately, it is true that communities are not well sensitized and mobilized to be fully
involved in education matters, so it is your role as a teacher to effectively sensitize and
mobilize the community and integrate the school with the community.

EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Introduction
Discussing education in America will give the students the opportunity to compare and
contrast the system of education in America and Uganda.
Background
Each State in America has the power to establish its own system of education. The local
districts under the States also have the power to establish school boards and to found schools
as well. The power of the States to set up schools does not in any way, prevent the church
from establishing schools in any of the states.
The Education Levels in America include:
(a) Nursery Education
(b) Elementary or Primary Education
(c) Secondary Education
(d) Teacher Education and
(e) University and Adult Education.
a) Nursery Education
At the beginning, nursery education was part of primary school between 1868 and 1873. By
1888, nursery education had spread to many places in America. The Lanham education Act
of 1940 also enhanced the development of nursery education in America by giving
subventions from the federal government to nursery education.

Later on, individuals who had interest in the education of children started to part take in the
running of nursery schools. Also, the churches were participating in the running of nursery
school.
b) Elementary or Primary Education
Primary Education in America is the education given to the children which has the duration
of six years. The purpose of American primary education includes:
(a) turning out well-adjusted citizens
(b) helping the children to be active participants in the building of their own lives and also
to assist them in understanding the roles expected of them in establishing a better American
society.

The primary school subjects include: Mathematics, Science, Geography, History, Social
Studies, English language, English literature, French, German and Spanish. However,
religious subjects are not included in the school curriculum as Americans have freedom of
worship.

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In the primary schools, the promotion of the pupils is always based on continuous
assessment and not on any promotion examination. It is the duty of the Local Schools Board
to provide some of the school
materials.

A public primary school is headed by the principal who is the administrative head of the
school. While the primary school teachers are expected to have a university degree, the
principals are in addition expected to have master’s degree of educational administration
and supervision.

The failure of the Federal Government to include Religious Instructions in the school
curriculum was one of the reasons that forced the Catholic church to establish their own
schools where religious instruction was included in the school curriculum. By implication,
there are both private and public primary schools in America.
c) Secondary Schools in America
Secondary education in America is the type of education given to the adolescents on the
basis of three years in the Junior Secondary School and three years in the Senior Secondary
School. This can be referred to as 3-3 secondary education system. The aims and objectives
of American Secondary Education include:
1) Creating a strong egalitarian society where everybody will have equal opportunities.
2) Preparing students for survival in the future.
3) Preparing the students for their colleges and universities. Some States in America
provide free secondary education and free textbooks for their citizens particularly up
to the age of sixteen years. The products of primary schools are always admitted into
the secondary schools.

There are both public as well as private secondary schools in America. The Ordinance Act
1785 which made it mandatory for each township to set its sixteenth section for the use of
education as well as the North West Ordinance of 1887 greatly enhanced the development
of education in America.

However, the problem of sub-standardized secondary schools and willingness to provide

secondary education for many American children led to the introduction of Junior High
School.

In the Junior High School, the students are expected to spend three years after their primary
education that is between the age of 12-15 years. After successfully completing the Junior
Secondary Education, the students will start their Senior High School Education which is
meant for the students, who are academically inclined.

The public senior high schools are tuition free. Provision of learning materials for schools
and the general financing of schools are responsibilities of the local school district.

In America, private high schools or secondary schools are also allowed by the constitution.
However, unlike the public high schools, tuition is not free and the teaching of religious
education is allowed.

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It is on record that America has started operating 6-3-3-4 education system, yet, the old
system of 8-4 years is still in operation (eight years of primary education and four years of
secondary education).
Overview of K-12 Education
Elementary and secondary education in the U.S. is often collectively referred to as K-12
education, a kind of shorthand that refers to the grades through which students progress. The
“K” refers to kindergarten, typically housed in the elementary school system. Thus, K-12
education is 12 years long for most students, plus kindergarten. As part of K-12 education,
an elementary school typically enrols students from kindergarten or sometimes first grade
through the fifth or sixth grades. Students then move on to a lower secondary school known
usually either as a middle school or a junior high school. The last four or sometimes three
years of school are usually known as high school, or sometimes senior high school.

Since education in the U.S. is so highly decentralized, various models of K-12 education
exist. The chart below shows some of the most typical models:

For example, in some states, elementary schools enrol students from kindergarten to fifth
grade, after which students will spend sixth through eighth grades in middle school and then
ninth through 12th grades in (senior) high school. In other cases, students go to middle
school for just the seventh and eighth grades, with the years before spent in elementary
school and the years after in (senior) high school. In some cases, particularly in smaller, rural

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schools, students may go to the same school from kindergarten through 12th grade, or in
some other combination.

K-12 education is virtually universal. All students are guaranteed a free public education
through the 12th grade. In 2014, there were more than 50 million children enrolled in public
K-12 education.9 According to UNESCO’s Institute of Statistics (UIS), this translates into a
net enrolment ratio (NER) of 93.7, meaning that roughly 93.7 percent of elementary and
secondary age children were enrolled in the age-appropriate level of school. Most students
in the K-12 system study at public schools only about 10 percent of students were enrolled
in private schools in 2015/16, most of them at sectarian or parochial institutions (schools
affiliated with a faith tradition, such as Catholic schools, Baptist schools, Lutheran schools
etc.).

The minimum compulsory school age varies by state and ranges from age 5 to age 7, though
children generally enter kindergarten at age 5. The main reason for the differences in
mandatory starting age has to do with different state regulations. According to the Education
Commission of the States, which maintains a database of various state education policies,
15 states plus the District of Columbia require students to attend kindergarten. The
remaining 35 states do not. Five states do not require their school districts to make
kindergarten available to students as either half- or full-day kindergarten: Alaska, Idaho,
New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. The rest require that either be made available.

The maximum mandatory age of education also varies per state, usually from 16 to 18 years
of age, or in some cases, students can drop out earlier if a certain grade level is completed.
Most states mandate the offering of free public education to students until they reach a
certain age (if not complete), with most ranging from ages 19 to 22.

Admission into public schools is usually automatic based on residency. While private
schools and some so-called magnet schools for gifted students (see below) may have
additional admission requirements, there are generally no admissions tests at public
secondary schools. High-demand schools may assign seats by lottery.

English is the main language of instruction in virtually all schools, with the exception of
some territories, notably Puerto Rico, where Spanish predominates. State policies also vary
regarding instruction in other languages, generally to English language learners (ELLs) who
are recent immigrants.
Elementary Education
Elementary schools typically teach students from kindergarten through either grade five or
six. (As mentioned, students will begin anywhere from age 5 to 7, depending on differences
in state policies, particularly regarding whether kindergarten is compulsory or even offered).

Kindergarten is traditionally structured as an early childhood education program, a “pre-

primary” program, but it is often housed in elementary schools. Public kindergarten is free.
Some kindergartens, however, are stand-alone programs, and there are a number of other
institutions that provide different forms of preschool education, including day care centres

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and nursery schools. Pupils can enrol in some preschool programs at the age of 3, but
typically they start kindergarten at age 5. Programs can be either a full day or a half day.

Kindergarten is a concept originally developed in Germany-the term is German for “garden

of children”-that was brought to the U.S. in the 19th century. Traditionally, kindergarten
programs were meant to be developmental rather than academic, emphasizing learning
through play (following the model of education theorists such as Maria Montessori), with
some early citizenship education (following the model of John Dewey). However, starting
in the latter half of the 20th century, kindergarten became more academic and incorporated
more set curriculum and instruction, as parents wished for their children to acquire academic
skills earlier than the first grade, when academic instruction was traditionally introduced.
Today, kindergarten curriculum often focuses on very basic reading and numeric skills and
other areas such as basic science, art, and music.

Beginning with the first grade, all students receive full-time academic instruction. Usually,
elementary school students receive instruction in their core subjects from the same teacher
for the entire year, but may be instructed by specialist teachers in subjects such as art, music,
physical education (PE), and computer science.

States determine the curriculum, and districts, schools, and individual teachers decide how
to implement it. Typical core subjects are language arts (reading, writing, grammar, and
spelling in English), mathematics, science, and social studies (geography, state history, U.S.
history, world history). Students may also receive instruction from their regular teacher or
specialist teachers in art, music, drama, PE, computer science, and other subjects. They often
also visit the library on a weekly basis.

Secondary Education: Middle School and High School

Typically, middle school or junior high school (lower secondary education) encompasses
sixth through eighth grades, seventh and eighth grades, or occasionally seventh through
ninth grades. Sixth grade usually starts around age 11.

High schools mostly run from 9th grade to 12th grade. Some such schools run 10th grade to
12th grade. Ninth grade usually starts around age 14, and students usually graduate around
age 18. In some cases, middle school and high school are combined into one school, running
from sixth or seventh grade until 12th grade.

In most middle schools and high schools, students have five or six periods of instruction
each day and a different teacher for each subject. Teachers usually stay in their own
classrooms and students change rooms for each class subject, moving during short “passing
periods.” Student schedules are not uniform in most cases. According to the Department of
Education, “Each secondary school student has a unique schedule and set of classes, which
is determined by the parents, school counsellor and student, based upon local graduation
requirements and the student’s interests, career goals, and academic ability.”
Curriculum
The typical curriculum at both the middle school and high school levels comprises English,
mathematics, science, social studies, fine arts, and physical education (PE. Mathematics
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courses are typically sequential, with algebra starting in the eighth or ninth grade. According
to the Department of Education, a typical high school (9th through 12th grade) curriculum
includes the following year-long courses:
• Four years of English
• Four years of history or social studies
• Three years of mathematics
• Three years of science
• Two years of foreign language
• Two years of the arts
• Four years of technical, vocational, or business education
• One year of computer science
• Two to three years of other subjects

Just as with elementary education, states determine the general core curriculum and high
school graduation requirements. School districts, schools, and teachers then decide on
implementation. Either the state or the school district selects the textbooks.

In many parts of the country, foreign language learning, including American Sign Language
(ASL) does not start until high school. By far, the most common foreign language to study
is Spanish, with almost 70 percent of K-12 students learning this language. French, German,
Chinese, and Latin are the next most common. Chinese, in particular, is rising in popularity.

During middle school and high school, students can often select one or several electives per
year. The types of electives offered vary widely. Some electives may be specialized
offerings related to core subjects, particularly at the high school level. For example, in lieu
of or in addition to a standard English class, students may be able to take a course in
American literature, British literature, or women’s literature. Other electives may focus on
student interests and abilities, such as visual art, music, drama, debate or the school
newspaper. Some are also meant to teach practical life skills. For example, a once common
elective class, home economics teaches students how to cook, sew, and perform other
household tasks, but has become less common.

In many middle schools and high schools, there is a short class usually known as homeroom,
typically at the very beginning of the school day. The length of homeroom varies from
school to school but is usually much shorter than other classes. The purposes of homeroom
can also vary, but they are usually designed to record daily school attendance, give daily
announcements to students, and generally provide a place for students to receive guidance
from a specific teacher. Usually, a teacher of any subject can serve as a homeroom teacher.
Students may or may not be given a grade for homeroom, and it may or may not appear on
transcripts or other student academic records.

Extracurricular and co-curricular activities are usually offered at most middle and high
schools and are often make up a large part of students’ school experiences. Extracurricular
activities mostly take place outside of regular class time and do not provide credit toward
graduation. Sports and theatrical productions (such as play or musicals) are among the most
common. Other extracurricular activities, such as chess, science projects, or foreign
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language study, may be organized by student clubs. During the college admissions process
many universities and colleges look favourably at student involvement in out-of-class
activities.
d) Teacher Education in the United States of America
Teacher education in America like in other places refer to the professional training being
given to the would-be teachers. The aims and objectives of American Teacher Education
include:
(a) Preparing teachers for the needs and aspirations of American as a democratic nation.
(b) Preparing teachers who will later assist in the training of American children for the
purpose of promoting their culture. The establishment of Jefferson College in Washington
among others in the 1800s marks the beginning of teacher education in America.

The preparation of primary school teachers is always done by the normal schools. These
normal schools are recognized by the State Boards of Education for the training of primary
school teachers.
The subjects being offered in thee training institutions include:
Administration, psychology, philosophy, History of education.
On the other hand, the secondary school teachers are expected to be university degree
holders after a period of four years either in a college or in the university.

In most cases, teachers' appointment is always on contract basis and it is renewable yearly,
provided the concerned teacher is still interested in working in his school. At the same time,
the school district board of education has the constitutional power to terminate the contract
appointment of any of its teachers.
e) The American University Education
In America, higher education is provided in the colleges of education, higher technical
institutes and universities. In 1862, the American Government passed the Morrill Act which
made it compulsory for the Americans to make land available to the American Federal
Government for the development of universities and higher institutions of learning. There
are two major categories of higher education institutions in America, they are:
(a) The state universities and colleges which are maintained by the state and
(b) Independent universities and colleges which are run by various churches and private
individuals. In these private colleges and universities, high school fees are changed. A
degree programme lasts for four years.
f) Adult Education in America
The beginning of adult education can be traced to the establishment of Lyceum in
Massachusetts in 1826. Also, the Smith Lever Act of 1914 as well as the adult education
Association of the United States in 1951 greatly contributed to the development of Adult
Education in America. Adult education in American is run by private individuals such as
lawyers, physicians, architects, teachers and musicians for the purpose of self culture,
community instruction as well
as the mutual discussion of common public interest.

In 1906, the university extension was started and this has been extended to most of the
universities in America.

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 g) Technical Education
There have been some technical institutions as early as the middle of 19th century. But there
was no serious attempt to promote technical education until when the Mosco technical
school was able to perform creditably well at the international exhibitions in the 1970s.
Thereafter, more technical institutions began to spring up in America.

Also, the Morill Act of 1862 assisted in the development of technical education, private
individuals started founding both commercial as well as business colleges.

The Smith-Hughes Act among other things recommended that a Federal Board of vocational
education should be set up. It was on the basis of this that the Federal Board of vocational
education was established in which a substantial amount of money was set aside by the
federal government for the general promotion of vocational and technical education
throughout America.
h) Administration of Education in America
Education in America is decentralized. Therefore, it is the responsibility of each estate as
well as the private individuals to take care of their schools. In 1867, the National Officer of
Education was set up and it is being headed by the Education Commissioner who is an
appointee of the president of America. The federal government always assists the state
governments in the funding of technical and vocational education. The state universities are
financially aided by the Federal
Government.

At the State level, there is a state department of education under the headship of Education
Director who is elected by the people within the state for a period of two to four years.

Locally, each local government has a local board of education, usually headed by a
Superintendent of schools in the district. His duties include: appointing teachers and other
personnel who will be working with him. He also works on the finance of schools founded
by the local government.
i) Finance of Education in America
In the whole of America, less than 60 per cent of the total cost of both public primary and
secondary schools comes from the taxes levied by the local school boards. Also, the state
government always sets aside about 40 per cent of its annual budget for the running of the
public schools. The bulk of this money is generated from the state taxes as well as the taxes
paid by the state workers.
In the private schools, starting from the primary school up to the university, the students pay
school fees in addition to the taxes being paid by the parents. Also, some well to-do
individuals in America always assist the private schools financially.
j) The Education of Women in America
In primary and secondary schools, there has normally been no difference made between boys
and girls in the USA. The development of higher education for women was a by-product of
the general movement for feminine emancipation. The American spirit of innovation and
the degree of local freedom in educational matters has pointed the way for dev elopement in
women education. Educational opportunities for women began in the first half of the 19th

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century. Opportunity emerged both as a co-educational experience and segregated school at
the college level. With the expansion of state institution. Education was crucial to the
eventual quality and quantity of women`s education.

Eventually, state universities opened their doors to women. The expanding schools home
economics and nursing which arose in the co-educational institutions drastically altered and
improved their academic rank and are making their voice more distantly heard in academic
today.
k) The Education of Minorities in the USA
One of the objectives of the education process in the USA is to remove the emotional barriers
so that all citizens attain a full realization of their rights and privileges.

However, such objectives are expressed much more readily than achieved. The Negro
question is very acute domestic problem in the States. The segregation in the educational
system is most rigidly enforced, but the administration and supervision is entirely in the
hands of the whites. The white directors and inspectors are not interested in the Negro
schools. The results of this deliberate policy of neglect are deplorable. The majorities of
Negro schools are small and lack the most elementary school equipment. The compulsory
attendance is not enforced, the qualification of the Negro teachers are not strict and their
salaries are far below the average compared to that of white teachers, the inequalities are
still more pronounced.

ROLE OF EDUCATION IN FORGING UNITY OUT OF DIVERSITY

Unity and Diversity are two contrasting concepts. The ideas embodied in each concept
oppose the other. Unity is defined as the state of being one or singleness (The American
Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, 2000). Unity is agreement or
harmony, while diversity refers to variety, assortment or mixture. Unity has something to do
with similarity in one way or another. On the other hand, Diversity is the point where things
differ (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, 2000).
Diversity has something to do with differences and variety.

Unity out of diversity referrers to the principle that unity can be achieved in spite of the
differences of people. These differences may be both physical and psychological barriers.
For example: differences may be physically, mentally, culturally, economically, and
socially. Diversity may cause segregation and resentment.

It should be noted that unification regardless of any grouping or boundary stems from similar
goals and aspirations. Therefore, unity in diversity comes into the picture when the diverse
characteristics of students and teachers are unified and utilized in the achievement of
learning. Adjustments, compromises and understanding should be emphasized in the process
of unification. Education plays the following role:
o The Educational System, even with its several parts, functions and members has unity
in a sense that there is an agreement in the goals and the objectives of the school.
o The purpose of the existence of schools is the same or should be uniform. The main
aim is to promote learning and instil knowledge, skills and values to the students.

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 o Schools are institutions for learning and thus should primarily serve the purpose of
facilitating and encouraging fulfilling learning experiences.
o Language of instruction: A common language spoken by all the students in schools
helps to unite them. People speaking different ethnic dialects cannot easily unite if
they cannot understand each other.
o While in school, children learn about their common history and culture. They learn
about different issues which exposes them to the beliefs of other communities as well
as their way of life. This fosters unity out of diversity.
o Promoting equity in the classroom begins with understanding the students and
families. If students are in need of technology and internet access, teachers can
provide opportunities to complete assignments before or after class. They can also
advocate for more resources in the classroom.
o Every student has their own learning style. In a diverse classroom, teachers should
be encouraged to use different learning strategies. These strategies might include
project-based learning, textbook, peer-to-peer, video-based or blended learning
(which includes a little bit of each).

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