Module-4

[Link] to be considered while selecting a suitable transducer

While selecting a transducer for a particular measurement, the following points should be
considered:

1. Range

The range of a transducer should be wide enough to measure all possible values of the
quantity being measured.
If the range is too small, the transducer may get damaged or give incorrect readings.

2. Sensitivity

Sensitivity means how much output the transducer gives for a small change in input.
A good transducer should produce a sufficient and clear output signal so that accurate and
meaningful data can be obtained.

3. Electrical Output Characteristics

The output impedance, frequency response, and response time of the transducer should
match with the recording or measuring instrument.
If they are not compatible, the output signal may be distorted or delayed.

4. Physical Environment

The transducer should be able to withstand environmental conditions such as:

 Temperature changes

 Shock and vibration

 Moisture

 Corrosive chemicals

Some transducers are sensitive to these conditions and may fail if used in unsuitable
environments.

5. Errors

Every transducer has some inherent errors. Errors can also be caused by environmental
effects.
These errors should be small or controllable, so that accurate measurements can be made.
Methods to reduce total measurement error

Even if errors are present, the total measurement error can be reduced by the following
methods:

1. Calibration

The transducer output should be calibrated with known standards under actual working
conditions.
Calibration should be done regularly during measurements.

2. Monitoring Environmental Conditions

Changes in environmental conditions such as temperature or humidity should be

3. Artificial Environmental Control

Errors can be reduced by controlling the environment of the transducer.

 Using temperature-controlled enclosures

 Protecting the transducer from vibrations and shocks

Construction

 It consists of a thin elastic diaphragm.

 Strain gauges (resistive elements) are bonded on the diaphragm.

 The strain gauges are connected in a Wheatstone bridge circuit.

 Pressure is applied on one side of the diaphragm.

Working Principle

 When pressure is applied, the diaphragm deflects (bends).

 Due to this deflection, the strain gauges experience tensile or compressive strain.

 Because of strain, the resistance of the gauges changes.

 This resistance change unbalances the Wheatstone bridge.

 The bridge produces an output voltage proportional to the applied pressure.

Output Relation

Δ R ∝ Applied Pressure

Advantages

 Simple construction

 Good sensitivity

 Suitable for static and dynamic pressure

Applications

 Hydraulic systems

 Gas pressure measurement

 Industrial process control

Construction

 It consists of a resistive track.

 A sliding contact (wiper) moves along the resistive element.

 A DC voltage is applied across the resistive track.

 The wiper is mechanically connected to the moving object.

Working Principle

 When the object moves, the wiper moves along the resistive track.

 This changes the resistance value between the wiper and the ends.

 As resistance changes, the output voltage also changes.

 The output voltage is directly proportional to the position (displacement).

Advantages

 Simple and low cost

 High output signal

 Easy to use

Disadvantages

 Mechanical wear due to sliding contact

 Limited life

Applications

 Linear and rotary displacement measurement

 Machine tools,Robotics and automation systems

An RTD is a temperature transducer that measures temperature by using the change in

Principle:

RTD works on the principle that the resistance of metals changes with temperature.
This means that as temperature goes up, resistance goes up in a known way.
So, by measuring the resistance, we can find the temperature.

Rt =R0 (1+ αt) Where:

 Rt = resistance at temperature t

 R0 = resistance at 0°C

 α = temperature coefficient of the metal

Construction:

The sensing part is a thin metal wire made of platinum, nickel, or copper.
This wire is wound around a ceramic or glass rod to hold it in place.
It is then covered with a metal tube to protect it from dust and damage.
Finally, wires are attached to both ends to measure the temperature.

Working:

1. A small electric current is passed through the RTD wire.

2. When temperature changes, the resistance of the wire changes.

3. This change in resistance is converted into a change in voltage, which can be read as
temperature.
 As temperature increases → resistance increases → output voltage changes.

Advantages:

 Very accurate and stable

 Linear relationship between resistance and temperature

 Works over a wide temperature range

 Long life and reliable

Disadvantages:

 Costly compared to thermistors

 Slow response due to protective cover

 Needs a power source to work

Thermistor

Definition:
A Thermistor is a temperature-sensitive resistor whose resistance changes rapidly with
temperature.

Principle:

A thermistor works on the principle that the resistance of a semiconductor material

There are two types of thermistors:

1. NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient):

o Resistance decreases when temperature increases.

o Most commonly used type.

2. PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient):

o Resistance increases when temperature increases.

 A thermistor is made using semiconductor materials like manganese, nickel, cobalt,

 They are then covered with glass to protect them from heat and damage.
Finally, two wires are connected to it so it can be joined to an electrical circuit.

Working:

 When temperature changes, the resistance of the thermistor changes.

 This change in resistance is measured as a change in voltage or current in a circuit.

 The amount of resistance change tells us the temperature value.

Advantages:

 High sensitivity to small temperature changes.

 Small size and low cost.

 Fast response time.

 Easy to use in electrical circuits.

Disadvantages:

 Non-linear behavior (needs calibration).

 Limited temperature range (usually up to 150°C).

 Self-heating error may occur due to current flow.

Bonded Type Strain Gauges

 Bonded metal wire gauges measure stress and build transducers.

 Fine resistance wire forms a grid on a carrier like paper or Bakelite.

 Top cover protects wire from mechanical damage.

 Base materials include impregnated paper for room temperature use.

 Adhesives must be quick-drying, moisture-resistant, and match backing.

 Leads use low-resistivity materials with stable temperature coefficients.

 Metal foil gauges extend wire design but have replaced them.

 Foil gauges suit general stress analysis and transducers.

 Grids enable precise strain detection in bonded setups.

Semiconductor Strain Gauges

 Offer high gauge factor (around 130) for tiny strains like 0.01 microstrains.

 Rely on piezo-resistive effect: strain changes resistivity.

 Use silicon or germanium as resistive material.

 Excellent hysteresis for repeatable measurements.

 Good frequency response for dynamic applications.

 Small sizes (0.7-7mm) measure local strains accurately.

 Very temperature-sensitive, needing compensation.

 Poor linearity limits broad-range use.

 More expensive and harder to attach than metal types.

 Ideal where high sensitivity trumps linearity.