UNIT-5 Global Environmental Issues and Policies

 Causes of Climate change, Global warming, Ozone layer depletion, and Acid rain; Impacts on
human communities, biodiversity, global economy, and agriculture.
 International agreements and programmes: Earth Summit, UNFCCC, Montreal and Kyoto
protocols, Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Ramsar convention, The Chemical Weapons
Convention (CWC), UNEP, CITES, etc.
 Sustainable Development Goals: India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change and its major
missions
 Environment legislation in India: Wildlife Protection Act, 1972; Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974; Forest (Conservation) Act 1980; Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act,
1981; Environment Protection Act, 1986; Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest Dwellers
(Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.

FULL FORMS:

1. Climatologists of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

2. UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change)
3. CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species)
4. UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme)
5. Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)
6. India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
7. IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources)
8. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
9. National Green Tribunal (NGT)
10. National Green Corps (NGC)
11. National Environment Awareness Campaign (NEAC)
12. Conference of the Parties (COP)
13. Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB)
14. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
15. State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB)
16. Forest Rights Act (FRA)
17. Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)

CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change refers to long-term alterations in temperature and weather patterns, largely driven
by human activities. The primary cause is the release of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂),
methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O), especially from burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and
industrial emissions.

The average temperature in many regions has been increasing in recent decades. The global average
surface temperature has increased by 0.6° + 0.2° C over the last century. Globally, 1998 was the
warmest year and the 1990s the warmest decade on record. Many countries have experienced
increase in rainfall, particularly in the countries situated in the mid to high latitudes. In some regions,
such as parts of Asia and Africa, the frequency and intensity of droughts have been observed to
increase in recent decades. Episodes of El Niño, which creates great storms, have been more
frequent, persistent, and intense since mid-1970s compared to the previous 100 years.

IMPACT:

Climate change  Rise in surface temperature  Frequent weather extremes & Increase in
El Nino frequency & intensity + Rise in Global Sea levels Impacting Coastal Populations +
Poor Food & water, Reduced Freshwater  Increase in Diseases & Starvation & Malnutrition
+ Disruption in vector Species  Spreading diseases like Malaria, Dengue, yellow fever etc.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) forecasts a global mean surface temperature
rise of 1.4°C to 5.8°C this century, with greater warming over land and at high latitudes. This will
likely lead to more frequent weather extremes like floods, droughts, and heat waves, and an increase
in El Niño frequency and intensity. Global mean sea levels are projected to rise by 9 to 88 cm,
severely impacting coastal populations, particularly in regions like the Nile and Ganges-Brahmaputra
deltas, and small islands.

These climatic changes will seriously affect human societies and health. Extremes like droughts and
floods will compromise safe drinking water, food production, and shelter. Reduced freshwater
availability and damaged sewage systems will increase the risk of infectious diseases. Decreased food
production in vulnerable areas will lead to starvation and malnutrition, potentially causing conflict
and displacement, creating environmental refugees and further health issues. Additionally, changes
in climate may alter the distribution of vector species like mosquitoes and ticks, spreading diseases
such as malaria, filariasis, dengue, yellow fever, Lyme disease, and tick-borne encephalitis to new
regions with inadequate public health infrastructure.

Impact of Climate Change

On the Global Economy

 Reduced productivity due to extreme weather (floods, droughts, storms)

 Increased costs for disaster recovery and adaptation (infrastructure, insurance)
 Disruption of trade and global supply chains
 Damage to tourism and climate-sensitive industries
 Greater economic inequality — poor countries suffer more despite contributing less
Example: Cyclones and rising sea levels increase damage costs in coastal cities.

On Agriculture

 Lower crop yields due to heatwaves, drought, or floods

 Shift in growing seasons – some crops may no longer grow in traditional areas
 Increased pests and diseases
 Reduced water availability for irrigation
 Threat to food security and rising food prices
Example: Wheat and rice yields may decline in South Asia due to high temperatures.

On Biodiversity
  Loss of habitat due to rising temperatures, melting ice, deforestation
 Extinction of species unable to adapt or migrate
 Coral bleaching and destruction of marine ecosystems
 Disruption of food chains and ecosystems
 Increased spread of invasive species
Example: Polar bears are losing their hunting grounds due to melting ice.

On Human Health

 More heat-related illnesses (like heat strokes)

 Spread of vector-borne diseases (like malaria, dengue) to new regions
 Poor air quality leads to respiratory issues
 Food and water insecurity causes malnutrition
 Mental health issues after disasters and displacement
Example: Higher temperatures help mosquitoes breed in previously cool areas.

On Rural Livelihood (Especially Women)

Climate change has significantly affected rural livelihoods by disrupting agriculture, livestock, and
access to natural resources. Irregular rainfall, droughts, and floods lead to crop failure, food
insecurity, and income loss. These issues are especially harsh for women, who bear the brunt of
climate-related hardships. As men migrate for work, women are left to manage farms and
households, often without resources or decision-making power. They must walk longer distances to
collect water and fuel, increasing physical strain and reducing time for education or income activities.
Climate change thus deepens existing gender inequalities and worsens the economic vulnerability of
rural women.

On Urban Livelihood

Urban livelihoods are increasingly threatened by the effects of climate change, especially in cities
with dense populations and informal economies. Extreme heat, water scarcity, and flooding disrupt
daily life, damage infrastructure, and reduce work opportunities. Informal workers like street
vendors, domestic helpers, and daily-wage laborers often lose income during such events. Heatwaves
increase health risks, particularly for the elderly and those in poorly ventilated housing. Rising costs
of food, electricity, and water further strain urban families. Slum dwellers face the worst
consequences due to poor living conditions. Climate change also contributes to overcrowding as
rural migrants seek refuge in cities.

GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming is the long-term rise in Earth's average surface temperature, primarily due to human
activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels. Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane
(CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O), trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere, leading to global warming.

Human activities during the last few decades of industrialisation and population growth have
polluted the atmosphere to the extent that it has begun to seriously affect the climate. Carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by 31% since pre-industrial times, causing more heat to be
trapped in the lower atmosphere.
This causes glacier melting, sea level rise, extreme weather, and ecosystem disruption. (same as
climate change)

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone is formed by the action of sunlight on oxygen. It forms a layer 20 to 50kms above the surface
of earth. This action takes place naturally in the atmosphere, but is very slow. Ozone is a highly
poisonous gas with a strong odour. It is a form of oxygen that has three atoms in each molecule. It is
considered as a pollutant at ground level and constitutes health hazard by causing respiratory
ailments like asthma and bronchitis.

It also causes harm to vegetation and leads to a deterioration of certain materials like plastic and
rubber. Ozone in the upper atmosphere however, is vital to all life as it protects the earth from the
sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiations. The ozone layer in the upper atmosphere absorbs the sun’s
ultraviolet radiations, preventing it from reaching the earth’s surface. This layer in the atmosphere
protects life on earth from the dangerous UV radiations from the sun. In the 1970s, scientists
discovered that chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs, which were used as refrigerants and
aerosol spray propellants, posed a threat to the ozone layer.

IMPACT:

Depletion of Ozone  Increase in Cases of Skin Cancer & Cataracts + Damage to Crops &
Plankton  Affecting Nature’s Food chain & web  Increase in CO2 due to decrease in
vegetation.
The destruction of the ozone layer is seen to cause increased cases of skin cancer and cataracts. It
also causes damage to certain crops and to plankton, thus affecting nature’s food chains and food
webs. This in turn causes an increase in carbon dioxide due to the decrease in vegetation.

With the signing of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, a treaty for the protection of the ozone layer, the
use of CFCs was to be banned by the year 2000. After 2000, the ozone layer is expected to recover
slowly over a period of about 50 years.

ACID RAIN

When fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas are burned, chemicals like sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides are produced. These chemicals react with water and other chemicals in the air to
form sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and other harmful pollutants like sulphates and nitrates. These acid
pollutants spread upwards into the atmosphere and are carried by air currents to finally return to the
ground in the form of acid rain, fog, or snow.

In the US, coal burning power plants contribute to about 70% of sulfur dioxide. In Canada, oil
refining, metal smelting, and other industrial activities account for 61% of sulfur dioxide pollution.
Motor vehicle exhaust fumes are the main source of nitrogen oxides.

IMPACT:

Acid Rain  Depleting Soil Nutrients & Damaging plants  pollutes water, contaminates soil
& poison plants  Harmful effect on health + Acidifying Aquatic Ecosystems  Harming
plant & animal life + Disrupting Food Chain + damaging man-made structures.
Acid rain causes widespread environmental damage by:

 Depleting soil nutrients essential for plant growth and releasing toxic substances like
aluminum and mercury, which can pollute water and poison plants.

 Damaging plants and trees by removing soil nutrients and directly harming leaves, creating
brown spots that hinder photosynthesis and making trees more vulnerable to insects,
drought, and cold. Forests, especially spruce and fir at high elevations, are particularly at risk.

 Acidifying aquatic ecosystems like rivers, lakes, and wetlands as acid rain falls or flows into
them, harming plant and animal life. Different species have varying tolerance levels, but even
a pH of 6.0 can be lethal to organisms like clams and mayflies.

 Disrupting food chains and endangering entire ecosystems by affecting individual species,
which in turn impacts other organisms, including land animals dependent on aquatic life.

 Damaging man-made structures by corroding materials like stone and metal, affecting
buildings, automobiles, and historical monuments such as the Parthenon and Taj Mahal.

 Indirectly harming human health as toxic substances leached from soil can contaminate
water supplies. Consuming fish from these acidic waters can be harmful, and acid rain
contributes to urban smog, causing respiratory problems.

INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS AND PROGRAMMES

1. Earth Summit (1992)

The Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, was a key global conference on environment and
development. It resulted in Agenda 21, a non-binding action plan for sustainable development
worldwide. The summit also led to the formation of important treaties like the UNFCCC, Convention
on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification. It marked a turning
point in international environmental policy, emphasizing the balance between economic
development and environmental sustainability.

2. UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) - 1992

The UNFCCC, established during the 1992 Earth Summit, is a global treaty aimed at stabilizing
greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. It laid the foundation for international climate
agreements, including the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement. The treaty promotes cooperation
among nations to reduce emissions, adapt to climate impacts, and share technology and financial
support. It holds annual conferences called COPs (Conference of the Parties) to review progress and
set new targets.

3. Montreal Protocol (1987)

The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty designed to phase out substances that deplete the
ozone layer, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). It is one of the most successful environmental
agreements, with universal ratification by all UN member states. The treaty has led to a significant
recovery of the ozone layer and is considered a landmark in global environmental cooperation. It is
also seen as a model for addressing other environmental issues, including climate change.
4. Kyoto Protocol (1997)

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted under the UNFCCC and came into force in 2005. It legally binds
developed countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions based on set targets. The protocol
introduced mechanisms like carbon trading and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). Although
effective in raising awareness, it faced criticism for excluding developing nations from binding targets
and for low participation by major emitters like the U.S. It was succeeded by the Paris Agreement in
2015.

5. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) - 1992

The CBD, signed in 1992, aims to conserve biological diversity, ensure sustainable use of its
components, and promote fair sharing of benefits from genetic resources. It covers ecosystems,
species, and genetic diversity. The convention promotes national strategies for biodiversity
conservation and encourages scientific cooperation and financial support for developing countries. It
plays a key role in protecting endangered species and ecosystems globally.

6. Ramsar Convention (1971)

The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of
wetlands. Signed in Ramsar, Iran, it recognizes wetlands as ecosystems vital for biodiversity, climate
regulation, and water purification. It identifies and protects wetlands of international importance,
known as Ramsar sites. India is a party to the convention and has over 70 designated Ramsar sites.
The treaty encourages wise use of wetlands through local, national, and international cooperation.

7. CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) – 1973 & enforced in 1975

CITES regulates the international trade of wild animals and plants to ensure it does not threaten their
survival. It includes over 38,000 species listed in three appendices based on their risk of extinction.
Trade in these species is either banned or strictly controlled through permits. CITES helps combat
wildlife trafficking and protects endangered flora and fauna from exploitation due to illegal or
unsustainable trade.

8. UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) - 1972

UNEP is the leading global environmental authority within the UN system. Established in 1972, it
coordinates environmental activities, develops global environmental standards, and supports
countries in implementing sustainable policies. UNEP publishes key reports like the Emissions Gap
Report and Global Environment Outlook. It also assists in climate change mitigation, biodiversity
conservation, and pollution control. Its headquarters is in Nairobi, Kenya.

9. Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) - 1993 (came into force 1997)

The CWC is a multilateral treaty that bans the development, production, stockpiling, and use of
chemical weapons. Though not an environmental treaty in the strictest sense, it contributes to
environmental protection by ensuring the safe destruction of toxic chemicals that can harm
ecosystems and human health. The treaty is implemented by the Organisation for the Prohibition of
Chemical Weapons (OPCW).

Agreement/Programme Year Purpose Key Outcomes / Features

Earth Summit (Rio 1992 To promote sustainable Led to Agenda 21, UNFCCC, CBD,
Summit) development globally and action against environmental
degradation

UNFCCC (United Nations 1992 To stabilize greenhouse Annual COP meetings, foundation
Framework Convention gas levels for Kyoto and Paris Agreements
on Climate Change)

Montreal Protocol 1987 To phase out ozone- Successfully reduced use of CFCs;
depleting substances ozone layer is recovering

Kyoto Protocol 1997 (enforced Legally binding GHG Introduced carbon trading, CDM;
in 2005) emission reduction replaced later by the Paris
targets for developed Agreement
countries

Convention on 1992 Conservation of Promotes national biodiversity

Biological Diversity biodiversity and fair strategies and international
(CBD) benefit-sharing cooperation

Ramsar Convention 1971 Protection and wise use Ramsar Sites designated globally;
of wetlands encourages sustainable wetland
use

CITES (Convention on 1973 (came into To regulate trade of Categorizes species into 3
International Trade in force 1975) endangered species Appendices based on extinction
Endangered Species) risk

UNEP (United Nations 1972 Coordinates global Publishes environmental reports,

Environment environmental efforts supports policy development
Programme)

Chemical Weapons 1993 (came into Bans chemical weapons Overseen by OPCW; ensures safe
Convention (CWC) force 1997) disposal of hazardous chemicals

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS & INDIA’S NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON CLIMATE CHANGE

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 global goals adopted by the UN in 2015
under Agenda 2030. They cover poverty, health, education, gender equality, clean water, climate
action, life on land, and more. SDG 13 (Climate Action) specifically urges countries to take urgent
steps to combat climate change and its impacts.

India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), launched in 2008, outlines strategies to
combat climate challenges through eight missions:

1. National Solar Mission – Promotes solar energy use.

 2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency – Reduces energy consumption.

3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat – Improves urban planning and waste

management.

4. National Water Mission – Promotes water conservation and efficient usage.

5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem – Protects fragile ecosystems.

6. National Mission for a Green India – Expands Forest cover.

7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture – Promotes climate-resilient farming.

8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change – Improves research and
awareness.

These missions aim to promote clean energy, water conservation, ecosystem preservation, and
climate-resilient agriculture. NAPCC integrates climate goals with India's development agenda,
encouraging the use of technology and community participation for a low-carbon, sustainable future.

Together, these missions aim to integrate sustainable practices into national development and
reduce India’s vulnerability to climate change, while aligning with international commitments under
the Paris Agreement.

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION IN INDIA

In India, environmental protection and improvement has been in practice since ancient times. In
ancient India, simple but quite effective laws were in place to protect and conserve environment. The
present-day constitution of India allows the state to protect and improve the environment to
safeguard public health, forests, and wildlife.

1. Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 was enacted to safeguard India’s rich wildlife heritage by
prohibiting hunting and regulating trade in wildlife products. It established protected areas like
national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves. The act categorizes species into
schedules for varying levels of protection, with Schedule I species receiving the highest. It also sets up
institutions like Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB). This law plays a vital role in conserving
endangered species such as the Bengal tiger, elephant, and rhinoceros, while promoting ecological
balance and biodiversity protection.

2. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

The Water Act of 1974 aims to prevent and control water pollution and to maintain or restore the
wholesomeness of water in India. It led to the establishment of the Central and State Pollution
Control Boards (CPCB and SPCBs), which monitor and regulate water pollution. The act empowers
these boards to set standards for sewage and industrial effluents and take action against polluters. It
applies to all streams, inland waters, and groundwater, and emphasizes the treatment of wastewater
before discharge. The act marked a significant step toward sustainable water resource management.

3. Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

 The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 regulates the diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes
such as mining, dams, or infrastructure. It mandates prior approval from the central government
before any such use. The act aims to prevent deforestation and ensure forest lands are preserved for
ecological stability. It also focuses on afforestation and compensatory afforestation in case forest
land is diverted. This act plays a crucial role in protecting forest ecosystems, wildlife habitats, and
tribal communities that depend on forests for their livelihood.

4. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

The Air Act, 1981 was passed to combat air pollution and ensure clean air across India. It empowers
the Central and State Pollution Control Boards to monitor air quality and control emissions from
industries and vehicles. The act defines air pollutants and emission limits, and allows the government
to declare air pollution control areas. It promotes cleaner fuels and technologies, and holds polluters
accountable. The act complements the Water Act, strengthening India's legal framework for
environmental protection. It's crucial in tackling urban air quality issues like smog and particulate
matter.

5. Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

The Environment Protection Act, 1986 was enacted in response to the Bhopal gas tragedy. It is an
umbrella legislation that provides a comprehensive framework for the protection and improvement
of the environment. The act gives the central government broad powers to regulate industrial
pollution, hazardous waste management, and environmental clearances. It allows for the closure of
polluting units and sets environmental standards. It also enables the government to take emergency
measures to protect public health and ecosystems. This act is the backbone of India’s environmental
governance.

6. Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act,
2006

Commonly called the Forest Rights Act (FRA), this law recognizes the rights of forest-dwelling tribal
communities and other traditional forest dwellers to forest land and resources. It aims to correct
historical injustices faced by these communities due to evictions and denial of access to forests. The
act provides for individual and community forest rights, including the right to use, manage, and
protect forest areas. It ensures participation of Gram Sabhas in decision-making and forest
management. FRA is a landmark social and environmental justice legislation supporting both human
and ecological sustainability.

Act Year Focus Area Main Authority Unique Feature

Objective Involved

Wildlife 1972 Wildlife To protect wild Wildlife Crime Species listed in

Protection Act (animals, animals and Control Bureau Schedules (Schedule
birds) regulate trade (WCCB) I = highest
protection)

Water 1974 Water bodies To prevent & Central & State First act to establish
(Prevention & (rivers, lakes, control water Pollution CPCB/SPCBs
Control of groundwater) pollution Control Boards
Pollution) Act (CPCB & SPCB)

Forest 1980 Forests & To regulate use Central Requires prior

(Conservation) forest land of forest land Government central approval;
Act for non-forest (Ministry of promotes
purposes Environment, compensatory
Forest and afforestation
Climate Change)

Air (Prevention 1981 Air quality To control air CPCB & SPCBs Defines air
& Control of pollution from pollutants, creates
Pollution) Act industries, pollution control
vehicles zones

Environment 1986 Overall To protect Central Umbrella Act – gives

Protection Act environment environment Government wide powers to
from industrial regulate air, water,
pollution & waste, etc.
disasters

Forest Rights 2006 Tribal & forest To recognize Gram Sabhas, Empowers tribal
Act (FRA) dwellers' rights rights of forest Ministry of communities with
communities Tribal Affairs land, resource, &
community rights

Unit 6: Biodiversity and Conservation

 Definition of Biodiversity; Levels of biological diversity: genetic, species and ecosystem diversity
 India as a mega-biodiversity nation; Biogeographic zones of India; Biodiversity hotspots; Endemic
and endangered species of India; IUCN Red list criteria and categories
 Value of biodiversity: Ecological, economic, social, ethical, aesthetic, and informational values of
biodiversity with examples; sacred groves and their importance with examples
 Threats to biodiversity: Habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation; Poaching of wildlife; Man-
wildlife conflicts; Biological invasion with emphasis on Indian biodiversity; Current mass
extinction crisis
 Biodiversity conservation strategies: in-situ and ex-situ methods of conservation; National Parks,
Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Biosphere reserves; Keystone, Flagship, Umbrella, and Indicator species;
Species reintroduction and translocation
 Case studies: Contemporary Indian wildlife and biodiversity issues, movements, and projects
(e.g., Project Tiger, Project Elephant, Vulture breeding program, Project Great Indian Bustard,
Crocodile conservation project, Silent Valley movement, Save Western Ghats movement, etc)

BIODIVERSITY
The word Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms (flora and fauna). Biodiversity or
Biological diversity is defined as the variability among all living organisms from all sources, including
terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are part.

Bio  living organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms)

Diversity  variety & variability of living organisms

LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature’s variety in the biosphere. This variety can be
observed at three levels i.e., genetic, species, and ecosystem.

1. Genetic Diversity

Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within species. It includes differences among
individuals of the same species (like different breeds of dogs or varieties of rice). This diversity
enables species to adapt to changing environments and resist diseases. High genetic diversity
improves survival and reproduction rates, making populations more resilient. For example, in
agriculture, maintaining multiple crop varieties ensures food security against pests, droughts, or
climate change. Loss of genetic diversity increases vulnerability to extinction.

2. Species Diversity

Species diversity denotes the variety of different species in a given ecosystem or the entire planet. It
includes species richness (the number of species) and species evenness (how evenly individuals are
distributed among those species). India is among the world’s 15 nations that are exceptionally rich in
species diversity. It can be divided into:

o Alpha Diversity: Refers to the species diversity within a particular area or ecosystem
(local scale), such as the number of species in a pond or forest patch.
o Beta Diversity: Measures the difference in species composition between two
ecosystems or habitats; it indicates how species change from one environment to
another.
o Gamma Diversity: Represents the overall diversity of species in a large region or
landscape that includes multiple ecosystems (regional scale).

3. Ecosystem Diversity

Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of ecosystems in a geographical area. This includes different
habitats such as forests, wetlands, grasslands, deserts, and aquatic environments. Each ecosystem
supports unique species and ecological processes. Diverse ecosystems provide essential services like
climate regulation, water purification, and soil fertility. Ecosystem diversity is vital for global
ecological balance and human well-being. Protecting different ecosystems ensures the survival of
both biodiversity and the communities that depend on them.

INDIA AS A MEGA-BIODIVERSITY NATION

India is one of the world’s mega-biodiversity nations, hosting about 7-8% of all recorded species
despite covering only 2.4% of the Earth's surface. This richness is due to its varied climate,
topography, and biogeographic history.

Biogeographic Zones

Biogeographical zones are geographical areas distinguished by their unique flora and fauna,
reflecting diverse ecosystems and species adapted to specific environmental conditions

Our country can be divided into 10 major regions based on the geography, climate, and pattern of
vegetation seen and the communities of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, insects, and other
invertebrates that live in them. Each of these regions contains a variety of ecosystems such as
forests, grasslands, lakes, rivers, mountains, and hills which have specific plant and animal species.

1. Trans-Himalayan
2. Himalayan
3. Desert
4. Semi-arid
5. Western Ghats
6. Deccan Peninsula
7. Gangetic Plain
8. North-East India
9. Islands
10. Coasts

Biodiversity Hotspots

Biodiversity hotspots are regions with exceptionally high levels of species diversity and endemism
(species found nowhere else), as well as significant threats to their habitats. To qualify as a hotspot,
a region must have at least 1,500 endemic vascular plant species and have lost at least 70% of its
original habitat.

There are 4 biodiversity hotspots in India:

1. Western Ghats
2. Himalayas
3. Indo-Burma region
4. Sundaland (Nicobar Islands).

These hotspots have high species richness and endemism but face severe habitat loss.

ENDEMIC & ENDANGERED SPECIES

Endemic species are plants or animals found exclusively in a specific geographic area and nowhere
else in the world. They are often highly adapted to their unique environment and can have
specialized traits that allow them to thrive in a particular habitat. India is home to many such species
due to its diverse habitats, like the Nilgiri Tahr in the Western Ghats and the Andaman wood pigeon
in the Andaman Islands.
The species of plants and animals whose existence is in danger by human activities are called
endangered species. An endangered species is any species facing a high risk of extinction, either
globally or within a specific region. These species are at risk due to various threats, including habitat
loss, poaching, invasive species, and climate change. Example: Bengal Tiger, Indian Rhinoceros, Snow
leopards. These endangered species have been categorized into four:

i. Vulnerable
ii. Rare
iii. Intermediate
iv. Threatened

Endangered species which are on verge of extinction are called threatened species. Examples: Asian
elephant, Ganges River Dolphin. Today most of the endangered species are found only in protected
areas. Habitat loss caused by human activity is causing threat to plants species like orchids. Over
harvesting of medicinally important plants as ingredients in medical products or cosmetics is also
threatening species.

IUCN RED LIST

IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international
organization which is responsible for assessment of species across the world. It was established in
1964. IUCN conducts field survey to monitor species in every country. Based on the survey, IUCN
classify plants and animals in different categories. It's a crucial tool for understanding and addressing
the risk of extinction. The list provides information on population size, distribution, habitat, and
threats facing each species, helping to inform conservation efforts. This information about current
status of species is published by IUCN in ‘Red Data List’ publication.

The Red List helps policymakers, researchers, and conservationists prioritize species protection,
design conservation strategies, and raise global awareness. In India, species like the Great Indian
Bustard (CR) and Asiatic Lion (EN) are listed, emphasizing the urgent need for conservation action.

VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY

1. Ecological Value

Biodiversity maintains ecosystem stability and resilience by supporting essential ecological processes
such as nutrient cycling, pollination, seed dispersal, and climate regulation. Different species play
specific roles that keep ecosystems functioning properly. For example, plants produce oxygen and
absorb carbon dioxide, while decomposers break down organic matter. Loss of biodiversity can
disrupt food chains and lead to ecosystem collapse, affecting all life forms, including humans.

2. Economic Value

Biodiversity provides a wealth of resources that contribute directly to the economy, including food,
timber, medicine, and raw materials for industries. Many livelihoods, especially in rural areas, depend
on harvesting natural resources sustainably. Ecosystem services like pollination enhance agricultural
productivity, while tourism related to wildlife and natural areas generates income. Protecting
biodiversity thus supports economic development and poverty alleviation.

3. Social Value
Biodiversity enriches cultural identities and traditions. Many communities, especially indigenous
peoples, rely on nature for food, medicine, and rituals. Natural landscapes offer recreational and
spiritual benefits, promoting mental health and social cohesion. Festivals, folklore, and traditional
knowledge often revolve around local biodiversity. Hence, biodiversity supports societal well-being
and helps maintain cultural diversity.

4. Ethical Value

The ethical value of biodiversity is based on the principle that all living beings have an inherent right
to exist. Humans have a moral responsibility to protect other species and preserve nature for future
generations. This respect fosters conservation ethics and promotes sustainable use of resources,
emphasizing that humans are part of, not separate from, the natural world.

5. Aesthetic Value

Biodiversity contributes to the beauty and inspiration of natural landscapes, which have artistic,
spiritual, and recreational importance. Scenic forests, colorful flowers, and diverse wildlife uplift
human spirits and foster creativity. Many artists, poets, and writers draw inspiration from nature’s
diversity, while ecotourism benefits from the aesthetic appeal of biodiversity-rich areas.

6. Informational Value

Biodiversity is a vital source of scientific knowledge, offering insights into genetics, ecology, and
evolution. Studying diverse species helps develop new medicines, agricultural techniques, and
biotechnologies. Biodiversity also serves as a living library, providing data that can help predict
environmental changes and guide conservation strategies. Protecting biodiversity ensures ongoing
opportunities for learning and discovery.

SACRED GROVES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

Sacred groves are patches of forest or natural vegetation protected by local communities due to
religious or cultural beliefs. These groves hold deep religious, spiritual, and cultural significance for
the people who safeguard them, often for generations.

Sacred Groves are patches of natural vegetation or forests dedicated to local deities or ancestral
spirits, traditionally protected by indigenous communities. These groves hold deep religious,
spiritual, and cultural significance for the people who safeguard them, often for generations.

Importance:

 Biodiversity Conservation: Sacred Groves act as vital repositories of biodiversity, often

harboring rare, endemic, and endangered plant and animal species. They serve as micro-
hotspots of genetic diversity and can be the last remnants of native vegetation in a region.

 Ecological Balance: They play a crucial role in maintaining local ecological balance by
conserving soil, retaining water, and providing a conducive microclimate. Many groves are
associated with water bodies like ponds or springs, helping recharge aquifers.

 Cultural Heritage: Sacred Groves are an integral part of the cultural and spiritual fabric of
local communities, representing a long-standing tradition of nature worship and conservation.
They are sites for rituals, festivals, and social gatherings, reinforcing the human connection
with nature. Moreover, they also play a vital role in community-driven conservation efforts.
Examples include the Khasis’ sacred groves in Meghalaya, known for their rich biodiversity, and the
Aravalli sacred groves in Rajasthan, which help conserve native flora and fauna.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

1. Habitat Loss, Degradation, and Fragmentation

Habitat loss occurs when natural areas like forests and wetlands are cleared for agriculture, urban
development, or infrastructure. This reduces the living space available for species. Degradation
lowers habitat quality due to pollution or resource overuse. Fragmentation breaks habitats into
smaller, isolated patches, limiting animal movement and breeding. These changes reduce biodiversity
by causing population declines and extinction, disrupting ecosystems.

2. Poaching of Wildlife

Poaching is the illegal hunting or capturing of wildlife for trade, trophies, or traditional medicine.
Species like tigers, elephants, rhinos, and pangolins are heavily targeted for their skins, tusks, horns,
or body parts. Poaching threatens species survival by drastically reducing populations and disrupting
natural breeding. It also undermines conservation efforts and leads to loss of genetic diversity.

3. Man-Wildlife Conflicts

Man-wildlife conflict happens when wild animals damage crops, livestock, or property, or threaten
human safety. Common examples include elephants raiding farms or leopards entering villages.
These conflicts often result in retaliation against animals, including killing or capturing them. Such
conflicts arise from shrinking wildlife habitats and increasing human encroachment, posing serious
threats to both humans and wildlife.

4. Biological Invasion

Invasive alien species are non-native plants, animals, or microbes introduced intentionally or
accidentally. They can spread rapidly, outcompeting native species for resources. Examples include
Lantana camara, water hyacinth, and Parthenium weed in India. These invasions disrupt ecosystem
functions, reduce native biodiversity, and cause economic losses in agriculture and fisheries.

5. Current Mass Extinction Crisis

Earth is experiencing a mass extinction event, with species disappearing 100 to 1,000 times faster
than natural background rates. Driven primarily by human activities—habitat destruction, pollution,
climate change, overexploitation, and invasive species—this crisis threatens global biodiversity. Loss
of species diminishes ecosystem services vital for human survival, making urgent conservation action
essential.

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION STRATEGIES

In-situ conservation: It means “on-site conservation.” It is the method of conserving all the living
species, especially the wild and endangered species in their natural habitats and environment.
Wildlife conservation is mostly based on in-situ conservation. In-situ conservation of biodiversity
includes biosphere reserves, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, etc. Habitat is protected with all the
other species that is in nature. Biodiversity at all levels can be best preserved in-situ by setting aside
wildness as protected areas in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries with distinctive ecosystem
included in the network.

Ex-situ conservation: It means, literally “off-site conservation.” Conserving the species outside the
natural habitat in a carefully controlled situation, such as botanical garden for plants or zoological
parks for animals, expertise exists to multiply species under artificially managed condition. It
safeguards endangered species from extinction by providing controlled environments for breeding
and research, facilitating later reintroduction into the wild. While ex-situ conservation is comprised
of some of the oldest and best-known conservation methods known to human, it also involves
newer, sometimes controversial laboratory methods. Furthermore, ex-situ conservation techniques
are often costly.

PROTECTED AREAS

Protected areas are designated regions established by governments to conserve biodiversity, protect
endangered species, and preserve natural ecosystems. They help maintain ecological balance by
restricting human activities that can harm wildlife and habitats.

National Parks are strictly protected areas where ecosystems and wildlife are conserved in their
natural state. Human activities like hunting, grazing, and resource extraction are prohibited to
maintain the area’s ecological integrity. Examples in India include Jim Corbett National Park and
Kaziranga National Park. National Parks often focus on preserving large landscapes and flagship
species.

Wildlife Sanctuaries are areas where certain human activities are permitted, but wildlife protection
remains a priority. These areas provide refuge for animals and allow some sustainable use of natural
resources by local communities. Examples include the Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary and Periyar Wildlife
Sanctuary. The main aim is to protect particular species or groups, with more flexible regulations
compared to National Parks.

Biosphere Reserves are larger, zoned protected areas designed to balance biodiversity conservation
with sustainable human development. Biosphere Reserves aim to integrate conservation with the
livelihoods of local communities and promote scientific research and environmental education.
Examples include the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve.

Together, these protected areas form the backbone of biodiversity conservation by safeguarding
habitats, supporting species survival, and promoting ecological research and sustainable
development.

SPECIES:

1. Endemic
2. Exotic/Alien
3. Rare
4. Invasive
5. Common
6. Keystone
7. Flagship
8. Umbrella
9. Indicator
 10. Threatened

Keystone Species: Keystone species have a disproportionately large impact on their ecosystems
relative to their abundance. Their presence helps maintain ecological balance by controlling
populations of other species, ensuring ecosystem stability. Example: Tigers regulate prey populations
in forests.

Flagship Species: Flagship species are charismatic animals used to raise public awareness and
support for conservation. They act as symbols for broader environmental campaigns. Example: The
Bengal tiger represents conservation efforts in India.

Umbrella Species: Umbrella species require large habitats and diverse resources, so protecting them
also safeguards many other species in the same ecosystem. Example: Asian elephant conservation
protects vast forest areas benefiting numerous species.

Indicator Species: Indicator species reflect the health of an ecosystem. Their presence, absence, or
abundance signals changes in environmental conditions, such as pollution or climate impacts.
Example: Frogs are indicators of freshwater ecosystem health.

SPECIES REINTRODUCTION AND TRANSLOCATION

Species reintroduction involves releasing captive-bred or locally extinct animals back into their
natural habitats to restore populations and revive ecosystems. It helps re-establish species that have
disappeared due to habitat loss, hunting, or other threats. Translocation is the deliberate movement
of species from one location to another, often to safer or more suitable habitats, to prevent
extinction or reduce human-wildlife conflict. Both strategies aid in biodiversity conservation by
enhancing genetic diversity, increasing population sizes, and restoring ecological balance. Successful
programs include the reintroduction of the Indian rhinoceros in Kaziranga and the translocation of
Asiatic lions in India.

CASE STUDIES

 Project Tiger (1973)

Launched in 1973, Project Tiger is a flagship wildlife conservation initiative by the Government of
India aimed at protecting the Bengal tiger and its habitat. The project established tiger reserves with
strict protection measures to prevent poaching and habitat destruction. It has helped stabilize and
increase tiger populations in India. Key tiger reserves include Ranthambore, Bandipur, and
Sundarbans. Project Tiger also focuses on scientific monitoring, community participation, and
awareness programs to ensure long-term survival of tigers and their ecosystems.

 Project Elephant (1992)

Initiated in 1992, Project Elephant aims to protect wild Asian elephants and their habitats across
India. The project focuses on reducing man-elephant conflicts, preventing poaching, and conserving
elephant corridors for safe movement. It supports research, habitat management, and community
involvement to safeguard elephant populations. Major elephant reserves include Kaziranga and
Nilgiri. The project also works to raise awareness about elephant conservation and mitigate threats
from habitat fragmentation.

 Project Great Indian Bustard (2011)

Started in 2011, Project Great Indian Bustard focuses on conserving the critically endangered Great
Indian Bustard, a large bird native to arid and semi-arid regions. The project targets habitat
protection, captive breeding, and reducing threats like hunting and habitat degradation. It
emphasizes community participation and scientific research. Key conservation areas include
Rajasthan’s Desert National Park. The project aims to increase the bustard population and prevent its
extinction.

 Vulture Breeding Program

India’s vulture population suffered a catastrophic decline (over 97%) in the 1990s and early 2000s,
primarily due to the veterinary drug diclofenac, which caused kidney failure in vultures feeding on
livestock carcasses. In response, the government banned veterinary diclofenac in 2006 and launched
vulture conservation breeding programs. These programs aim to breed vultures in captivity and
release them into the wild once safe habitats are restored. Important breeding centers have been
established at Pinjore (Haryana), Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh), and Rani (Assam). They focus on critically
endangered species like the White-rumped Vulture, Indian Vulture, and Slender-billed Vulture. These
scavengers are vital for public health, as they prevent the spread of diseases by disposing of
carcasses efficiently. The program combines breeding, research, monitoring, and awareness to
restore their populations sustainably.

 Crocodile Conservation Project (1975)

Launched in 1975, the Crocodile Conservation Project was one of India’s earliest large-scale wildlife
conservation efforts. It aimed to protect three native crocodilian species: the Mugger, the Gharial,
and the Saltwater Crocodile. The population of these reptiles had dwindled due to habitat
destruction, poaching, and fishing-related conflicts. The project involved establishing crocodile
sanctuaries, captive breeding and reintroduction, and community-based conservation. Important
breeding centers were set up in states like Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. Odisha’s
Bhitarkanika National Park became a major success story for saltwater crocodile recovery. The
program helped increase populations and educated local communities about the ecological role of
crocodiles in maintaining riverine ecosystems. It remains a landmark in India’s conservation history,
laying a foundation for future species recovery programs.

 Silent Valley Movement

The Silent Valley Movement was a landmark environmental movement in India during the 1970s and
early 1980s, aimed at protecting the Silent Valley, a tropical evergreen forest in Kerala’s Palakkad
district. The Kerala State Electricity Board had proposed building a hydroelectric dam on the Kuntsi
River, which would have submerged large parts of this pristine rainforest. Scientists,
environmentalists, and local communities opposed the project, citing the forest's rich biodiversity,
including rare species like the Lion-tailed Macaque, and its status as one of the last undisturbed
tracts of tropical rainforest in India. Prominent figures like M. K. Prasad and Romulus Whitaker played
key roles in the movement. Eventually, in 1983, then-Prime Minister Indira Gandhi intervened, and
the project was cancelled. In 1985, Silent Valley National Park was declared, marking one of India’s
earliest victories in ecological conservation through public action.

 Save Western Ghats Movement

The Save Western Ghats Movement emerged in the 1980s in response to the increasing
environmental degradation of the Western Ghats, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the
world’s eight “hottest hotspots” of biodiversity. The movement was a grassroots effort by scientists,
activists, and local communities who were alarmed by deforestation, mining, dam construction, and
unregulated tourism in the region. It gained momentum after the Western Ghats March (1987–88),
where activists travelled across the length of the Ghats from Gujarat to Kerala to raise awareness.
The movement advocated for sustainable development, tribal rights, and ecosystem conservation. It
led to a series of public hearings, policy reviews, and the involvement of institutions like the Madhav
Gadgil Committee and the Kasturirangan Committee, which recommended eco-sensitive zones. The
movement laid the groundwork for participatory and science-based approaches to biodiversity
conservation in India.

Unit 7: Human Communities and the Environment

 Human population growth: Impacts on environment, human health, & welfare; Carbon foot-print
 Resettlement and rehabilitation of developmental project affected persons and communities;
relevant case studies
 Environmental movements: Chipko movement, Appiko movement, Silent valley movement,
Bishnois of Rajasthan, Narmada Bachao Andolan, etc
 Environmental justice: National Green Tribunal and its importance
 Environmental philosophy: Environmental ethics; Role of various religions and cultural practices
in environmental conservation
 Environmental communication and public awareness: case studies (e.g., CNG vehicles in Delhi,
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, National Environment Awareness Campaign (NEAC), National Green
Corps (NGC) “Eco-club” programme, etc)

HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH

Rapid population growth increases the demand for resources such as water, food, energy, and land,
leading to overexploitation and environmental degradation. Growth in the human population can be
largely attributed to some advancement in the recent past in the field of agriculture, science,
technology, and health facilities. Factors responsible for human population growth: Increase in
agricultural productivity, Decrease in death rate and infant mortality rate, Advancement in Science
and Technology, Lack of awareness.

Impacts on Environment, Health, and Welfare

Increase in Population  Immense Pressure on Natural resources  Deforestation, Pollution, Loss of

Biodiversity + Demand for Land, Water & Energy  Env Degradation + Poor Sanitation & Unsafe
drinking water  Spreading of Diseases  Affecting Public Health + Unavailability to quality
healthcare & education + Increase in Unemployment & Poverty  Reduction in Overall Welfare
Rapid human population growth puts immense pressure on natural resources, leading to
deforestation, pollution, and loss of biodiversity. It increases the demand for land, water, and energy,
causing environmental degradation like air and water pollution, waste accumulation, and a rising
carbon footprint. Overcrowding in urban areas results in poor sanitation, unsafe drinking water, and
the spread of communicable diseases, directly affecting public health. Access to quality healthcare,
education, and housing becomes more difficult, especially in developing countries. Moreover,
unemployment and poverty may rise, reducing overall human welfare. Climate change, food
insecurity, and water scarcity are intensified by population pressure, making it crucial to adopt
sustainable development practices to balance human needs and environmental conservation.

Carbon Footprint

A carbon footprint is the total greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual, organization,
event, or product, expressed in CO₂ equivalents. Population growth significantly increases global
carbon footprints through industrialization, transportation, energy use, and food production. Higher
emissions contribute to climate change, which affects weather patterns, agriculture, and sea levels.
Urbanization leads to energy-intensive lifestyles (using ACs, private vehicles, consumption of
processed food), further increasing emissions. Reducing carbon footprints involves shifting to
renewable energy, adopting public transportation, recycling, and choosing sustainable food habits.
Education and awareness campaigns help people adopt low-carbon lifestyles. Governments can
enforce stricter emission regulations and promote green technologies to limit per capita emissions.

Resettlement and Rehabilitation of Project-Affected Communities

Large development projects like dams, mining, and highways often displace local communities.
Resettlement and rehabilitation (R&R) aim to restore the livelihoods, housing, and social conditions
of displaced persons, but implementation is often fraught with challenges.

Resettlement involves relocating communities from their original lands, while rehabilitation ensures
they regain their standard of living post-displacement. However, affected people often lose access to
their traditional livelihoods, especially tribal and rural populations dependent on natural resources.
Compensation is frequently inadequate or delayed, and new settlements may lack access to water,
education, and healthcare. A prominent example is the Narmada Valley Project, which led to large-
scale displacement without adequate rehabilitation. Effective R&R requires community participation,
legal safeguards, and long-term support. Governments must prioritize sustainable development that
minimizes displacement and upholds the rights of vulnerable communities.

ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS IN INDIA

Environmental movements in India have historically emerged from grassroots resistance to

environmental destruction. These movements aim to protect forests, rivers, wildlife, and the rights of
marginalized communities. Each movement addresses specific ecological threats and showcases the
power of community-led conservation.

 Chipko Movement – 1970s

The Chipko Movement began in the 1970s in Uttarakhand when villagers, particularly women,
hugged trees to prevent logging by contractors. "Chipko" means "to hug," symbolizing non-violent
protest against deforestation. The movement emphasized the dependence of local communities on
forests for fuel, fodder, and water, and highlighted how deforestation leads to soil erosion, landslides,
and loss of biodiversity. It marked a significant shift in environmental activism, linking ecological
preservation to social justice. The movement inspired nationwide forest protection efforts and
influenced India's forest policy, encouraging participatory forest management and ecological
awareness at the grassroots level.

 Appiko Movement - 1983

Inspired by the Chipko Movement, the Appiko Movement emerged in 1983 in the Western Ghats of
Karnataka. It aimed to protect the rich biodiversity of the region from commercial logging. Local
villagers, using the same hugging tactic, protested tree felling and raised awareness about the
ecological importance of forests. The movement promoted three principles: "Appiko Chaluvali" (to
hug), "Eco-education," and "Afforestation." It not only protected forests but also taught sustainable
practices like using fuel-efficient stoves and planting indigenous trees. Appiko showcased how
community involvement and traditional knowledge can aid conservation and inspired similar
movements across southern India.

 Silent Valley Movement – 1970s

The Silent Valley Movement in Kerala began in the late 1970s to stop a hydroelectric project in the
ecologically sensitive Silent Valley rainforest. Scientists, activists, and the public joined forces, arguing
that the project would destroy one of India’s last untouched tropical evergreen forests. The forest
was home to unique flora and fauna, including the endangered Lion-tailed macaque. The movement
used scientific data and public mobilization to push for conservation. It was successful—the project
was halted, and in 1985 Silent Valley was declared a national park. The movement highlighted the
role of public participation and scientific evidence in environmental decision-making.

 Bishnois of Rajasthan

The Bishnois are a religious community in Rajasthan known for their deep commitment to
environmental protection, dating back to the 15th century. Their principles, based on the teachings
of Guru Jambheshwar, include the preservation of animals and trees. In 1730, the Khejarli Massacre
saw over 360 Bishnois sacrificing their lives to protect trees from being felled by the king’s men—a
heroic act that inspired future environmental movements like Chipko. The Bishnois continue to
protect blackbucks, desert ecosystems, and promote sustainable living. Their lifestyle serves as a
model of how religious values and daily practices can support ecological preservation.

 Narmada Bachao Andolan

Led by activists like Medha Patkar, the Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) protested against the
construction of large dams on the Narmada River, especially the Sardar Sarovar Dam. The project
threatened to submerge forests, villages, and displace thousands of tribal families. NBA focused on
human rights, sustainable development, and environmental justice. It used non-violent protests,
legal petitions, and international advocacy to challenge displacement without proper rehabilitation.
While some dam projects proceeded, the movement succeeded in drawing national and global
attention to the social and ecological costs of large-scale development. It also influenced policies on
displacement, R&R, and environmental impact assessments.
ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AND THE NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL

Environmental justice means fair treatment and involvement of all people, regardless of
background, in environmental policymaking. It ensures that marginalized communities do not suffer
disproportionately from environmental harm. The National Green Tribunal (NGT) plays a key role in
enforcing environmental justice in India.

National Green Tribunal and its Importance (2010)

Established in 2010, the National Green Tribunal (NGT) is a specialized judicial body for handling
environmental disputes. It ensures quick and effective resolution of cases involving environmental
protection and conservation. The NGT has the power to enforce laws related to air and water
pollution, forest conservation, and biodiversity. One of its major contributions is reducing pollution
from industrial units and curbing illegal mining. It has also ruled on vehicular emissions, like
regulating diesel vehicles and fireworks in urban areas. NGT decisions are binding and help protect
the rights of affected communities. Importantly, it empowers citizens and NGOs to seek justice,
promoting transparency and accountability in environmental governance. By enforcing the "polluter
pays" principle and emphasizing sustainable development, the NGT supports a more just and
ecologically balanced society.

ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY, ETHICS, AND THE ROLE OF CULTURE AND RELIGION

Environmental philosophy and ethics study how humans relate morally to the natural world. In
India, religious and cultural practices often align with principles of sustainability and ecological
balance. These traditions can play a powerful role in conserving the environment.

Environmental Ethics

Environmental ethics focuses on the moral duties humans have toward nature. It challenges
anthropocentrism (human-centered thinking) and argues that animals, plants, and ecosystems have
intrinsic value. There are different ethical approaches—some advocate for rights of all living beings
(biocentrism), while others focus on preserving ecosystems (ecocentrism). This field encourages
individuals and policymakers to consider the long-term consequences of their actions on the planet.
It promotes principles like intergenerational justice, responsibility to non-human life, and
sustainability. Environmental ethics influences laws, corporate practices, and personal behavior by
emphasizing respect, stewardship, and humility in our interactions with nature.

Role of Religion and Cultural Practices

In India, religious beliefs and cultural traditions deeply influence environmental values. Hinduism
teaches worship for rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna, trees like peepal, and animals like cows and
snakes. Jainism emphasizes ahimsa (non-violence), extending compassion to all living beings.
Buddhism promotes mindful consumption and coexistence with nature. Tribal and indigenous
communities follow animistic traditions, considering forests and rivers sacred. Festivals, rituals, and
taboos often involve environmental elements, promoting biodiversity conservation. For example,
worshipping Tulsi plants or observing bans on hunting during breeding seasons helps protect flora
and fauna. These practices can be powerful tools for modern environmental education and
conservation efforts.

ENVIRONMENTAL COMMUNICATION AND PUBLIC AWARENESS

Environmental communication involves educating people about ecological issues and motivating
them to adopt sustainable practices. Awareness campaigns and government programs play a vital
role in shaping public behavior and supporting environmental protection.

Case Studies in Public Awareness

1. CNG Vehicles in Delhi (2001)

In response to Delhi's severe air pollution, the Supreme Court mandated a shift of public transport
vehicles from using petrol or diesel to Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) in 2001. This significantly
reduced emissions from buses and auto-rickshaws. The policy faced resistance due to cost and
infrastructure issues but ultimately led to improved air quality. It stands as a landmark example of
how legal intervention, scientific data, and public pressure can lead to sustainable urban policies. The
success of the CNG initiative encouraged other cities to consider clean fuel alternatives and
highlighted the role of judiciary-driven environmental action.

2. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (2014)

Launched in 2014, the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan is a national cleanliness drive aimed at eliminating
open defecation and improving waste management. It focused on building toilets, promoting
hygiene, and encouraging civic responsibility. Public campaigns featuring celebrities, social media
outreach, and school programs helped spread the message widely. The campaign led to increased
sanitation coverage and behavioral change, especially in rural India. It connected cleanliness with
dignity and health, and its success showed the importance of communication in driving mass
participation for environmental and public health goals.

3. National Environment Awareness Campaign (NEAC) - 1986

Started in 1986 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, the NEAC aims to
educate people about environmental issues like pollution, biodiversity loss, and climate change. It
works through NGOs, schools, and colleges, encouraging hands-on projects, seminars, and rallies.
Each year focuses on a specific theme such as “Waste Minimization” or “Forest Conservation.” The
campaign promotes environmental stewardship, especially among youth, and strengthens
community engagement. NEAC helps bridge the gap between environmental knowledge and action,
ensuring that awareness is not just theoretical but leads to meaningful change.

4. National Green Corps (NGC) – Eco-Club Programme

The Eco-Club Programme under the National Green Corps introduces environmental education in
schools. It encourages students to participate in activities like tree planting, water conservation,
waste segregation, and awareness rallies. Each club is guided by a teacher and supported by the
government. The goal is to foster environmental responsibility and leadership at a young age.
Students learn practical skills and the value of sustainability through direct involvement. The program
strengthens the link between education and conservation, turning schools into agents of change and
students into future environmental advocates.