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Hardware : Computer Architecture
3.1 Computer Architecture
3.1.1 the central processing unit
Central processing unit (CPU)
also known as a microprocessor/processor
often installed as an integrated circuit on a single microchip.
It is responsible for the execution or processing of all instructions and
data in a computer application.
3.1.2 Von Neumann architecture
Von neumann architecture In early computers it was not possible to
store programs or data. However, John von Neumann developed the
concept of ‘stored program counter’, which has been the basis for
computer architecture ever since.
The Von Neumann architecture has 4 main features
1. The concept of a CPU
2. CPU was able to access memory directly
3. Computer memories could store programs as well as data
4. Stored programs were made up of instructions that could be executed
sequentially.
Main components of the CPU:
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Arithmetic & logic unit Allows the required arithmetic operations and
logic operations to be carried out while a program is being run.
Arithmetic operations such as +,- and shifting (which is used for
multiplication and division) Logic operations such as AND NOT OR, a
combination of those are used in logic gates
Control unit The control unit reads an instruction from memory. The
address of the location where the instruction can be found is stored in
the Program Counter (PC). This instruction is then interpreted using the
Fetch–Decode–Execute cycle. During that process, signals are generated
along the control bus to tell the other components in the computer
what to do. The control unit ensures the synchronisation of data flow
and program instructions throughout the computer.
System clock Used to produce timing signals on the control bus to
ensure this vital synchronisation takes place. Without the clock, the
computer would crash. It comes under the control unit.
Registers Registers are a temporary memory component that is used
to data or instructions as part of the fetch-decode-execute cycle.
There are 5 registers, each with a specific feature :
Note : these definitions are important, and each word is significant,
therefore definition has to be very precise
Register
Function
Name
Current
This register stores the current instruction being
instruction
decoded and executed
register [CIR]
Accumulator This register is used when carrying out ALU calculations;
[ACC] it stores data temporarily during the calculations
Memory
This register stores the address of the memory location
address register
currently being read from or written to
[MAR]
Memory data This register stores data which has just been read from
register [MDR] memory or data which is about to be written to memory
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Program this register stores the address of the memory location
counter [PC] currently being read from or written to
System buses and memory
Memory
The computer memory is made up of a number of partitions
partitions. Each
partition consists of an address and its contents
contents.
The address uniquely identifies every location in the memory and the
contents will be in binary values.
Two operations can be considered that are used to read and write
data to and from memory.
READ operation
1. Address of the location to be read from is first written into the MAR
2. A ‘read signal’ is sent to computer memory
3. The contents of memory location are then put into the MDR
WRITE operation
1. Data to be stored is first written into the MDR
2. This data has to be written into location with an address, so this address is
now written into the MDR.
3. A ‘write signal’ is sent to the computer memory and the data will be written
into the appropriate memory location.
System buses Are used as a connection between major components in
a computer that can carry data, addresses, or control signals. There are 3
system buses
DATA BUS
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ADDRESS BUS CONTROL BUS
Carries signals
Carries data in the form of
Carries addresses from the control
either an address,
throughout the computer unit to all the
instruction or numerical
system other computer
value.
components
Unidirectional Bidirectional Bidirectional
Wider the bus, the more Wider the bus,the larger No need to be
memory locations can be the word length
length* that can wider than 8-
directly addressed. Thus, be transported. Thus, bits wide, since
improving the computer's improving the computer's it only carries
overall performance. overall performance. control signals.
*a word is a group of bits that can be regarded as a single unit.
Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle
To carry out a set of instructions, the CPU follows the fetch-decode-
execute cycle :
1. Fetch
1. The Program Counter (PC) contains the address of the memory location of
the next instruction which has to be fetched|
2. This address is then copied from the PC to the memory address register
(MAR); this is done using the address bus|
3. The contents (instruction) at the memory location (address) contained in
MAR are then copied temporarily into the memory data register (MDR)|
4. The contents (instruction) of the MDR are then copied and placed into the
Current Instruction Register (CIR)|
5. The value in the PC is then incremented by 1 so that it now points to the next
instruction which has to be fetched|
2. Decode
6. The instruction is then decoded so that it can be interpreted in the next part
of the cycle.|
3. Execute
7. The CPU sends control signals to the right components, making sure each
instruction is executed in the correct order.|
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3.1.3 Factors that determine the performance of a CPU
1. Width of Address Bus and Data Bus:
Refers to the capacity of the pathways for transmitting address and data
information within a computer system.
A wider address bus allows for a larger range of memory addresses to be
accessed, enhancing the system's overall memory capacity.
A wider data bus enables the simultaneous transfer of more data
between the CPU and memory, potentially improving overall processing
speed.
2. Overclocking:
Involves running a computer component, such as a CPU or GPU, at a
higher clock rate than the manufacturer's specified limit.
Can lead to increased performance, but it also raises the risk of
overheating and may void warranties.
Users engage in overclocking to push hardware to its limits for improved
system responsiveness and faster processing.
3. The Use of Cache Memory:
Cache memory is a smaller, faster type of volatile computer memory
that provides high-speed data access to a processor and stores
frequently used computer programs, applications, and data.
An efficient use of cache memory can significantly reduce the time it
takes for the CPU to access frequently needed information, optimizing
overall system performance.
Different levels of cache (L1, L2, and L3) exist, each with varying
capacities and proximity to the CPU, influencing their effectiveness.
4. Use of Different Number of Cores:
Refers to the number of processing units (cores) within a single CPU.
Multi-core processors can handle multiple tasks concurrently, potentially
improving system multitasking capabilities.
Software must be designed to take advantage of multiple cores for
optimal performance; otherwise, the benefits may be limited in certain
applications.
3.1.4 instruction set
instruction set – the complete set of machine code instructions used
by a particular microprocessor.
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These instructions consist of operands and opcodes - OPERAND is the
part of a machine code instruction that identifies what data is to be
used OPCODE is the part of a machine code instruction that identifies
what action the CPU has to perform
3.1.5 embedded systems
An embedded system is a combination of hardware and software which
is designed to carry out a specific set of functions.
Can be based on 3 systems :
Microcontrollers:
CPU + RAM + ROM + other peripherals all embedded onto one single
chip
Together they carry out a specific task
Microprocessor:
integrated circuit which only has a CPU on the chip
no RAM, ROM or peripherals – these need to be added
System on chips (SoC):
May contain a microcontroller as one of its components
They almost always include CPU, memory, input/output (I/O) ports and
secondary storage on a single microchip.
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