HISTOGRAMIN QURULMASI

Step One: Decide on the number of classes using the formula

2k > n
where k=number of classes
 n=number of observations
There are 30 observations so n=30.
Two raised to the fifth power is 32.
Therefore, we should have at least 5 classes, i.e., k=5.
Step Two: Determine the class interval or width using the formula

where H=highest value, L=lowest value

Round up for an interval of 5 hours.
Set the lower limit of the first class at 7.5 hours, giving a total of 6
classes.
Step Three: Set the individual class limits and
Steps Four and Five: Tally and count the number of items in each class.

Class Midpoint: find the midpoint of each interval, use the following
formula:
Upper limit + lower limit
2
7.5 to 12.5 ucun class midpoint =(7.5+12.5)/2=10
A Relative Frequency Distribution=frequency/total observation
For example 7.5 to 12.5 ucun 1/30
Histogram

Ashagidaki hisse class midpointlerdi yuxaridaki her classa uygun

frequency. Qeyd:Histogramda sutunlar bitishik olmalidi.
Frequency Polygon

Cumulative Frequency Table

Fibonacci kimi bir sheydi dalbadal topla
Cumulative Frequency Distribution

Line graph
Bar chart
 The Arithmetic Mean
For ungrouped data, the Population Mean is the sum of all the
population values divided by the total number of population values:

A Parameter is a measurable characteristic of a population.

For ungrouped data, the sample mean is the sum of all the sample

values divided by the number of sample values:

A statistic is a measurable characteristic of a sample
The Weighted Mean of a set of numbers X1, X2, with corresponding

weights w1, w2, :

The Median is the midpoint of the values after they have been ordered
from the smallest to the largest. For an even set of values, the median
will be the arithmetic average of the two middle numbers and is found
at the (n+1)/2 ranked observation.
The Geometric Mean (GM) of a set of n numbers is defined as the nth
root of the product of the n numbers.

Another use of the geometric mean is to determine the percent

increase in sales, production or other business or economic series from
one time period to another.

The total number of females enrolled in American colleges increased

from 755,000 in 1992 to 835,000 in 2000. That is, the geometric mean
rate of increase is 1.27%.
Dispersion refers to the spread or variability in the data.
Range = Largest value – Smallest value
Mean Deviation :The arithmetic mean of the absolute values of the

deviations from the arithmetic mean.

Variance: the arithmetic mean of the squared deviations from the
mean.

Standard deviation: The square root of the variance.

Sample variance (s2)

Sample standard deviation (s)

 Empirical Rule:

The Mean with frequency

Frequencyni vururuq class midpointe cemin I tapiriq onuda boluruk
frequencylerin cemine

The Median of a sample of data organized in a frequency distribution

is computed by:
where L is the lower limit of the median class, CF is the cumulative
frequency preceding the median class, f is the frequency of the median
class, and i is the median class interval.
10 denen eded var bolduk 2 e tapiriq mediani tapdiqki 5ci valuedu. 5
ci valueda harda oldugunu tapmaq ucun ilk 4 value ilk 2 classdadi(1le
3un cemi=4) deye 5ci value 3cu classa dushur hansiki bu class 5 up to
7di
Stem-and-leaf Displays
86,79,92,84,69,88,91,83,96,78,82,85
Quartiles
Interquartile range = Q3 - Q1
A box plot
Five pieces of data are needed to construct a box plot: the Minimum
Value, the First Quartile, the Median, the Third Quartile, and the
Maximum Value.
example
Based on a sample of 20 deliveries,
Buddy’s Pizza determined the following information. The minimum
delivery time was 13 minutes and the maximum 30 minutes. The first
quartile was 15 minutes, the median 18 minutes, and the third quartile
22 minutes. Develop a box plot for the delivery times.
Relative dispersion
The coefficient of variation is the ratio of the standard deviation to the
arithmetic mean, expressed as a percentage:

Skewness is the measurement of the lack of symmetry of the

distribution. The coefficient of skewness can range from -3.00 up to
3.00 when using the following formula:

= 3 X (
- Media )
s
ns
k
Scatter diagram: A technique used to show the relationship between
[Link] must be at least interval scaled.
The Uniform distribution
s= √(((b-a)^2)/12)
Calculates its height as
P(x) = 1/(b-a) if a < x < b and 0 elsewhere
Area = height* base
Example
Suppose the time that you wait on the telephone for a live
representative of your phone company to discuss your problem with
you is uniformly distributed between 5 and 25 minutes.
What is the mean wait time?
M=(5+25)/2=15
What is the standard deviation of the wait time?
√(25-5)^2/12=5.77
What is the probability of waiting more than ten minutes?
The area from 10 to 25 minutes is 15 minutes. Thus:
P(10 < wait time < 25) = height*base =(1/(25-5))*(25-10)
The standard normal distribution=z distribution

Example

1)The daily water usage per person in New Providence, New Jersey is
normally distributed with a mean of 20 gallons and a standard
deviation of 5 gallons. About 68 percent of those living in New
Providence will use how many gallons of water?
Solution
About 68% of the daily water usage will lie between 15 and 25 gallons
(+ 1s ).
2) Professor Mann has determined that the scores in his statistics
course are approximately normally distributed with a mean of 72 and a
standard deviation of 5. He announces to the class that the top 15
percent of the scores will earn an A. What is the lowest score a student
can earn and still receive an A?
To begin let X be the score that separates an A from a B.
If 15 percent of the students score more than X, then 35 percent must
score between the mean of 72 and X.
The z-value associated corresponding to 35 percent is about 1.04.
We let z equal 1.04 and solve the standard normal equation for X. The
result is the score that separates students that earned an A from those
that earned a B.

Sampling
Simple Random Sample A sample formulated so that each item or
person in the population has the same chance of being included.
A probability sample is a sample selected such that each item or person
in the population being studied has a known likelihood of being
included in the sample.
Systematic Random Sampling The items or individuals of the population
are arranged in some order. A random starting point is selected and
then every kth member of the population is selected for the sample.
Stratified Random Sampling: A population is first divided into
subgroups, called strata, and a sample is selected from each stratum.
Cluster Sampling: A population is first divided into primary units then
samples are selected from the primary units.
In nonprobability sample inclusion in the sample is based on the
judgment of the person selecting the sample.
The sampling error is the difference between a sample statistic and its
corresponding population parameter.
The sampling distribution of the sample mean is a probability
distribution consisting of all possible sample means of a given sample
size selected from a population.
Confidence Interval Meaning 95%
95% of the sample means for a specified sample size will lie within 1.96
standard deviations of the hypothesized population mean.
Standart Error

Eger standart deviationu veribse onda

eger standard deviation yoxdusa

burdaki s I bele tapiriq

Example
The Dean of the Business School wants to estimate the mean number
of hours worked per week by students. A sample of 49 students
showed a mean of 24 hours with a standard deviation of 4 hours. What
is the population mean?

The confidence limits range from 22.88 to 25.12.

About 95 percent of the similarly constructed intervals include the
population parameter.
The confidence interval for a population proportion

A sample of 500 executives who own their own home revealed 175
planned to sell their homes and retire to Arizona. Develop a 98%
confidence interval for the proportion of executives that plan to sell
and move to Arizona.
P=175/500=elverishli hal/umumi hall
Z=2.33 cedvelden 98 faiz ucun
 State the null and alternate hypotheses(rejecting null
hypotheses)
1)H0: m = 0 H1: m != 0 (modulda computed z> modulda cedveldeki z,
p(z>computed z)>a)
2)H0: m < 0 H1: m > 0 (computed z > cedveldeki z, p(z>computed z) > a)
3)H0: m > 0 H1: m < 0 (computed z < cedveldeki z, p(z<computed z) > a)
The null hypothesis always contains equality.
Type 1 error
Rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true (a).
Type2
Accepting the null hypothesis when it is actually false (b).
Test statistic t ve ya z demekdi
Bu one tailed testdi,tutaq ki, shertde deyirki mean boyukdurse hansisa
ededden bu qrafikden istifade edirik

Example
The processors of Fries’ Catsup indicate on the label that the bottle
contains 16 ounces of catsup. The standard deviation of the process is
0.5 ounces. A sample of 36 bottles from last hour’s production
revealed a mean weight of 16.12 ounces per bottle. At the .05
significance level is the process out of control? That is, can we
conclude that the mean amount per bottle is different from 16 ounces?
Step 1
State the null and the alternative hypotheses
H0: m = 16
H1: m != 16
Step 2
Select the significance level. The significance level is .05
Step 3
Identify the test statistic. Because we know the population standard
deviation, the test statistic is z.
Step 4
State the decision rule.
Reject H0 if z > 1.96
or z < -1.96
or if p < .05.
Step 5
Make a decision and interpret the results

The p(z > 1.44) is .1499 for a two-tailed test.

Critical z of -1.96<Computed z of 1.44 <Critical z of 1.96,
p of .1499 > a of .05,
Do not reject the null hypothesis. We cannot conclude the mean is
different from 16 ounces.
Qeyd: The critical value of t is determined by its degrees of freedom
equal to n-1.

Proportion hypotheses
Example
In the past, 15% of the mail order solicitations for a certain charity
resulted in a financial contribution. A new solicitation letter that has
been drafted is sent to a sample of 200 people and 45 responded with a
contribution. At the .05 significance level can it be concluded that the
new letter is more effective?
Step 1
State the null and the alternate hypothesis.
H0: p < .15
H1: p > .15
Step 2
Select the level of significance. It is .05.
Step 3
Find a test statistic. The z distribution is the test statistic.
Step 4
State the decision rule.
The null hypothesis is rejected if z is greater than 1.65 or if p < .05.
Step 5
Make a decision and interpret the results.
Because the computed z of 2.97 > critical z of 1.65, the p of .0015 < a
of .05, the null hypothesis is rejected. More than 15 percent
responding with a pledge. The new letter is more effective.