NATIONAL TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS

(TDA) REPORT OF VIETNAM

Implementing the Strategic Action
Programme for the South China Sea
and Gulf of Thailand (SCS SAP) Project

January 2026
This draft report was prepared and submitted by the Vietnamese independent consultant team
LIST OF NATIONAL AUTHORS

Name Agency Position Contact

Tran Thi Research Institute for National TDA Expert thuhaktmt@[Link]

Thu Ha, Forest Ecology and on Socio-economic m
PhD Environment/ and Climate-Related (+84) 983295929
Vietnamese Threats/Team
Academy for Forest leader
Science

Nguyen Center for National TDA Expert [Link]@gmail.c

Anh Development of on Pollution – om
Tuan, Community Culture Nutrients, Waste (+84) 966728558
PhD and Civilization Water, Platics

Hoang Independent National TDA Expert hoangvietanh@gmai

Viet Anh, Consultant on Ecosystems [Link]
PhD (+84) 987657416

Trinh Vietnam Institute of National TDA Expert tiquatuwagen@gmai

Quang Fisheries Economics on Aquaculture and [Link]
Tu, MSc. and Planning Fisheries (+84) 2437716054

Chu The Independent National TDA Expert ctcuong@[Link]

Cuong, Consultant on Governance (+84) 934676636
MSc.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMARRY ............................................................................. 7

CHAPTER 1. BACKGOUND........................................................................................8
CHAPTER 2. SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CLIMATE-RELATE THREATS .................. 9
2.1. Key findings ......................................................................................................... 9
2.2. Current status by indicators ................................................................................ 9
2.2.1. Demographics .............................................................................................. 9
2.2.2. Human well-being ....................................................................................... 18
2.2.3. Economic Activities .................................................................................... 21
2.2.4. Climate-related threats ............................................................................... 25
2.3. Discussion and conclusions.............................................................................. 29
2.3.1. Risk assessment from socio-economic trends .......................................... 29
3.3.2. Risk assessment from climate- and environment-related threats............. 35
3.3.3. Mitigating socio-economic vulnerability from climate-mediated
environmental change: current actions and gaps ................................................ 36
3.3.4. Recommended priority actions, including regional cooperation ............... 37
References ............................................................................................................... 39
Annex........................................................................................................................ 40
CHAPTER 3. POLLUTION ................................................................................... 65
3.1 Key Findings....................................................................................................... 65
3.1.1 Leading Pollution Drivers, Key Pollution Concerns, and National-Regional
Significance........................................................................................................... 65
3.1.2 Sectoral Impacts .......................................................................................... 67
3.1.3 Ecological and Public Health Consequences ............................................. 70
3.1.4 Climate Change Impacts ............................................................................. 72
3.2 Current Status by Indicator Group ..................................................................... 74
3.2.1 Pollution Sources and Magnitude ............................................................... 74
3.2.2 Pollution Hotspots and Sensitive Areas .................................................... 112
3.2.3 Discussion and Conclusions ..................................................................... 115
3.3 Methodology and Analysis ............................................................................... 134
3.3.1 Analytical Approach ................................................................................... 134
3.3.2 Validation ................................................................................................... 135
 3.3.3 Limitations.................................................................................................. 136
References ............................................................................................................. 138
CHAPTER 4. ECOSYSTEMS ............................................................................. 139
4.1. Key findings ..................................................................................................... 139
4.2. Current Status by Ecosystem and by Indicator .............................................. 140
4.2.1 Mangroves and Coastal Wetlands ............................................................ 140
4.2.2 Seagrass Ecosystems ............................................................................... 146
4.2.3 Coral Reef Systems .................................................................................. 153
4.3. Biodiversity Hotspots and Sensitive Areas..................................................... 158
4.3.1 Priority Conservation Sites ........................................................................ 158
4.3.2 Ecological Continuum: Mangrove-Seagrass-Coral Connectivity ............. 159
4.3.3 Functional Connectivity Mechanisms ....................................................... 159
4.4 Threatened and Endemic Species .................................................................. 160
4.4.1 Marine Megafauna..................................................................................... 160
4.4.2 Commercially Exploited Species Under Pressure .................................... 161
4.4.3 Endemic and Range-Restricted Species .................................................. 161
4.5. Governance, Management, and Economic Analysis ..................................... 162
4.5.1 Institutional Framework ............................................................................. 162
4.5.2 Policy Framework ...................................................................................... 162
4.5.3 Marine Protected Area System ................................................................. 163
4.5.4 Economic Valuation of Ecosystem Services ............................................ 163
4.5.5 Management Gaps and Challenges ......................................................... 165
4.6. Priority Actions and Regional Cooperation .................................................... 166
4.6.1 Priority Actions........................................................................................... 166
4.6.2 Regional Cooperation Requirements........................................................ 168
4.7 Conclusion........................................................................................................ 169
References ............................................................................................................. 171
CHAPTER 5. FISHERIES (TO BE UPDATED) .................................................... 173

CHAPTER 6. GOVERNANCE ............................................................................ 174

Executive summary ................................................................................................ 174
6.1 Key findings ...................................................................................................... 175
6.1.1 Legally comprehensive, institutionally fragmented governance, with
persistent implementation gaps ......................................................................... 175

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 6.1.2 MSP is a central integration instrument, but institutionalisation is
incomplete........................................................................................................... 175
6.1.3 MPAs face structural financing and enforcement constraints, with coverage
and effectiveness shortfalls ................................................................................ 175
6.1.4 IUU fishing remains a persistent governance stressor despite compliance
gains.................................................................................................................... 176
6.1.5 Conservation responsibilities are centralized, but the strongest pressures
are controlled by provinces—especially after deeper decentralization following
sector mergers .................................................................................................... 176
6.1.6 Transboundary cooperation exists, but operational coverage and utilization
remain limited...................................................................................................... 176
6.1.7 Co-management models show promise but need durable institutional
anchoring ............................................................................................................ 176
6.1.8 Blue economy strategy and SDG 14 commitments create a reform
window—conditional on tools and finance ......................................................... 177
6.2. Economic arrangements ................................................................................. 177
6.2.1 Political and economic drivers .................................................................. 177
6.2.2. National budgetary allocations ................................................................. 182
6.2.3 Investments (national and international) (DDI/FDI/ODA by relevant coastal
sectors) ............................................................................................................... 185
6.2.4 Provincial Investment Profile and Socio-Economic Drivers ..................... 187
6.2.5 Sustainable financing initiatives and mechanisms ................................... 190
6.3. Institutional Setting And Governance Architecture ........................................ 192
6.3.1 Institutions, regulatory agencies, and administrative arrangements........ 193
6.3.2 Monitoring, compliance, and enforcement arrangements ........................ 201
6.3.3 Institutional capacity and resourcing......................................................... 203
6.4 Legal and Policy Setting .................................................................................. 204
6.4.1 International legal/policy frameworks........................................................ 204
6.4.2 Regional legal/policy frameworks and forums .......................................... 206
6.4.3 National legislation and policies ................................................................ 208
6.4.4 Current development plans and policies .................................................. 211
6.5 Civil society, stakeholders, and participation .................................................. 213
6.5.1 Key NGOs and special interest groups..................................................... 213
6.5.2 Trade associations and business groups ................................................. 214

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 6.5.3 Co-management, traditional systems, and customary rights ................... 215
6.5.4 Decentralised and coastal governance mechanisms ............................... 216
6.6. TWAP GOVERNANCE ARCHITECTURE RISK ASSESSMENT ................. 219
6.6.1 Assessment method and scoring .............................................................. 219
6.6.2. Vietnam's Governance Completeness Assessment ............................... 219
6.6.3. Vietnam's Governance Integration Assessment ..................................... 221
6.6.4 Vietnam's Governance Engagement Assessment ................................... 223
6.6.5 Synthesis: Vietnam's Governance Architecture Risk Profile.................... 225
6.6.6 Comparative Context: Vietnam in the South China Sea and Gulf of
Thailand LMEs .................................................................................................... 226
6.6.7 Residual Governance Risks and Priorities ............................................... 227
6.7 Qualitative Synthesis ....................................................................................... 228
6.7.1 Architecture, Process, and Engagement .................................................. 228
6.7.2 Effective Governance Diagnosis ............................................................... 231
6.7.3 Cross-Cutting Constraints and Enabling Conditions ................................ 235
6.8 Recommended Priority Actions ....................................................................... 236
6.8.1 Strengthen cross-sectoral and multi-level integration .............................. 237
6.8.2 Improve legal and policy coherence ......................................................... 238
6.8.3 Strengthening provincial implementation capacity ................................... 239
6.8.4. Enhance inclusive participation and equity.............................................. 240
6.8.5 Sustainable financing and PPP approaches ............................................ 241
6.8.6 Regional and transboundary cooperation priorities ..................................... 242
References ............................................................................................................. 244

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EXECUTIVE SUMARRY (TO BE UPDATED)

Introduction and Strategic Context

Assessment Methodology

Key findings by Thematic Area

1. Socio-economic and Climate-Related Threats

2. Land based Pollution and Marine Pollution

3. Coastal Ecosystem

4. Aquaculture and Fisheries

5. Governance

Recommended Priority Actions by Thematic Area

CHAPTER 1. BACKGOUND (TO BE UPDATED)

1. Introduction

1.1 Aims of the National Report

1.2. Major Water-Related Environmental Problems: Comparative

Overview (2000 vs 2025)

1.3. Bio-geophysical Setting

1.4. Assessment Methodology

1.4.1. Conceptual Framework

1.4.2. Subnational Geographic Divisions

1.4.3. Indicators by Component

1.4.4. Risk Assessment Approach

CHAPTER 2. SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CLIMATE-RELATE THREATS
2.1. Key findings
Vietnam’s coastal areas exhibit a distinct and compound socioeconomic risk
profile that is systematically higher than that of inland areas. Nearly half of the
national population is concentrated in coastal areas that account for just over
40% of national land area, creating sustained pressure on infrastructure, public
services, and labor markets, and heightening vulnerability to shocks such as
natural disasters, pandemics, and economic disruptions. Uneven
urbanizationfurther amplifies risk. While major coastal growth centers capture
most economic opportunities, many coastal provinces remain weakly
urbanized, reinforcing spatial inequality and limiting livelihood diversification.
Socioeconomic vulnerability is intensified by low elevation and population
distribution, with around 86% of coastal residents living below 100 m above sea
level, particularly in deltaic provinces where exposure to flooding, storm surges,
sea-level rise, and salinity intrusion is highest. Rapid expansion of built-up
areas along dynamic and eroding coastlineshas increased asset exposure and
expected economic losses, especially in the Mekong Delta. Persistent poverty,
livelihood dependence on climate-sensitive sectors, and significant gaps
between HDI and inequality-adjusted HDI indicate that economic growth has
not translated evenly into improved well-being. Finally, strong reliance
on shock-sensitive economic structures—notably coastal tourism, energy
extraction, and marine transport—creates employment and fiscal volatility,
reinforcing the need for diversification and more resilient development
pathways.
Among Vietnam’s 28 coastal provinces, Ho Chi Minh City and several provinces
of the North Central Coast and the Mekong Delta belong to the highest
socioeconomic risk group due to extreme population density and exposure
despite relatively strong human development outcomes. Nghe An, Thanh Hoa,
Bac Lieu, Soc Trang, Kien Giang, Tra Vinh, Ben Tre, and Ca Mau also fall into
the high-risk group, reflecting the combined effects of poverty, low elevation,
and limited economic diversification. In contrast, Khanh Hoa, Ba Ria–Vung Tau,
Da Nang, and Quang Ninh – the highly urbanized and economically dynamic
coastal provinces are caterogized into the lowest risk group, although they
remain exposed to climate-related hazards.
2.2. Current status by indicators
2.2.1. Demographics
[Link]. Area
During the 2011–2022 period, the natural area of Vietnam’s 28 coastal
provinces remained largely stable, exhibiting only minor year-to-year
fluctuations. The total coastal area declined slightly from 136,794 km² in 2011
to 136,782.7 km² in 2015, before increasing to 137,218 km² in 2020 and
137,246.0 km² in 2022. Overall, this represents a net increase of approximately
450 km² compared to 2011, which is negligible relative to the national land area.
In terms of its share, the combined natural area of the 28 coastal provinces
accounted for approximately 41.3 - 41.4% of the national area over the 2011-
2022 period, with a very slight increase from 41.3% in 2011 to 41.4% in 2022.
This indicates that the spatial distribution of land between coastal and non-
coastal areas has remained unchanged.
Detailed provincial data further confirm the trends. With the exception of Quang
Ninh, Thua Thien Hue, Quang Nam, Binh Thuan, and Ca Mau, which
experienced minor adjustments, the remaining coastal provinces maintained
constant land areas and stable proportions of the national area throughout
2011–2022 (see Indicator SE1-2 and Indicator SE1-4 for details).
Figure 1: Areas of coastal provinces in the 2011 – 2022 period
Unit: km2
18,000
16,000 2011 2015 2020 2022
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0

Source: General Statistic Office

Figure 2: Areas of coastal provinces as proportion of national area in the
2011 – 2022 period
Unit: %
6.0

5.0 2011 2015 2020 2022

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

Source: General Statistic Office

10
[Link]. Population
According to statistical data, during the 2011–2022 period, the total population
of Vietnam’s coastal provinces increased steadily over time due to the rapid
development of industry and urban services in major urban–industrial–port
hubs, such as Ho Chi Minh City, Da Nang, Quang Ninh, Ba Ria–Vung Tau, and
Khanh Hoa, which acted as key magnets for population concentration.
However, the population growth rate of coastal provinces in the same period
shows a clear overall slowdown. The share of coastal provinces in the total
national population also indicates a steady decrease over years from 50.31%
in 2011 to 48.9% in 2022.
Table 1: Population sizes and growth rates of coastal provinces in the
2011-2021 period
Year Average population (1,000 Population growth rate (%)
persons)
Nation Coastal Nation Coastal
provinces provinces
2011 88,145.8 44,354.8 1.24 0.95
2012 89,202.9 44,756.3 1.20 0.91
2013 90,191.4 45,152.4 1.11 0.88
2014 91,203.8 45,509.1 1.12 0.79
2015 92,250.7 45,892.6 1.12 0.84
2016 93,250.7 46,286.6 1.11 0.86
2017 94,286.0 46,680.5 1.11 0.85
2018 95,385.2 47,079.2 1.17 0.85
2019 96,484.4 47,487.4 1,15 0.87
2020 97,582.7 47,881.2 1.14 0.83
2021 98,505.4 48,249.0 0.94 0.77
2022 99,474.4 48,628.6 0.98 0.79
Source: General Statistic Office (2023)
In details, except Bac Lieu, all other coastal provinces experienced an increase
in size during the 2011 – 2022 period (see Indicator SE1-1 for details). However,
except large coastal cities such as Da Nang and Ho Chi Minh City, which
consistently exhibited higher population growth rates, reflecting their role as
urban and economic growth hubs, most remaining coastal provinces
experienced very low (generally around 0-1% per year) or even negative
population growth rates in recent years with a noticeable decline after 2015,
especially during 2021–2022, which was likely associated with the impacts of
the COVID-19 pandemic on migration and population registration but also

11
indicated population aging and net out-migration trends (see Indicator SE1-5
for details). Meanwhile, the proportion of coastal province’s population in the
total national population gradually decreased over years in the same period
(see Indicator SE1-3 for details).
Figure 3: Populations of coastal provinces in the 2011 – 2022 period
Unit: 1,000 person
10,000
9,000 2011 2015 2020 2022
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0

Source: General Statistic Office

Figure 4: Population growth rates of coastal provinces in the 2011-2022
period

Source: General Statistic Office

12
Figure 5: Coastal provinces’ population as propotion of national
population in the 2000 – 2022 period

50.32%

49.75%

49.07%
48.89%

2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Source: General Statistic Office

[Link]. Population density
Owing to their strong development potential, favorable living conditions, and
abundant employment opportunities, coastal provinces and cities have
consistently recorded population densities higher than the national average
over the 2000–2022 period. In 2022, for instance, while Vietnam’s average
population density was approximately 300 people/km², the average density of
coastal provinces reached 577 people/km²—about 1.92 times higher than the
national average and 2.2 times higher than that of non-coastal localities (262
people/km²). Ho Chi Minh City, Hai Phong City, Thai Binh, Nam Dinh, and Da
Nang City have remained among the coastal provinces and cities with the
highest population densities nationwide for recent decades (see Indicator SE1-
6 for details)
Figure 6: Population density trends in the 2011-2022 period

567.5 577.1
542.7
521.1

295 300
266.3 278.7

2011 2015 2020 2022

Coastal provinces Nation

Source: General Statistic Office

13
[Link]. Urban population
According to data from the General Statistics Office (2023) for the 2011 – 2022
period, the average urban population in coastal provinces continued to expand
(and remained higher than the national average national urban population) but
growth rates slowed after 2020.
Despite this increase, the coastal share of national urban population declined.
Coastal urban population accounted for 57.7% of the national urban population
in 2010 but fell to 52.3% in 2022. This implies that urban growth outside the
coastal provinces accelerated faster than within the coastal belt over the same
period.
Figure 7: Population in urban areas in the 2010 – 2022 period
Coastal urban population National urban population

37,347.5
35,906.4
30,881.9
26,460.5

19,520.1
18,955.7
16,954.7
15,272.8

2010 2015 2020 2022

Source: General Statistic Office

In addition, growth remained highly concentrated in a few major urban–
industrial–port hubs. The top five centers, including: Ho Chi Minh City, Da Nang,
Thanh Hoa, Hai Phong, Quang Ninh, together accounted for 57.7% of the total
urban population of coastal provinces. By contrast, several Mekong Delta
coastal provinces (e.g.,, Ben Tre, Ca Mau) experienced much smaller net
increases), suggesting more modest urban expansion relative to the leading
growth poles (see Indicator SE1-7 for details)
[Link]. Elevation
Vietnam’s coastal provinces generally have low elevations, with an average
elevation of about 159 m, compared to the national average of 248 m. Many
coastal provinces in the Red River Delta and the Mekong Delta have elevations
of only a few meters (e.g., 1-5 m) above sea level, making them highly
vulnerable to sea level rise, flooding, and saltwater intrusion.
Figure X below shows the average elevation of coastal province in Vietnam in
2022. It can be seen that approximately 50% of coastal localities have an
average elevation of less than 100m (see Indicator SE1-8 for details).

14
 Figure 8: Mean elevation of coastal provinces of Vietnam

Source: Adapted from SRTM Digital Elevation Data

[Link]. Population distribution
Data from the Gridded Population of World Version 41 shows that, 9 out of 28
coastal provinces have population concentrated entirely in the 1-100 elevation
band, meanwhile 14 out of 28 coastal provinces have more diversified
distributions across elevation bands but with little population recorded in higher
elevation bands (see Indicator SE1-9 for details)
As can be seen from Figure 9, the population of 28 coastal provinces is highly
concentrated in low-lying areas. Approximately 86% of the population lives
below 100 m above sea level, while less than 6% resides in areas above 300
m. This strong concentration in low-elevation zones highlights the high
exposure of coastal populations to sea-level rise, flooding, and saltwater
intrusion, particularly in deltaic and coastal plain regions.

1 The Gridded Population of World Version 4 (GPWv4), Revision 11 models the distribution of global human
population for the years 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020 on 30 arc-second (approximately 1 km) grid cells.
Population is distributed to cells using proportional allocation of population from census and administrative units.
Population input data are collected at the most detailed spatial resolution available from the results of the 2010
round of censuses, which occurred between 2005 and 2014. The input data are extrapolated to produce population
estimates for each modeled year

15
Figure 9: Vietnam’s coastal population distribution by elevation

86%

7.90%
3% 2.70% 0.40%

1-100m 100-300m 300-500m 500-1000m >1000m

Source: Adapted from Earth Engine Data Cataloge (Population Density)

[Link]. Urbanization
Overall, during the period 2011–2022, the average urbanization rate—
measured by the percentage of population at mid-year residing in urban areas
by country—of coastal provinces consistently exceeded the national average.
In 2022, the urbanization rate in coastal provinces reached 40.1%, compared
with the national average of 37.5%. However, substantial disparities existed
among coastal provinces. Several provinces, including Quang Ninh, Thua Thien
Hue, Da Nang, Ba Ria–Vung Tau, and Ho Chi Minh City, consistently ranked
among the most urbanized in the country, with urbanization rates exceeding
50%. In contrast, other coastal localities, such as Thai Binh, Nghe An, Tien
Giang, and Ben Tre, remained among the least urbanized nationwide, with
urbanization rates below 20% (see Indicator SE1-10 for details)
Figure 10: Urbanization rates of Vietnam
Coastal provinces Nation

39.6 40.1
36.9 37.5
34.76 35.6
32.4
30.3

2010 2015 2020 2022

Source: General Statistic Office and The World Bank

16
[Link]. Build-up surface
Although no specific data on built-up surface areas for Vietnam’s coastal
provinces are available, a regional study by Zutao Ouyang, Peilei Fan, and
Jiquan Chen (2016) provides important insights into urban built-up development
in Vietnam. The authors combined multiple remote sensing data, including
Landsat, DMSP/OLS night time light, MODIS NDVI data and other ancillary
spatial data, to develop a 30-m resolution urban built-up map of 2010 for
Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Myanmar. The study found that Vietnam had the
highest proportion of urban built-up area among the four countries (0.91% of
total land area) and also experienced the most rapid expansion of built-up
areas, increasing by approximately 8.8 times over the 18-year study period.
Spatially, built-up areas in Vietnam were concentrated primarily around the two
major metropolitan centers (Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City) and coastal cities.
Another study conducted by Rentschler et al. (2020) highlights the vulnerability
of built-up areas along Vietnam’s coastline. Accordingly, as of 2020, more than
one-third of Vietnam’s coastal zone was built-up areas; however, only on-fifth
of built-up areas was near stable coastlines, more than one-third was near
moderately or severely eroding shores, and almost half faced moderate or
severe accretion. Spatially, approximately one-third of built-up areas along
Vietnam’s northern and central coastlines are exposed to erosion (Figure 11).
In contrast, more than two-thirds of built-up areas in the Mekong River Delta are
subject to intense coastal dynamics and strong shoreline changes (Figure 12).
Figure 11: Share of built-up areas in north and central Vietnam

Hoang Sa Archipelago

Truong Sa Archipelago

Source: Adapted from Rentschler et al. (2020)

17
Figure 12: Share of built-up areas the Mekong River Delta by coastal
change level

Hoang Sa Archipelago

Truong Sa Archipelago

Source: Adapted from Rentschler et al. (2020)

Data on built-up surface areas for Vietnam as a whole is presented at the
Indicator SE1-11.
2.2.2. Human well-being
[Link]. Coastal poor
Poverty rate data (measured as % of poor households by income) provided the
General Statistic Office show an overall decline at national level and across
almost all coastal provinces, though the pace and starting point differ markedly
(as illustrated in Figure X), reflecting a broad improvement in local living
standards over nearly two decades.
Some coastal provinces (mostly growth hubs) record very low average poverty
rates (e.g., well below the national average and near-elimination of income
poverty), including: Ho Chi Minh City, Da Nang, Ba Ria-Vung Tau, Quang Ninh,
and Hai Phong. In contrast, several coastal provinces, where livelihoods
depend on small-scale agriculture, fisheries and informal work, exhibit
substantially higher average poverty levels than the national average, notably
Thanh Hoa, Nghe An, Ha Tinh, Quang Tri, Quang Nam, Ninh Thuan, Tra Vinh,
and Ca Mau (see Indicator SE2-1 for details).

18
 Figure 13: Poverty rate in the 2006 – 2023 period
35
2006 2010 2015 2020 2023
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Source: General Statistic Office

The multidimensional poverty rate (measured as % poor households by income
plus basic service assess in education, health, and infrastructure) shows a
similar improvement since 2016 at both national and coastal provincial levels:
the national rate declines from 9.2% in 2016 to 2.3% in 2024 and coastal
average rates reduces from 8.7% in 2016 to 3.2% in 2024.
In many provinces, multidimensional poverty rates remain higher than income-
based poverty rates in the same period, implying that even when household
income improves, gaps in service access in public education, health and
infrastructure can persist—particularly in remote coastal communes, estuaries,
and lagoon/island areas where access costs are high.
In 2024, large urban centers again perform best (Ho Chi Minh City: 0.0%; Hai
Phong: 0.2%), while some provinces remain relatively elevated, such as Quang
Tri: 5.6%, Ninh Thuan: 6.6%, and Quang Binh: 3.4% (see Indicator SE2-1 for
details).
Figure 14: Multidimensional poverty rate in the 2006 – 2023 period
20.0
2016 2020 2021 2022 2023
18.0
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
-
Thua Thien…
Hai Phong…

Ho Chi Minh…
Ba Ria-…
Ninh Thuan

Ben Tre
Quang Ngai
Nam Dinh

Binh Thuan
Thai Binh

Thanh Hoa

Kien Giang
Ha Tinh

Da Nang City

Ca Mau
Khanh Hoa

Tra Vinh
Quang Tri
Quang Binh
Quang Ninh

Ninh Binh

Binh Dinh
Phu Yen

Soc Trang
Quang Nam

Tien Giang
Nghe An

Bac Lieu

Nation

Source: General Statistic Office

19
[Link]. Contemporary Human Development Index (HDI)
The HDI is a summary measure for assessing long-term progress in three basic
dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, access to
knowledge and a decent standard of living.
The statistical data indicates that the average HDI of Vietnam’s coastal
provinces increased steadily during 2018 – 2022 period, before experiencing a
slight decline in 2023. Over the 2018 – 2023 period, the average HDI of coastal
provinces remained very close to the national average as reported by the
General Statistics Office. However, the coastal HDI consistently lagged behind
the national HDI reported by the World Bank (2023), which follows an
internationally standardized methodology and reports higher absolute values.
This gap reflects methodological differences rather than a deterioration in
coastal development performance.

Figure 15: HDI of Vietnam and coastal province in 2018 - 2023

Coastal provinces Nation (by GSO) Nation (by World Bank)

0.770

0.760

0.750

0.740

0.730

0.720

0.710

0.700

0.690

0.680
2018 2019 2019 2020 2020 2021 2021 2022 2022 2023 2023

Source: General Statistic Office and UNDP (2025)

The specific data also indicates a steady improvement in HDI during the 2018–
2023 period, although progress was uneven across localities. In 2023, the
highest HDI values were concentrated in major growth hubs and highly
industrialized coastal economies, including: Ba Ria – Vung Tau, Ho Chi Minh
City, Quang Ninh and Da Nang with HDI of over 0.8. In contrast, several
Mekong Delta coastal provinces (i.e Soc Trang, Bac Lieu, Ninh Thuan, Ben Tre
and Kien Giang, etc.) continued to show the lowest HDI levels with HDI of
below, indicating that development benefits are still concentrated in coastal
urban–industrial centers, whereas several rural - agricultural dependent coastal
provinces continue to lag behind (see Indicator SE2-2 for details).

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[Link]. Inequality Adjusted HDI (IHDI)
The IHDI adjusts the HDI for inequality in the distribution of each dimension
(e.g., health, education and income) across the population. The ‘loss’ in human
development due to inequality is given by the difference between the HDI and
the IHDI. As the inequality in a country increases, the loss in human
development also increases.
According to the UNDP (2025) Human Development Report, the Vietnam’s HDI
increased from 0.737 to 0.766, while the IHDI rose from 0.611 to 0.641. Despite
this progress, IHDI remains consistently lower than HDI, indicating a persistent
loss in human development due to inequality. Over the period, the HDI–IHDI
gap stayed remarkably stable at around 0.124–0.127 points, equivalent to an
inequality-related reduction of roughly 16–17% of the potential HDI value (see
Indicator SE2-3 for details). This emphasizes that while Vietnam shows strong
overall progress, inequality remains a key area for improvement to achieve
more equitable human development in the future.
Figure 16: Inequality Adjusted HDI of Vietnam in 2018 - 2023
HDI Inequality Adjusted HDI

0.744 0.755 0.754 0.764 0.766

0.737

0.630 0.630 0.638 0.641

0.611 0.617

2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Source: UNDP (2025)

2.2.3. Economic Activities
[Link]. Coastal GDP by economic sector
According to a report prepared by the Vietnam Agency of Seas and Islands
(VASI) under the Ministry of Agriculture and Environment) for the National
Conference on reviewing state management of marine and island resources
and environment in December 2024, during the 2011-2022 period, the GRDP
of coastal provinces to national GDP consistently remained at 49.8% – 53.6%,
however, the total GRDP of coastal provinces tends to decrease due to the
slowdown in growth of top GRPD coastal provinces and the rapid growth of non-
coastal provinces nationwide.

21
The general GRDP structure of coastal province is presented in the table below.
Table 2: GRDP structure of coastal provinces in 2011 – 2022
Unit:%
2011 2015 2020 2022
Agriculture, Forestry and
14.99 14.04 12.56 11.63
Fisheries
Industry and Construction 36.45 32.54 33.1 35.77
Services 39.4 44.23 44.67 43.19
Taxes 9.16 9.19 9.67 9.41
Total 100 100 100 100
Source: General Statistic Office (2023)
On the other hand, findings from a study conducted by World Bank (2025) on 8
major economic sectors (including: fishing and aquaculture, extraction of crude
petroleum and natural gas, seafood processing, offshore wind, marine
transportation, marine tourism, manufacture of ship and boats, and
manufacture of coke and refined petroleum products) in 28 coastal provinces in
2010 – 2020 period indicated that the combined value added of the key
economic sectors rose from 5.04 to 5.83 percent of national gross value added
(GVA) between 2010 and 2019, then dropped to 3.18 percent in 2020.
Regarding structure, on average, the largest contributions come from
tourism, manufacture of coke and refined petroleum products, crude petroleum
and natural gas, and marine transportation, indicating that coastal economic
growth is strongly anchored in offshore resource extraction, coastal
energy/industrial complexes, and port–logistics services. A second tier of
substantial contributors includes marine tourism and seafood processing and
preserving, highlighting the importance of service expansion and value-added
processing alongside heavy industry. Meanwhile, the fisheries and aquaculture
contributes a smaller but still significant average value, suggesting that although
it supports livelihoods widely, its value capture is considerably lower than other
sectors.
During 2010 – 2020 period, coastal tourism shows explosive growth up to 2019
(116,475), but the abrupt collapse in 2020 (only 1,071) strongly suggests a
major shock—most plausibly the COVID-19 pandemic. Refined petroleum
products show a strong and sustained rise, especially after 2016. Offshore wind
electricity is a clear emerging sector: it is almost absent before 2014–2015, but
increases sharply after 2018. Seafood processingrises consistently over the
decade, meanwhile, ship and boat manufacturing also grows but at a more
moderate scale.
See Indicator SE3-1 for details.

22
Figure 17: The average share of key economic sectors contributions to
GVA in 2010 - 2020
Fisheries and
aquaculture
1%

Crude
petroleum
and natural
gas
16% Seafood
Marine tourism processing and
36% preserved
9%
Manufacture of
coke and
refined
petroleum
Marine products
Offshore wind transportation 17%
electric 16%
1% Manufacture of
ships and boats
4%

Source: The World Bank (2025)

[Link]. Share of GDP from coastal sustainable fisheries
According to the General Statistics Office (2023), during the period 2011–2022,
aquaculture production in Vietnam’s coastal provinces accounted for
approximately 51.3–54.8% of total national aquaculture output, while capture
fisheries production in coastal provinces represented an overwhelming 95.3 -
97.5% of total national fisheries production. These figures underscore the
dominant role of coastal areas in Vietnam’s both aquaculture and fisheries
sectors, particularly in fisheries.
Although national statistics specifically for coastal localities remain limited, data
from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) database on sustainable
fisheries as percentage of GDP in small island developing States, least
developed countries and all coutries (Indicator 14.7.1) shows that between
2011 and 2021, the contribution of sustainable fisheries to Vietnam’s
GDP declined gradually, indicating a relative contraction of the sector within the
overall economy. This pattern suggests that while sustainable fisheries
remained an important component of Vietnam’s blue economy in the early
2010s, its relative economic weight diminished over time, likely reflecting faster
growth in other sectors, structural transformation of the economy, and the
combined impacts of resource constraints, stricter sustainability requirements,
and external shocks such as the COVID-19 pandemic (see Indicator SE3-2 for
details)

Figure 18: Sustainable fisheries as percentage of GDP in 2011 - 2021

23
 1.3
1.25
1.2 1.17
1.12

0.73

2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021

Source: FAODATA

[Link]. Share of GDP from coastal tourism

Based on data from the Vietnam National Authority of Tourism under
the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism, the tourism sector contributed
approximately 6.3–9.2% of Vietnam’s GDP during the period 2014–2019, prior
to the COVID-19 pandemic. Although no official statistics are available on the
specific GDP contribution of coastal tourism, it is widely recognized as a major
driver of tourism growth, supported by Vietnam’s rich coastal tourism resources,
including more than 250 beaches, of which over 20 have been ranked among
the world’s most beautiful. Following Vietnam’s reopening to international
tourism in 2022, coastal tourism played a pivotal role in the sector’s recovery.
In that year, tourism accounted for about 5.2% of national GDP, while coastal
tourism contributed an estimated 10–12%, 12–15%, and 30% of local GDP
in Quang Ninh, Khanh Hoa, and Phu Quoc, respectively—three of Vietnam’s
leading coastal tourism destinations.
Aggregated estimates of coastal tourism GDP across 28 coastal provinces,
reported in a World Bank (2025) study, further indicate that prior to the Covid-
19 pandemic, the share of coastal tourism in national tourism GDP increased
steadily from 45.77% to 49.24%, while its contribution to national GDP rose
from 2.99% to 4.61% (see Indicator SE3-3 for details).
Figure 19: Contribution of coastal tourism GDP in 2014 - 2019
Coastal tourism GDP as % of national tourism GDP
Coastal tourism GDP as % of national GDP
47.44 49.24 48.99
45.77 45.92 46.63

2.99 3.15 3.45 4.08 4.48 4.61

2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Source: Estimated by the author

24
2.2.4. Climate-related threats
[Link]. Number of tropical cyclones per year
According to statistics from the EM-DAT Project—which appear to be
incomplete across years and lack consistent year-by-year detail—between
2000 and 2024, a total of 71 tropical cyclones hit Vietnam and caused damage.
Of these, 59 tropical cyclones (accounting for more than 83% of all damaging
storms nationwide) affected coastal provinces.
By contrast, annual reports by the Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management
Authority (under the Ministry of Agriculture and Environment) – which seem
more comprehensive and context-specific – indicates that, during the shorter
period from 2011 to 2024 alone, a total of 74 tropical cyclones caused damage
in Vietnam.
In most years, the figures reported by the Vietnam Disaster and Dyke
Management Authority are higher than those recorded in the EM-DAT Project’s
database. However, the Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority’s
report does not specify the affected localities, making it impossible to quantify
the number of tropical cyclones that specifically impacted coastal areas (see
Indicator SE4-1 for details).
Despite difference, both data sources consistently show that the annual number
of tropical cyclones exhibited no clear or consistent trend during the period
2020–2024.
Figure 20: Number of total tropical cyclone per year in 2000 – 2024
Unit: event

11
10
9

7
6 6 6
7
5 5 5 5
4 4 4 4 4 4
5
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024

Nation* Coastal provinces* Nation**

* Source: EM-DAT Project

** Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority

25
[Link]. Number of affected cases because of tropical cyclones per year
Data of the EM-DAT Project shows that, during the period 2000–2024, tropical
cyclones in Vietnam resulted in 2,443 deaths (an average of 111 people per
year), 6,375 injuries (319 people per year), 838,180 people left homeless
(69,848 people per year), and a total of 22,197,509 people affected (1,168,290
people per year). Of these impacts, coastal localities accounted for 2,232
deaths (106 people per year), 6,347 injuries (334 people per year), 836,065
homeless persons (76,006 people per year), and 21,964,864 affected persons
(1,156,045 people per year), indicating that coastal areas bear the
overwhelming majority of tropical cyclone–related losses in Vietnam.
Meanwhile, data from the Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority
indicate that, during the period 2011–2024, tropical cyclones caused 1,167
deaths nationwide (83 people per year), 4,455 injuries (343 people per year),
and damage to the homes of 487,506 people (209,321 people per year).
With the exception of nationwide statistics on deaths and injuries for the period
2014–2024—where figures from the two sources are relatively consistent (see
Figure X)—other indicators are not systematically compiled for all years and
therefore cannot be directly compared. Nevertheless, evidence from both
datasets suggests that, over the past decade, the frequency of tropical cyclones
resulting in deaths and injuries has increased markedly (see Indicator SE4-2 for
details).
Figure 21: Number of dead because of tropical cyclones in 2000 – 2024
Unit: persons
450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024

Nation* Coastal provinces* Nation**

* Source: EM-DAT Project

** Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority

26
 Figure 22: Number of injuries because of tropical cyclones in 2000 –
2024
Unit: persons
2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

-
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024

Nation* Coastal provinces* Nation**

* Source: EM-DAT Project

** Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority
Figure 23: Number of affected because of tropical cyclones in 2000 –
2024
Unit: persons

6,000,000

5,000,000

4,000,000

3,000,000

2,000,000

1,000,000

* Source: EM-DAT Project

** Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority

27
 Figure 24: Number of homeless due to tropical cyclones in 2000 – 2024
Unit: persons
80,000

70,000

60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

-
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024

Nation* Coastal provinces* Nation**

* Source: EM-DAT Project

** Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority
[Link]. Total damage due to tropical cyclones
As reported by the EM-DAT Project, tropical cyclones caused substantial
economic losses in Vietnam over the 2000–2024 period, amounting to over 12
billions of USD at constant prices (or nearly USD 600 million per year,
equivalent to 1 – 1.5% of national GDP). Economic damage fluctuated markedly
from year to year, reflecting the irregular occurrence and intensity of major
tropical cyclones. A large share of these losses was concentrated in coastal
provinces, underscoring their high exposure and vulnerability to tropical
cyclones. In several extreme years (i.e., 2006, 2009, 2013, and 2020), reported
damages surged sharply, corresponding to the landfall of strong and destructive
storms, which resulted in widespread damage to housing, infrastructure,
agriculture, and coastal livelihoods.
Economic damage data from the Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management
Authority show a high degree of similarity with EM-DAT Project data for the
period 2011–2024. Both data sources consistently highlight key patterns,
including: (i) tropical cyclones impose a very large cumulative economic burden
on Vietnam over the long term; and (ii) economic losses are highly variable
across years, with extreme events dominating total damage (see Indicator SE4-
3 for details).

28
 Figure 25: Total damage due to tropical cyclones in 2000 – 2024
Unit: USD 1,000

4,000,000
3,500,000
3,000,000
2,500,000
2,000,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
500,000
-
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024

Nation* Coastal provinces* Nation**

* Source: EM-DAT Project

** Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority
2.3. Discussion and conclusions
2.3.1. Risk assessment from socio-economic trends
[Link]. Overall assessment
The indicator analysis findings indicate that Vietnam’s coastal region exhibits
a compound socio-economic risk profile that differs systematically from non-
coastal regions in the country. These risks arise not from a single factor, but
from the interaction between high population concentration, environmental
exposure, uneven urbanization, persistent inequality, and a shock sensitive
economic structure. Particularly:
• High population concentration in limited space: Vietnam’s 28 coastal
provinces account for approximately 41.3–41.4% of the country’s area
but accommodate nearly half of the national population. Their average
population density is almost twice the national average. This intense
concentration places persistent pressure on infrastructure, public
services, and labor markets. Coastal provinces seem therefore more
exposed to rapid socio-economic disruptions when shocks occur, such
as natural disasters, pandemics, tourism downturns, or supply-chain
interruptions
• Uneven urbanization and spatial inequality: Although the average
urbanization rate of coastal provinces exceeds the national average,
urban growth is highly uneven. A small number of coastal growth poles,
such as: Ho Chi Minh City, Da Nang, Quang Ninh, and Ba Ria–Vung Tau,
capture a disproportionate share of urban population and economic
opportunities. In contrast, many coastal provinces remain weakly

29
 urbanized (below 20%), limiting access to diversified employment and
modern services. This uneven pattern heightens intra-coastal inequality
and increases the risk of structural stagnation in rural and agriculture-
dependent coastal areas.
• High exposure due to low elevation and population distribution:
Vietnam’s coastal provinces have an average elevation of about 159 m,
significantly lower than the national average of 248 m. Critically, around
86% of the coastal population lives below 100 m above sea level, with
many deltaic provinces averaging only 1–5 m. This demographic–
topographic configuration substantially increases exposure to sea-level
rise, flooding, storm surges, and saltwater intrusion, posing higher long-
term risks to livelihoods, infrastructure, and public finance than those
faced by inland regions.
• Concentrated built-up areas along dynamic coastlines: Rapid
expansion of built-up surfaces in coastal zones—particularly near eroding
or highly dynamic shorelines—creates significant asset exposure. The
built-up surface indicator analysis indicate that more than one-third of
Vietnam’s coastal zone is built up, with large shares located in areas
subject to erosion or strong coastal change, especially in the Mekong
Delta. Compared to non-coastal areas, coastal built-up areas face higher
expected economic losses from climate-related hazards and require
substantially greater investment in protection and adaptation.
• Persistent poverty and livelihood vulnerability: While poverty rates
have declined nationwide, at least one-third coastal provinces continue
to record poverty levels above the national average, notably in the North
Central Coast and the Mekong Delta. These areas rely heavily on small-
scale agriculture, fisheries, and informal employment, making them
particularly sensitive to environmental degradation, resource depletion,
and climate variability. The persistence of multidimensional poverty, even
where income poverty has fallen, highlights continued deficits in access
to education, health, and infrastructure in many coastal localities.
• Inequality in Human Development outcomes: On average, the HDI of
coastal provinces is close to the national level, but disparities across
provinces are substantial. Highly industrialized and urbanized coastal
economies achieve HDI values above 0.8, while many rural coastal
provinces remain well below this threshold. The gap between HDI and
IHDI (around 16–17%) indicates a persistent loss of potential human
development due to inequality, suggesting that coastal growth has not
translated evenly into improved well-being across population groups.
• Dependence on shock-sensitive economic structure: Within coastal
economic sectors, the largest value-added contributions come from
coastal tourism, crude petroleum and natural gas extraction, refined
petroleum products, and marine transportation. Coastal tourism has been
one of the fastest-growing contributors to coastal GDP, accounting for

30
 nearly half of national tourism GDP before the COVID-19 pandemic.
However, the sharp collapse of coastal tourism value added in 2020
demonstrates its extreme sensitivity to external shocks, including
pandemics, natural disasters, and geopolitical disruptions. Heavy
reliance on tourism therefore creates cyclical employment risks,
particularly for informal and seasonal workers, and increases revenue
volatility for local governments. The remaining sectors (e.g., crude
petroleum and natural gas extraction, refined petroleum products, and
marine transportation) are capital-intensive, environmentally sensitive,
and highly exposed to global market volatility. Fluctuations in global
energy prices, changes in environmental regulations, or declining
offshore resources can disproportionately affect coastal provincial
revenues and employment, especially where local economies lack
diversification into higher-value or knowledge-based sectors.
In short, from the socio-economic perspective, Vietnam’s coastal provinces
play a vital role in the national economy, contributing roughly half of national
GDP and hosting major industrial, energy, logistics, and tourism hubs. At the
same time, they concentrate a large share of the population in environmentally
exposed, low-lying areas and rely heavily on shock-sensitive economic sectors.
This combination creates a distinct and compound socio-economic risk profile
that is more pronounced than that faced by inland provinces.
[Link]. Socio-economic risk ranking by province
The Coastal Risk Index (CRI), which was introduced by Kreft et al. (2015) and
adjusted to adapt with the context of Vietnam. This index aims to provide a
composite and comparable measure of socio-economic vulnerability across
Vietnam’s coastal provinces. The index captures demographic pressure, social
conditions, and human development factors that influence exposure and
sensitivity to coastal and climate-related risks.
The CRI is constructed using indicators reflecting population characteristics,
social vulnerability, and physical constraints, including: total population (SE1-
1), natural area (SE1-2), population growth rate (SE1-5), population density
(SE1-6), urban population (SE1-7), mean elevation (SE1-8), population living
below 100 m elevation (SE1-9), poverty rate (SE2-1), and the Human
Development Index (HDI) (SE2-2). Indicators were selected based on
relevance to coastal socio-economic status and data availability.
All indicators were normalized to a common scale of 0-1 using min–max
normalization to ensures comparability across variables measured in different
units. To maintain consistency, all indicators were oriented so that higher values
correspond to higher socio-economic risk. Indicators positively associated with
risk (e.g. population density, poverty rate) were kept unchanged. Indicators
negatively associated with risk (i.e., mean elevation and HDI) were inverted
after normalization.
The CRI for each province was then calculated as the unweighted arithmetic
mean of all normalized and risk aligned. An equal weighting approach was

31
adopted to minimize subjectivity and reflect the absence of empirical evidence
supporting differential indicator weights. Higher CRI values indicate greater
relative socio-economic risk, while lower values indicate lower relative risk.
Table 3: Normalized indicators and CRI values of coastal provinces

32
Coastal province Population Area Populatio Populatio Population Population Multi- Mean HDI Socio-
n growth n density in urban distribution by dimensional elevation Index economic Risk
rate area elevation poverty rate Index (0-1)
Quang Ninh 0.09 0.32 0.49 0.02 0.10 0.04 0.20 0.64 0.18 0.23
Hai Phong City 0.18 0.02 0.46 0.30 0.12 0.16 0.09 0.97 0.08 0.26
Thai Binh 0.16 0.02 0.25 0.26 0.01 0.13 0.23 1.00 0.57 0.29
Nam Dinh 0.15 0.02 0.32 0.25 0.03 0.13 0.21 1.00 0.71 0.31
Ninh Binh 0.05 0.01 0.36 0.15 0.01 0.04 0.22 0.90 0.48 0.25
Thanh Hoa 0.37 0.65 0.32 0.05 0.08 0.23 0.69 0.48 0.64 0.39
Nghe An 0.33 1.00 0.42 0.02 0.05 0.18 1.00 0.14 0.68 0.43
Ha Tinh 0.09 0.31 0.33 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.64 0.62 0.58 0.29
Quang Binh 0.04 0.44 0.31 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.82 0.38 0.74 0.30
Quang Tri 0.01 0.23 0.33 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.99 0.43 0.83 0.32
Thua Thien – Hue 0.07 0.24 0.27 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.41 0.39 0.74 0.25
Da Nang City 0.06 0.00 1.00 0.19 0.12 0.06 0.08 0.41 0.10 0.22
Quang Nam 0.11 0.61 0.30 0.01 0.03 0.06 0.82 0.00 0.61 0.28
Quang Ngai 0.08 0.25 0.20 0.03 0.01 0.06 0.79 0.39 0.64 0.27
Binh Dinh 0.11 0.31 0.15 0.03 0.06 0.06 0.43 0.44 0.66 0.25
Phu Yen 0.04 0.25 0.21 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.61 0.45 0.77 0.26
Khanh Hoa 0.08 0.26 0.33 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.31 0.16 0.54 0.20
Ninh Thuan 0.00 0.14 0.32 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.93 0.25 0.93 0.29
Binh Thuan 0.08 0.43 0.35 0.01 0.05 0.02 0.21 0.53 0.78 0.27
Ba Ria-Vung Tau 0.07 0.05 0.48 0.11 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.88 0.00 0.20
Ho Chi Minh City 1.00 0.05 0.90 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.99 0.01 0.66
Tien Giang 0.14 0.08 0.29 0.14 0.02 0.14 0.25 1.00 0.78 0.32
Ben Tre 0.09 0.07 0.21 0.11 0.00 0.09 0.51 1.00 0.90 0.33
Tra Vinh 0.05 0.07 0.20 0.08 0.01 0.07 0.80 1.00 0.83 0.35
Soc Trang 0.14 0.33 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.11 0.59 1.00 1.00 0.36
Bac Lieu 0.08 0.13 0.32 0.06 0.02 0.06 0.71 1.00 0.97 0.37
Ca Mau 0.04 0.08 0.13 0.06 0.02 0.09 0.67 1.00 0.86 0.33
Kien Giang 0.08 0.26 0.23 0.03 0.05 0.14 0.46 0.98 0.90 0.35
Finally, coastal provinces were classified into 3 socio-economic risk levels—
High, Medium, Low using their CRI values. The classification was conducted
using a quintile approach, whereby provinces were ranked from highest to
lowest CRI and then divided into three groups of approximately equal size,
where as: top 33% of provinces with the highest CRI values were classified as
High risk; the next 33% as Medium risk; and the bottom 34% as Low risk. This
relative classification method ensures comparability across provinces and
avoids reliance on arbitrary threshold values. It is particularly suitable
for screening and prioritization purposes in coastal risk assessment and climate
adaptation planning, where the objective is to identify provinces with relatively
higher socio-economic exposure and vulnerability rather than to define absolute
risk levels.
The classification results were presented in Tabe X and Figure X below:
Table 4: Coastal province’s socio-economic risk rank
Rank
Socio-economic
Coastal province CRI value (0-1) (1=highest
risk level
risk)
Quang Ninh 0.231 25 Low
Hai Phong City 0.263 20 Low
Thai Binh 0.292 15 Medium
Nam Dinh 0.313 12 Medium
Ninh Binh 0.245 24 Low
Thanh Hoa 0.39 3 High
Nghe An 0.425 2 High
Ha Tinh 0.295 14 Medium
Quang Binh 0.305 13 Medium
Quang Tri 0.316 11 Medium
Thua Thien – Hue 0.252 22 Low
Da Nang City 0.223 26 Low
Quang Nam 0.284 17 Medium
Quang Ngai 0.273 19 Low
Binh Dinh 0.249 23 Low
Phu Yen 0.262 21 Low
Khanh Hoa 0.199 28 Low
Ninh Thuan 0.289 16 Medium
Binh Thuan 0.273 18 Medium
Ba Ria–Vung Tau 0.2 27 Low
Ho Chi Minh City 0.662 1 High
Tien Giang 0.316 10 Medium
Ben Tre 0.33 8 High
Tra Vinh 0.345 7 High
Soc Trang 0.36 5 High
Bac Lieu 0.372 4 High
 Ca Mau 0.328 9 High
Kien Giang 0.348 6 High
Figure 26: Coastal province’s socio-economic risk level

Source: Developed by the author

3.3.2. Risk assessment from climate- and environment-related threats
[Link]. Overall assessment
As indicated by climate-related indicators, Vietnam’s coastal provinces
face very high climate- and environment- related risks, primarily driven by
tropical cyclones, which account for the majority of disaster-related human and
economic losses nationwide. Evidence from both the EM-DAT Project and
the Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority shows that coastal
areas bear a disproportionately large share of impacts from tropical cyclones.
Between 2000 and 2024, more than 83% of all damaging tropical
cyclones recorded nationwide affected coastal provinces, and these areas
accounted for almost all cyclone-related fatalities, injuries, collapsed
households, and affected populations. Over this period, tropical cyclones
caused over 2,200 deaths, more than 6,300 injuries, and affected nearly 22

35
million people in coastal localities alone, underscoring their high exposure and
sensitivity. Economic losses are similarly concentrated along the coast, with
total damage from tropical cyclones exceeding USD 12 billion between 2000
and 2024 (equivalent to roughly USD 600 million per year or 1–1.5% of national
GDP. Damage levels fluctuate strongly across years, reflecting the irregular
occurrence and severity of major storms, with extreme events (e.g. 2006, 2009,
2013, and 2020) dominating cumulative losses. Despite differences in coverage
and reporting methods, almost all data sources consistently indicate
that coastal provinces are the primary hotspots of climate-related risk in
Vietnam, due to their high exposure to tropical cyclones and the severe human
and economic consequences associated with these events.
[Link]. Detailed assessment
A more comprehensive and detailed assessment of climate-related risks to
Vietnam's coastal provinces conducted by UNDP (2025) shows that, currently:
• People: 11.8 million people are directly exposed to the threat of intense
flooding
• Town: Over 35% of coastal settlements are located on eroding coastlines
• Economy: Flood risks in high-growth areas are nearly twice as high as in
low-growth areas
• Agriculture: $1 billion of agricultural GDP and 1.5 million workers are
directly exposed to the threat of intense flooding
• Aquaculture: 1.1 million tons of aquaculture production is at risk of
flooding each year, corresponding to $935 million in exports
• Tourism: 42% of coastal hotels are located near eroding beaches
• Industry: Half of all industrial zones are directly exposed to the threat of
intense flooding
• School: 22% of schools could be directly exposed to the threat of intense
flooding
• Health care: 26% of health care facilities are directly exposed to the threat
of intense flooding
• Transport: A typhoon with wind speeds of up to 200 km/h can close
roads, resulting in daily losses of $114–324 million
• Energy: 36% of transmission lines are in forested areas, exposed to
falling trees in severe storms
• Water: 52 out of 63 provinces could depend on water-stressed river
basins by 2030
3.3.3. Mitigating socio-economic vulnerability from climate-mediated
environmental change: current actions and gaps
The Vietnamese government has made significant progress in mitigating socio-
economic risk over recent decades by developing coastal hazard and risk
database and integrating data in several coastal development policies and
strategies, investing in both structural and non-structural coastal risk reduction

36
measures (i.e., building and upgrading sea dyke systems, planting and
protecting mangrove forests, etc.) and establishing comprehensive legal,
regulatory, and policy frameworks (i.e., the 2014 National Strategy on
Integrated Coastal Zone Management, the 2015 Law on Marine and Island
Resources and Environment, the 2016 National Coastal Zone Action Plan, etc.)
to guide coastal area development in a safe and sustainable manner. However,
these efforts remain insufficient to fully address the coastal areas’ growing and
increasingly complex socio-economic risk profile.
Hazard and socio-economic risk information remains fragmented and
incomplete, often relying on global or regional databases and a single scenario
in action plans and strategy designs. Insufficient guidance, weak enforcement,
and limited institutional capacity and financing have resulted in persistent gaps
in risk-informed spatial planning, building safety standards, as well as in the
systematic maintenance of critical infrastructure. Approximately two-thirds of
Vietnam’s 2,659 km dike system fails to meet prescribed safety standards, and
in many high growth provinces even existing standards leave substantial
protection gaps. Nature-based systems, despite their important role in
enhancing coastal resilience, remain underappreciated and are increasingly
threatened by development pressures and over exploitation. While Vietnam has
achieved remarkable progress in reducing disaster-related losses, evolving and
intensifying risks underscore the need for further strengthening disaster
financing, preparedness, response, and recovery systems.
3.3.4. Recommended priority actions, including regional cooperation
Given the identified gaps, following actions are recommended to
1. Strengthen data and decision-making tools: Effective risk management
requires timely, reliable, and decision-relevant information. Establishing
systematic, high-resolution hazard, risk, and asset-management information
systems at both national and subnational levels is essential to support
evidence-based coastal planning and investment decisions.
2. Enforce risk-informed planning and zoning: To prevent economic growth in
coastal areas from locking in unsafe and maladaptive development, risk-
informed zoning and spatial planning must be rigorously applied. Planning
decisions should be grounded in the best available multi-hazard and climate-
risk information and consistently enforced across sectors and jurisdictions.
3. Strengthen the resilience of infrastructure systems and public services:
Ensuring the continuity of essential services requires integrating risk information
into the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of all
infrastructure investments. Priority should be given to upgrading assets in the
most exposed and under-protected areas, while existing safety standards
should be reviewed and updated to reflect evolving climate and disaster risks
4. Scale up nature-based solutions: Ecosystems such as mangroves and sand
dunes play a critical role in coastal protection while also generating economic
and livelihood benefits. A systematic approach to their rehabilitation,

37
conservation, monitoring, and management is needed, supported by
strengthened policy, regulatory, and legal frameworks. Lessons from past
initiatives should be consolidated to inform technical guidelines and future
programs.
5. Enhance preparedness, response, and disaster financing: Disaster risk
cannot be fully eliminated. To manage residual risk and prepare for increasingly
intense hazards, Vietnam must further strengthen its preparedness and
response capacity. This includes improving early warning systems, building
local response capacity, adapting social protection mechanisms, and
implementing a comprehensive and forward-looking disaster risk financing
strategy.
6. Strengthen regional cooperation: Strengthening regional cooperation is
essential for reducing socio-economic risks in Vietnam’s coastal localities, as
climate and environment related threats often transcend boundaries. Improved
cooperation among neighboring countries can enhance data sharing, early
warning systems, and the application of risk-informed spatial planning. Regional
approaches also enable more efficient investment in shared protective
infrastructure and coastal ecosystems, while strengthening emergency
preparedness and response.

38
References

General Statistics Office, 2023, Socio-economic situation of coastal localities in

the period 2011 – 2022, Statistical Publishing House, Hanoi, 162 pages
Kreft, S., Eckstein, D., Dorsch, L., and Fischer, L., 2015, Global Climate Risk
Index 2016: Who suffers most from extreme weather events?: 1-32.
Rentschler J., de Vries Robbé S., Braese J., Huy Nguyen D., van Ledden M.,
and Pozueta Mayo B., 2020, Resilient Shores: Vietnam’s Coastal Development
Between Opportunity and Disaster Risk, Washington, DC: The World Bank
The World Bank, 2025, Boosting Vietnam’s sustainable marine economy: A
public Expenditure and Investment Review, Publishing and Knowledge
Division, World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC, 20433, USA
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), 2025, Human Development
Report 2025: A matter of choice: People and possibilities in the age of AI, New
York
VASI (Vietnam Agency of Seas and Islands), 2024, Report, National
Conference on Reviewing State Management of Marine and Islands
Resources, Hanoi.
Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority, 2025, Report on Damage
by Natural Disaster in 2011-2024, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development, Hanoi, Vietnam
Zutao O., Peilei F. and Jiquan Chen, 2016, Urban Built-up Areas in Transitional
Economies of Southeast Asia: Spatial Extent and Dynamic, Remote Sensing,
Vol.8, doi:10.3390/rs8100819
 Annex
Annex 1: Socio-economic and Climate-Related Indicators
SE1-1. Coastal provinces’ populations
Unit: 1,000 persons
Year
Coastal province
2011 2015 2020 2022
Quang Ninh 1,181.5 1,241.6 1,337.6 1,362.9
Hai Phong City 1,886.2 1,969.5 2,053.5 2,088.0
Thai Binh 1,798.7 1,830.3 1,870.2 1,878.5
Nam Dinh 1,816.8 1,796.9 1,780.3 1,876.9
Ninh Binh 911.7 948.5 993.9 1,010.7
Thanh Hoa 3,427.6 3,537.0 3,664.9 3,722.1
Nghe An 2,996.1 3,160.6 3,365.2 3,420.0
Ha Tinh 1,236.7 1,261.3 1,296.6 1,323.7
Quang Binh 854.6 875.6 902.0 913.9
Quang Tri 604.7 617.9 637.4 650.9
Thua Thien – Hue 1,100.8 1,114.7 1,133.6 1,160.2
Da Nang City 968.7 1,056.3 1,169.5 1,220.2
Quang Nam 1,436.8 1,468.2 1,505.0 1,519.4
Quang Ngai 1,220.1 1,226.2 1,233.4 1,245.6
Binh Dinh 1,487.5 1,487.6 1,487.9 1,504.3
Phu Yen 864.0 866.2 874.3 876.6
Khanh Hoa 1,170.2 1,198.4 1,240.4 1,254.0
Ninh Thuan 567.9 578.3 593.6 598.7
Binh Thuan 1,180.7 1,205.4 1,239.3 1,252.1
Ba Ria-Vung Tau 1,040.8 1,104.3 1,167.9 1,178.7
Ho Chi Minh City 7,613.4 8,307.9 9,227.6 9,389.7
Tien Giang 1,682.6 1,728.7 1,772.5 1,785.2
Ben Tre 1,262.7 1,275.8 1,292.4 1,298.0
Tra Vinh 1,004.3 1,006.9 1,009.9 1,019.3
Soc Trang 1,694.4 1,705.4 1,728.9 1,751.8
Bac Lieu 1,273.9 1,236.3 1,195.7 1,197.8
Ca Mau 866.9 887.3 913.5 921.8
Kien Giang 1,204.5 1,199.5 1,193.9 1,207.6
Total (28 provinces) 44,354.8 45,892.6 47,880.9 48,628.6
Nation 88,145.8 92,228.6 97,582.7 99,474.4
Source: General Statistic Office
 SE1-2. Coastal provinces’ areas
Unit: km2
Year
Coastal province 2011 2015 2020 2022
Quang Ninh 6,102.40 6,102.30 6,206.9 6,207.9
Hai Phong City 1,523.40 1,527.40 1,526.5 1,526.5
Thai Binh 1,570.00 1,570.80 1,584.6 1,584.6
Nam Dinh 1,651.40 1,653.20 1,668.8 1,668.8
Ninh Binh 1,390.30 1,377.60 1,387.1 1,411.8
Thanh Hoa 11,131.90 11,129.50 11,114.7 11,114.7
Nghe An 16,493.70 16,490.00 16,486.5 16,486.5
Ha Tinh 5,997.20 5,997.80 5,994.5 5,994.5
Quang Binh 8,065.30 8,065.30 7,998.8 7,998.8
Quang Tri 4,739.80 4,739.80 4,701.2 4,701.2
Thua Thien – Hue 5033.20 5,033.20 4,947.1 4,947.1
Da Nang City 1285.40 1,285.40 1,284.7 1,284.7
Quang Nam 10,438.40 10,438.40 10,574.9 10,574.9
Quang Ngai 5,153.00 5,152.70 5,155.2 5,155.3
Binh Dinh 6,050.60 6,050.60 6,066.4 6,066.4
Phu Yen 5,060.60 5,060.60 5,026.0 5,026.0
Khanh Hoa 5,217.70 5,217.70 5,199.6 5,199.6
Ninh Thuan 3,358.30 3,358.30 3,355.3 3,355.7
Binh Thuan 7,812.90 7,813.10 7,942.5 7,942.6
Ba Ria-Vung Tau 1,989.50 1,989.50 1,982.6 1,982.6
Ho Chi Minh City 2,095.60 2,095.50 2,095.4 2,095.4
Tien Giang 2,508.30 2,509.30 2,556.4 2,556.4
Ben Tre 2,360.60 2,359.80 2,379.7 2,379.7
Tra Vinh 2,341.20 2,341.20 2,390.8 2,390.8
Soc Trang 6,348.50 6,348.50 6,352.0 6,352.9
Bac Lieu 3,311.60 3,311.60 3,298.2 3,298.2
Ca Mau 2,468.70 2,468.70 2,667.9 2,667.9
Kien Giang 5,294.90 5,294.90 5,274.5 5,274.5
Total (28 provinces) 136,794.40 136,782.70 137,218.80 137,246.00
Nation 330,957.60 330,966.90 331,317.10 331,345.70

Source: General Statistic Office

SE1-3. Coastal provinces’ populations as proportion of national
population
Unit: %
Year
Coastal Province
2011 2015 2020 2022
Quang Ninh 1.84 1.84 1.88 1.88
Hai Phong City 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.46
Thai Binh 0.47 0.47 0.48 0.48
Nam Dinh 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
Ninh Binh 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.43
Thanh Hoa 3.36 3.36 3.36 3.36
Nghe An 4.98 4.98 4.98 4.98
Ha Tinh 1.81 1.81 1.81 1.81
Quang Binh 2.44 2.44 2.42 2.42
Quang Tri 1.43 1.43 1.42 1.42
Thua Thien – Hue 1.52 1.52 1.49 1.49
Da Nang City 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39
Quang Nam 3.15 3.15 3.20 3.20
Quang Ngai 1.56 1.56 1.56 1.56
Binh Dinh 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83
Phu Yen 1.53 1.53 1.52 1.52
Khanh Hoa 1.58 1.58 1.57 1.57
Ninh Thuan 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01
Binh Thuan 2.36 2.36 2.40 2.40
Ba Ria-Vung Tau 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60
Ho Chi Minh City 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.63
Tien Giang 0.76 0.76 0.77 0.77
Ben Tre 0.71 0.71 0.72 0.72
Tra Vinh 0.71 0.71 0.72 0.72
Soc Trang 1.92 1.92 1.92 1.92
Ca Mau 0.75 0.75 0.81 0.81

Source: General Statistic Office

SE1-4. Coastal provinces’ area as proportion of national area
Unit: %
Year
Coastal Province
2011 2015 2020 2022
Quang Ninh 1.84 1.84 1.88 1.88
Hai Phong City 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.46
Thai Binh 0.47 0.47 0.48 0.48
Nam Dinh 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
Ninh Binh 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.43
Thanh Hoa 3.36 3.36 3.36 3.36
Nghe An 4.98 4.98 4.98 4.98
Ha Tinh 1.81 1.81 1.81 1.81
Quang Binh 2.44 2.44 2.42 2.42
Quang Tri 1.43 1.43 1.42 1.42
Thua Thien – Hue 1.52 1.52 1.49 1.49
Da Nang City 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39
Quang Nam 3.15 3.15 3.20 3.20
Quang Ngai 1.56 1.56 1.56 1.56
Binh Dinh 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83
Phu Yen 1.53 1.53 1.52 1.52
Khanh Hoa 1.58 1.58 1.57 1.57
Ninh Thuan 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01
Binh Thuan 2.36 2.36 2.40 2.40
Ba Ria-Vung Tau 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60
Ho Chi Minh City 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.63
Tien Giang 0.76 0.76 0.77 0.77
Ben Tre 0.71 0.71 0.72 0.72
Tra Vinh 0.71 0.71 0.72 0.72
Ca Mau 0.75 0.75 0.81 0.81
Kien Giang 1.60 1.60 1.59 1.59

Source: General Statistic Office

SE1-5. Coastal provinces’ annual population changes (growth rates)
Unit: %/year
Coastal province 2011 2015 2020 2022
Quang Ninh 0.97 1.13 0.96 0.89
Hai Phong City 0.94 0.96 1 0.75
Thai Binh 0.09 0.43 0.43 0.25
Nam Dinh 0.09 -0.26 -0.03 2.21
Ninh Binh 0.24 0.98 0.95 0.31
Thanh Hoa 0.52 0.85 0.53 0.15
Nghe An 0.67 1.42 0.84 0.3
Ha Tinh 0.4 0.48 0.49 0.74
Quang Binh 0.42 0.59 0.6 0.35
Quang Tri 0.52 0.58 0.6 0.49
Thua Thien – Hue 0.3 0.28 0.37 0.56
Da Nang City 3.15 2.17 2.48 2.07
Quang Nam 0.71 0.57 0.51 0.06
Quang Ngai 0.31 0.14 0.12 0.12
Binh Dinh 0.31 0 0.01 -0.27
Phu Yen 0.43 0.06 0.13 0.12
Khanh Hoa 0.53 0.52 0.62 0.47
Ninh Thuan 0.66 0.5 0.44 0.44
Binh Thuan 0.63 0.68 0.57 0.46
Ba Ria – Vung Tau 1.28 1 1.36 0.22
Ho Chi Minh City 2.09 2.11 2.09 2.43
Tien Giang 0.31 0.73 0.35 0.33
Ben Tre 0.04 0.26 0.26 0.18
Tra Vinh 0.48 0.06 0.06 0.06
Soc Trang 0.19 -0.75 -0.32 -0.75
Bac Lieu 0.49 0.58 0.58 0.36
Ca Mau 0.11 -0.1 -0.03 -0.09
Kien Giang 0.6 0.12 0.3 -0.03

Source: General Statistic Office

SE1-6. Coastal provinces’ population densities

Unit: persons/km2
Year
Coastal province
2011 2015 2020 2022
Quang Ninh 193.6 203.5 216.0 220.0
Hai Phong City 1,238.2 1,289.4 1,345.0 1,368.0
Thai Binh 1,145.6 1,165.2 1,180.0 1,185.0
Nam Dinh 1,100.2 1,086.9 1,067.0 1,125.0
Ninh Binh 655.7 688.5 717.0 716.0
Thanh Hoa 307.9 317.8 330.0 335.0
Nghe An 181.7 191.7 204.0 207.0
Ha Tinh 206.2 210.3 216.0 221.0
Quang Binh 106.0 108.6 113.0 114.0
Quang Tri 127.6 130.4 136.0 138.0
Thua Thien – Hue 218.7 221.5 229.0 235.0
Da Nang City 753.6 821.8 910.0 950.0
Quang Nam 137.6 140.7 142.0 144.0
Quang Ngai 236.8 238.0 239.0 242.0
Binh Dinh 245.8 245.9 245.0 248.0
Phu Yen 170.7 171.2 174.0 174.0
Khanh Hoa 224.3 229.7 239.0 241.0
Ninh Thuan 169.1 172.2 177.0 178.0
Binh Thuan 151.1 154.3 156.0 158.0
Ba Ria-Vung Tau 523.1 555.1 589.0 595.0
Ho Chi Minh City 3,633.1 3,964.6 4,404.0 4,481.0
Tien Giang 670.8 688.9 693.0 698.0
Ben Tre 534.9 540.6 543.0 545.0
Tra Vinh 429.0 430.1 422.0 426.0
Soc Trang 266.9 268.6 272.0 276.0
Bac Lieu 384.7 373.3 363.0 363.0
Ca Mau 351.1 359.4 342.0 346.0
Kien Giang 227.5 226.5 226.0 229.0
Average (28 provinces) 521.1 542.7 567.5 577.1
Average (Nation) 266.3 278.7 295.0 300

Source: General Statistic Office

SE1-7. Coastal population in urban areas

Unit: 1,000 persons

Province 2010 2015 2020 2022
Quang Ninh 616.87 733.5 901.11 917.98
Hai Phong City 857.87 901.9 932.55 951.77
Thai Binh 175.52 187.2 219.46 220.96
Nam Dinh 320.74 317.5 360.12 380.46
Ninh Binh 163.1 184.4 212.59 218.43
Thanh Hoa 368.65 457.1 853.28 1,029.90
Nghe An 379.88 465.1 521.61 530.45
Ha Tinh 189.33 222.3 287.77 293.7
Quang Binh 129.46 176.6 207.11 211.7
Quang Tri 170.16 183.9 206.86 212.59
Thua Thien – Hue 471.82 542 562.32 612.83
Da Nang City 814.34 919.4 1.020.44 1,067.07
Quang Nam 270.03 359.9 396.2 407.39
Quang Ngai 180.23 191.8 260.18 272.22
Binh Dinh 415.74 471.5 599.85 619.65
Phu Yen 199.38 248.2 285.9 286.68
Khanh Hoa 465.27 494.6 525.87 531.19
Ninh Thuan 204.28 207.5 209.6 212.26
Binh Thuan 460.1 464.8 472.14 483.27
Ba Ria-Vung Tau 516.61 606.8 672.31 711.89
Ho Chi Minh City 6,159.4 6,727.6 7,290.9 7,297.9
Tien Giang 229.88 242 251.91 271.92
Ben Tre 125.72 126.1 126.66 133.04
Tra Vinh 155.65 166.5 175.83 184.86
Soc Trang 288.79 375.8 386.61 405.65
Bac Lieu 228.17 241.3 253.64 255.89
Ca Mau 258.8 266 271.11 275.77
Kien Giang 457.04 473.4 491.75 522.73
Total (28 coastal
15,272.80 16,954.70 18,955.70 19,520.10
provinces)
Total (Nation) 26,460.52 30,881.90 35,906.44 37,347.50

Source: General Statistic Office

SE1-8. Range and mean elevation (meter above mean sea level) of coastal
cities and provinces

No Coastal province Min (m) Max (m) Range (m) Mean (m)
1 Quang Ninh -88 1,495.0 1,583 169.07
2 Hai Phong City -62 297.0 359 13.90
3 Thai Binh -23 61.0 84 2.52
4 Nam Dinh -35 87.0 122 2.75
5 Ninh Binh -32 634.0 666 48.43
6 Thanh Hoa -95 1,912.0 2,007 242.00
7 Nghe An -17 2,656.0 2,673 396.38
8 Ha Tinh -29 2,287.0 2,316 176.85
9 Quang Binh -37 2,010.0 2,047 289.27
10 Quang Tri -25 1,690.0 1,715 263.90
11 Thua Thien – Hue -27 1,781.0 1,808 281.77
12 Da Nang City -26 1,672.0 1,698 276.01
13 Quang Nam -33 2,589.0 2,622 463.19
14 Quang Ngai -22 1,694.0 1,716 283.35
15 Binh Dinh -21 1,156.0 1,177 262.05
16 Phu Yen -20 1,716.0 1,736 256.72
17 Khanh Hoa -16 2,025.0 2,041 390.12
18 Ninh Thuan -62 2,023.0 2,085 345.92
19 Binh Thuan -40 1,637.0 1,677 218.59
20 Ba Ria-Vung Tau -31 683.0 714 55.22
21 Ho Chi Minh City -46 116.0 162 4.85
22 Tien Giang -44 40.0 84 2.36
23 Ben Tre -59 63.0 122 2.07
24 Tra Vinh -29 37.0 66 1.98
25 Soc Trang -42 42.0 84 1.65
26 Bac Lieu -21 28.0 49 1.61
27 Ca Mau -25 302.0 327 2.10
28 Kien Giang -60 553.0 613 10.10

Source: SRTM Digital Elevation Data

 SE1-9. Coastal population disitribution by elevation

Unit: 1,000 persons

No Province 0 – 100m 100 – 300m 300 – 500-1,000m >1,000m

500m
1 Quang Ninh 828,341 312,123 83,393 43,232 3,745
2 Hai Phong City 2,039,515 10,433 - - -
3 Thai Binh 1,774,487 - - - -
4 Nam Dinh 1,773,108 - - - -
5 Ninh Binh 833,322 54,024 19,700 831 -
6 Thanh Hoa 2,730,727 393,067 108,024 93,302 11,420
7 Nghe An 2,242,179 431,136 143,240 163,760 44,033
8 Ha Tinh 916,841 211,724 47,528 33,072 13,731
9 Quang Binh 426,551 234,013 121,896 126,043 3,147
10 Quang Tri 455,817 87,589 46,014 51,781 3,871
11 Thua Thien – Hue 863,406 141,494 54,139 59,008 9,138
12 Da Nang City 993,797 132,450 69,092 56,109 4,983
13 Quang Nam 1,044,192 232,444 100,101 120,505 31,003
14 Quang Ngai 963,931 168,207 80,371 77,027 5,673
15 Binh Dinh 989,009 309,660 155,688 97,920 293
16 Phu Yen 513,907 246,974 138,789 66,854 6,132
17 Khanh Hoa 661,590 238,286 130,876 161,723 45,542
18 Ninh Thuan 390,334 109,183 53,521 79,576 12,895
19 Binh Thuan 624,623 411,174 124,031 121,174 14,171
20 Ba Ria-Vung Tau 1,161,487 164,892 5,395 24 -
21 Ho Chi Minh City 10,752,704 - - - -
22 Tien Giang 1,819,252 - - - -
23 Ben Tre 1,316,481 - - - -
24 Tra Vinh 1,091,241 - - - -
25 Soc Trang 1,480,618 - - - -
26 Bac Lieu 1,033,559 - - - -
27 Ca Mau 1,309,500 - - - -
28 Kien Giang 1,839,537 50,336 4,833 - -
Total 42,870,056 3,939,209 1,486,631 1,351,941 209,777

Source: Earth Engine Data Catalogue (Population Density)

SE1-10. Urbanization rate

Unit:%

2010 2015 2020 2022

Coastal provinces 34.76 36.9 39.6 40.1
Nation 30.3 32.4 35.6 37.5

Source: General Statistic Office and The World Bank

49
SE1-11. Build-up surface

Time
period 2000 2005 2010 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030

Square
kilometers 2,824.58 3,363.56 4,011.32 5,808.97 4,665.97 5,053.37 5,457.38 5,664.22
Percentage
of area 0.86 1.02 1.22 1.78 1.42 1.54 1.66 1.72

Source: OECD

50
 SE2-1. Coastal proverty rate

a. Proverty rate (% of poor households) by income indicator

2006 2008 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024

Quang Ninh 7.9 6.4 8 5.2 4.3 4.1 4 3.7 2.13 1.84 1.11 1.09 0.64

Hai Phong City 7.8 6.3 6.5 5.1 4.5 3.8 2.9 2.1 0.95 0.81 0.65 0.29 0.21

Thai Binh 11 9.8 10.7 8 6.9 5.6 4.6 3.7 2.06 1.93 1.82 1.51 1.02

Nam Dinh 12 10.6 10 7.1 6 4.7 3.8 3 1.98 1.82 1.43 0.99 0.73

Ninh Binh 14.3 13 12.2 9.3 8.1 6.6 5.5 4.3 2.06 2 1.69 1.07 0.82

Thanh Hoa 27.5 24.9 25.4 19.9 17.5 14.5 12 9.6 7.01 6.29 5.21 3.9 2.68

Nghe An 26 22.5 24.8 19.8 17.4 14.4 12.3 10.4 10.88 9.53 6.22 4.72 3.22

Ha Tinh 31.5 26.5 26.1 20.7 18.5 15.6 13.3 11 6.53 5.88 3.83 2.9 1.92

Quang Binh 26.5 21.9 25.2 19.6 17.3 14.5 12.5 10.6 8.84 7.66 6.33 5 3.44

Quang Tri 28.5 25.9 25.1 18.6 16.1 13.1 10.7 9.1 9.15 8.14 9.51 7.01 5.6

Thua Thien – Hue 16.4 13.7 12.8 8.9 7.4 6 4.7 3.7 3.5 3.02 3.93 3.31 2.31

Da Nang City 4 3.5 5.1 2.5 1.6 1.2 0.8 0.5 0.51 0.38 0.93 0.9 0.56

Quang Nam 22.8 19.6 24 18.2 15.8 13 10.6 8.4 8.12 6.96 7.53 5.44 3.37

Quang Ngai 22.5 19.5 22.8 17.6 15.4 12.9 11 9.2 7.45 6.78 6.58 5.18 3.66

Binh Dinh 16 14.2 16 13.6 12.5 10.7 9.1 7.5 4.08 3.62 4.01 2.37 1.56
Phu Yen 18.5 16.3 19 16.3 15.3 12.5 9.3 6.4 5.55 5.05 6.51 4.98 3.35

Khanh Hoa 11 9.1 9.5 8 7.3 6.2 5 3.8 2.45 2.19 3.06 2.39 1.52

Ninh Thuan 22.3 19.3 19 14 12.2 9.9 8.2 6.5 8.96 8.41 9.05 8.04 6.55

Binh Thuan 11 9.2 10.1 7.7 6.6 5.3 3.8 2.3 1.65 1.32 2.85 1.17 0.63

Ba Ria-Vung Tau 7 6.3 6.8 3.4 2.2 1.3 0.7 0.8 0.47 0.23 0.82 0.6 0.43

Ho Chi Minh City 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0

Tien Giang 13.2 10.6 10.6 9 8.3 7.1 6.3 5.3 2.01 1.7 2.26 1.12 0.72

Ben Tre 16.2 14.2 15.4 12.9 11.9 10.2 8.6 7.1 4.96 4.59 3.85 2.42 1.69

Tra Vinh 21.8 19 23.2 18.3 16.4 13.9 12 10 7.4 6.55 7.04 6.04 4

Soc Trang 19.5 17.9 22.1 19 17.7 15.6 12 8.7 4.98 4.69 6.11 4.95 3.43

Bac Lieu 15.7 13.9 13.3 11.5 10.7 9.5 8.4 6.9 6.67 5.81 5.24 4.29 2.86

Ca Mau 14 12.7 12.3 7.8 6.6 5.7 4.7 4 5.92 5.22 6.38 5.25 3.54

Kien Giang 10.8 9.3 9.3 6.6 5.6 4.5 3.6 2.7 4.08 3.61 4.09 3.38 2.24

Nation 15.5 13.4 14.2 11.1 9.8 8.4 7 5.8 4.8 4.36 4.19 3.37 2.35

52
b. Proverty rate (% of poor households) by multi-dimensional indicators

2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024

Quang Ninh 4.3 3.8 2.5 2.2 2.1 1.8 1.1 1.1 0.6
Hai Phong City 2.1 1.9 1.4 1.2 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.3 0.2
Thai Binh 4.7 4.0 2.9 2.4 2.1 1.9 1.8 1.5 1.0
Nam Dinh 4.2 3.6 2.8 2.3 2.0 1.8 1.4 1.0 0.7
Ninh Binh 4.5 3.9 2.8 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.7 1.1 0.8
Thanh Hoa 11.9 10.9 8.8 8.0 7.0 6.3 5.2 3.9 2.7
Nghe An 17.7 16.4 13.5 12.1 10.9 9.5 6.2 4.7 3.2
Ha Tinh 12.5 10.9 8.8 7.2 6.5 5.9 3.8 2.9 1.9
Quang Binh 13.7 12.1 10.8 9.3 8.8 7.7 6.3 5.0 3.4
Quang Tri 16.1 14.3 12.6 10.9 9.2 8.1 9.5 7.0 5.6
Thua Thien – Hue 7.3 6.5 4.7 4.0 3.5 3.0 3.9 3.3 2.3
Da Nang City 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.9 0.6
Quang Nam 13.7 12.6 10.3 9.1 8.1 7.0 7.5 5.4 3.4
Quang Ngai 13.7 12.2 10.1 8.4 7.5 6.8 6.6 5.2 3.7
Binh Dinh 8.0 6.9 5.5 4.6 4.1 3.6 4.0 2.4 1.6
Phu Yen 9.9 8.8 7.5 6.3 5.5 5.0 6.5 5.0 3.3
Khanh Hoa 5.9 5.0 3.7 3.0 2.5 2.2 3.1 2.4 1.5
Ninh Thuan 13.4 12.6 11.0 9.8 9.0 8.4 9.1 8.0 6.6
Binh Thuan 4.4 3.6 2.6 2.1 1.6 1.3 2.8 1.2 0.6
Ba Ria-Vung Tau 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.8 0.6 0.4
Ho Chi Minh City 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Tien Giang 5.7 4.7 3.2 2.6 2.0 1.7 2.3 1.1 0.7
Ben Tre 10.1 8.7 6.7 5.6 5.0 4.6 3.9 2.4 1.7
Tra Vinh 13.9 12.0 9.9 8.4 7.4 6.6 7.0 6.0 4.0
Soc Trang 10.2 8.7 6.7 5.6 5.0 4.7 6.1 5.0 3.4
Bac Lieu 13.3 11.5 9.4 7.9 6.7 5.8 5.2 4.3 2.9
Ca Mau 11.9 10.1 8.3 6.9 5.9 5.2 6.4 5.2 3.5
Kien Giang 8.2 7.1 5.8 4.8 4.1 3.6 4.1 3.4 2.2
Nation 9.2 7.9 6.8 5.7 4.8 4.4 4.2 3.4 2.3

54
SE2-2. Contemporary Human Development Index (HDI)

2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Quang Ninh 0.76 0.77 0.77 0.78 0.78 0.8
Hai Phong City 0.77 0.78 0.78 0.8 0.81 0.81
Thai Binh 0.69 0.71 0.71 0.72 0.74 0.74
Nam Dinh 0.68 0.69 0.69 0.7 0.71 0.71
Ninh Binh 0.71 0.72 0.73 0.73 0.75 0.75
Thanh Hoa 0.68 0.69 0.7 0.71 0.73 0.73
Nghe An 0.68 0.69 0.7 0.7 0.71 0.73
Ha Tinh 0.7 0.71 0.71 0.72 0.73 0.73
Quang Binh 0.68 0.68 0.69 0.69 0.7 0.71
Quang Tri 0.66 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.71
Thua Thien – Hue 0.66 0.69 0.68 0.7 0.7 0.72
Da Nang City 0.77 0.79 0.78 0.79 0.8 0.8
Quang Nam 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.71 0.73 0.73
Quang Ngai 0.69 0.7 0.69 0.71 0.72 0.73
Binh Dinh 0.68 0.69 0.7 0.71 0.72 0.73
Phu Yen 0.67 0.68 0.68 0.69 0.7 0.71
Khanh Hoa 0.7 0.71 0.71 0.72 0.74 0.75
Ninh Thuan 0.64 0.65 0.65 0.67 0.68 0.69
Binh Thuan 0.66 0.68 0.68 0.69 0.7 0.71
Ba Ria-Vung Tau 0.79 0.8 0.79 0.8 0.82 0.82
Ho Chi Minh City 0.79 0.8 0.79 0.8 0.81 0.82
Tien Giang 0.67 0.68 0.68 0.69 0.7 0.7
Ben Tre 0.65 0.66 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69
Tra Vinh 0.66 0.67 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.7
Soc Trang 0.64 0.64 0.65 0.65 0.67 0.67
Bac Lieu 0.64 0.65 0.65 0.66 0.67 0.68
Ca Mau 0.66 0.66 0.67 0.67 0.69 0.7
Kien Giang 0.65 0.66 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69
Average coastal 0.690 0.699 0.702 0.711 0.726 0.724
provinces
Nation (by GSO) 0.693 0.703 0.706 0.706 0.726 0.737
Nation (by World 0.737 0.744 0.755 0.754 0.764 0.766
Bank)
Source: General Statistic Office and the UNDP (2025)
SE2-3. Inequality Adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI)

2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

HDI 0.737 0.744 0.755 0.754 0.764 0.766
Inequality Adjusted HDI 0.611 0.617 0.630 0.630 0.638 0.641

Source: The UNDP (2025)

56
 SE3-1. Coastal GAV at constant price by economic sector (2010 price)

Unit: billion VND

Economic Sector 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Average
Fisheries and
1,041 1,315 1,448 1,711 1,941 2,386 2,323 2,577 1,944 1,724 1,658 1,824
aquaculture
Crude petroleum
23,500 12,102 20,409 48,829 12,309 33,016 20,477 24,808 26,845 28,837 24,070 25,018
and natural gas
Seafood processing
9,354 9,928 10,466 11,292 12,189 14,602 16,263 18,428 18,393 18,497 18,539 14,359
and preserved
Manufacture of coke
and refined 15,988 17,676 18,893 19,848 21,724 23,234 25,145 28,285 32,923 46,224 47,885 27,075
petroleum products
Manufacture of
4,573 4,714 6,241 5,883 6,118 7,310 8,736 9,012 9,119 9,280 9,114 7,282
ships and boats
Marine
17,362 20,397 17,124 20,572 23,566 26,103 27,744 29,281 29,759 31,080 31,829 24,983
transportation
Offshore wind
0 0 0 0 17 76 101 165 1,699 7,166 10,054 1,753
electric
Marine tourism 23,253 25,882 29,795 51,811 53,648 60,321 70,591 89,241 105,263 116,475 1,071 57,032

Source: The World Bank (2025)

SE3-2. Sustainable fisheries as a percentage of GDP of Vietnam

2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021

Contribution of
sustainable fisheries as % 1.3 1.2 1.25 1.17 1.12 0.73
of GDP

Source: FAODATA
SE3-3. Coastal tourism percent of GDP

Unit: VND thousand billion

Indicator 2014 2015 2016 2017

Coastal tourism GDP* 147.774 163.284 194.579 256.651
National tourism GDP** 322.86 355.55 417.27 541
National GDP*** 4,937.03 5,191.32 5,639.4 6,293.9

*: Source: The World Bank (2025)

**: Source: Vietnam National Authority of Tourism
***: Source: General Statistics Office
SE4-1. Number of tropical cyclones

Unit: event

Year Nation* Coastal provinces* Nation**

2000 2 2
2001 3 2
2003 1 1
2004 2 2
2005 3 3
2006 4 3
2007 1 1
2008 5 5
2009 3 3
2010 3 2
2011 1 1 5
2012 3 2 6
2013 4 4 11
2014 3 3 3
2015 2 1 2
2016 3 3 5
2017 4 3 7
2018 4 2 3
2019 2 2 6
2020 9 7 10
2021 4 3 6
2022 1 1 5
2023 1 1 1
2024 3 2 4

* Source: EM-DAT Project

** Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority
61
SE4-2. Number of affected cases by tropical cyclones

Total Death (persons) No. Injuries (persons) No. Affected (persons) No. homeless (households)
Year Coastal Coastal Coastal Coastal
Nation* Nation** Nation* Nation** Nation Nation* Nation**
provinces* provinces* provinces provinces*
2000 20 20 33 33 6,000 6,000
2001 53 23 89 86 177,450 60,000 23,100 23,100
2003 18 18 5,000 5,000
2004 70 70 5 5 500,900 500,900
2005 103 103 28 28 361,132 361,132
2006 387 370 1885 1,885 2,943,720 2,943,720 50,680 48,188
2007 96 96 150 150 637,755 637,755 47,525 47,525
2008 254 254 159 159 143,830 143,830 12,660 12,660
2009 306 306 1005 1,005 2,867,820 2,867,820 68,635 68,635
2010 35 25 20 20 32,960 20,560 1,620 1,620
2011 48 8 32,526
2012 38 28 64 584 584 589 59,320 59,320 9,545 9,545 83,454
2013 74 74 152 19 1,962,485 1,962,485 375 375 802,805
2014 38 38 51 16 48,075 48,075 51,216
2015 18 11 18 20 20 135 115 2,204
2016 46 46 44 113 112 534 812,820 812,820 22,110
2017 147 146 135 28 28 49 5,042,900 5,042,900 531,950
2018 67 32 33 14 14 45 156,000 60,000 29,272
2019 4 4 25 21 749 22,150 22,150 7,791
2020 302 296 194 14 2,162,490 2,157,855 2,925 2,925 733,461
2021 11 9 9 110 110 173 83,560 83,250 5,386
2022 19 19 29 3 3 11 436,868 436,868 137,744
2023 1 1 10 1983 1,983 2,113 3,069
2024 354 351 355 3,745,274 3,743,424 487,506

* Source: EM-DAT Project

** Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority

63
SE4-3. Total damage due to tropical cyclones (oringinal estimate)

Unit: USD 1,000

Nation* Coastal provinces* Nation**

2000 26,000 26,000
2001 83,200 58,200
2004 30,000 30,000
2005 250,250 250,250
2006 1,080,000 1,080,000
2007 191,000 191,000
2008 190,500 190,500
2009 1,065,200 1,065,200
2010 44,500 44,500
2012 342,800 342,800 636,970
2013 1,474,230 1,474,230 1,214,010
2014 10,700 10,700 92,550
2015 21,800 21,800 17,800
2016 541,157 541,157 530,130
2017 2,985,000 1,555,000 1,966,450
2018 239,200 192,000 151,690
2019 114,000 1,144,000 127,440
2020 1,429,992 1,428,492 1,542,930
2021 26,500 26,500 41,180
2022 265,000 265,000 353,770
2023 44,090
2024 2,020,600 2,020,600 3,592,000

* Source: EM-DAT Project

CHAPTER 3. POLLUTION
3.1 Key Findings
3.1.1 Leading Pollution Drivers, Key Pollution Concerns, and National-
Regional Significance
[Link] Nutrient, Organic Loading
Excessive nutrient enrichment is a primary pollution driver in Vietnam’s coastal
waters. High agricultural fertilizer usage (over 4.5 million tonnes of fertilizer
imported in 2021, up 19% from 2020 ) and large-scale livestock operations
contribute vast nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) loads to rivers and deltas.
Untreated domestic sewage further adds organic matter and pathogens. These
diffuse sources elevate nutrient concentrations in estuaries and coastal zones,
occasionally triggering eutrophication and harmful algal blooms. Red tides –
often linked to nutrient surges – have been recorded in Vietnamese coastal
areas (e.g. Nghe An, Binh Thuan, Kien Giang) since the 1990s , underscoring
the national scope of this issue. Regionally, nutrient runoff from Vietnam’s
watersheds (e.g. the Red River originating in China and the intensively farmed
Mekong basin) fuels transboundary eutrophication in the East Vietnam Sea /
South China Sea . The environmental significance is high: elevated nutrients
threaten coastal fisheries and aquaculture through periodic oxygen depletion
and toxin-producing algae, with cascading economic impacts.
[Link] Solid Waste and Marine Litter
Rapid economic growth and urbanization have led to 25–28 million tonnes of
solid waste generated per year . Waste management has not kept pace – about
75–85% of collected waste is disposed in landfills or open dumps. As a result,
mismanaged solid waste (especially plastics) leaks into waterways and the
ocean. Vietnam is among big sources of marine plastic debris . Per capita
plastic use rose from 3.8 kg (1990) to over 41 kg by 2015, generating an
estimated 1.8 million tonnes of plastic waste annually . Inadequate disposal
means plastics can be carried by rivers and currents across borders; studies
estimate up to 60% of ocean plastic originates from five Asian countries
including Vietnam. Marine litter – from local sources and drifting from
neighboring states – endangers marine life, impedes navigation, and taints
coastal tourism. Vietnam has acknowledged the regional significance of this
issue by committing to an ASEAN Action Plan on Marine Debris and a national
ban on certain single-use plastics by 2025 .
[Link] Industrial and Hazardous Pollution
Industrialization has intensified pollution of Vietnam’s coastal environment. A
number of factories and craft villages still operate with outdated pollution
controls , discharging untreated effluents containing heavy metals and toxic
organic compounds into rivers that flow to the sea. Over 7 million tonnes of
industrial solid waste are generated annually , some of it hazardous, yet
hazardous waste handling capacity remains limited. Each year Vietnam
produces > 630,000 tonnes of hazardous waste (from industry, healthcare,
etc.), but only a portion is safely treated. The remainder pollutants can
bioaccumulate in the food web, leading to contaminated seafood and long-term
ecosystem degradation. Nationally, industrial and hazardous pollution hotspots
(e.g. downstream of industrial zones) are linked to cancer clusters and
biodiversity loss, while regionally, pollutants like heavy metals can disperse
along currents, underscoring a shared East Vietnam Sea / South China Sea
concern.
[Link] Oil Spills and Hydrocarbon Pollution
Heavy maritime traffic and offshore oil activities in the East Vietnam Sea / South
China Sea make oil pollution a continual threat. While Vietnam has not suffered
an ultra-large spill in recent years, numerous smaller spills and illegal oily
discharges have occurred. Coastal provinces have periodically reported tar
balls and oil lumps washing ashore – for instance, an estimated 1 tonne of
weathered oil polluted 500 m of Ha Tinh’s coastline in February 2024 . In 2019,
a sunken cargo vessel spilled 178 tonnes of fuel oil, contaminating 3 km of Ky
Anh Town’s beaches . These incidents reveal vulnerabilities in spill prevention.
Oil contamination harms marine life (coating beaches, killing mangroves,
poisoning fish) and can disseminate widely on regional currents. Given that the
East Vietnam Sea / South China Sea is a global shipping artery, any major spill
could drift across national boundaries . Vietnam has strengthened its
preparedness – updating a national oil spill contingency plan in 2020 and
maintaining three regional response centers and a number of private small
scale response centers – but the transboundary significance remains. Without
robust regional cooperation on shipping practices and emergency response,
Vietnam’s coastal communities and fisheries will remain at risk from
hydrocarbon pollution.
[Link] High-Risk and Sensitive Areas
Several ecologically sensitive coastal areas in Vietnam are under high pollution
stress. Coral reef ecosystems, such as those in Nha Trang Bay, the Con Dao
and Phu Quoc archipelagos, are extremely vulnerable to water quality
degradation. Chronic sedimentation, nutrient runoff, and coastal construction
have decimated live coral cover – in some sites over 90% of corals have died
off by 2019 . Mangrove forests, especially in the Mekong Delta and Red River
Delta, face both direct loss (from aquaculture and development) and functional
decline due to pollution. Mangroves serve as natural bio-filters and nurseries,
so their degradation reduces coastal resilience and water purification capacity
. Other sensitive habitats include seagrass beds (vital fish spawning grounds)
and tidal wetlands, which are impacted by agro-chemical runoff and
wastewater. These high-value areas concentrate biodiversity and economic
services (fisheries, tourism) and thus any pollution here has outsized ecological
and socio-economic consequences. Protecting such areas is nationally
significant and contributes to regional biodiversity conservation in the East
Vietnam Sea / South China Sea .

66
3.1.2 Sectoral Impacts
[Link] Agriculture
Agricultural activities are a major source of land-based pollution reaching
Vietnam’s seas. The intensification of crop production – particularly rice and
coffee – involves heavy application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. As
noted, over 4–5 million tonnes of fertilizers are used annually , and more than
100,000 tonnes of pesticides are applied each year . A significant fraction of
these agro-chemicals is not taken up by plants and instead can be washed by
rainfall into rivers and coastal waters. This runoff elevates nutrient levels
(nitrates, phosphates) in delta estuaries, driving eutrophication and periodic
algal blooms. In rural hotspot areas (e.g. vegetable farming districts near Hanoi
and aquaculture-agriculture zones in the Mekong delta), improper fertilizer and
manure management have led to spikes in ammonia (NH₃) and sulfide (H₂S)
emissions. The sector’s pollution impacts include depleted dissolved oxygen
and occasional fish kills in downstream canals, and residue accumulation in
coastal sediments. Moreover, high sediment loads from upland agriculture (due
to erosion) increase turbidity in coastal waters, stressing corals and
seagrasses. Given agriculture’s role as Vietnam’s economic backbone,
addressing these diffuse impacts is challenging. However, initiatives promoting
better nutrient management (e.g. “3 reductions, 3 gains” in rice farming) are
beginning to curb runoff at source. Regionally, Vietnam’s agricultural pollution
contributes to shared problems like Red River plume impacts on the Gulf of
Tonkin and Mekong nutrient loads affecting the East Vietnam Sea / South China
Sea .
[Link] Domestic Solid Waste
Municipal solid waste mismanagement is an acute environmental issue with
direct marine implications. Vietnam’s cities and towns generate ~25.5 million
tonnes of solid waste per year, and this volume has been rising ~5% annually
with urban population growth . Collection services have expanded (covering
~92% of urban waste and ~66% of rural waste ), yet waste treatment and
disposal remain problematic. Over 75% of collected waste is simply landfilled
or dumped, often in facilities with limited sanitary standards . As a result,
leachate from open dumps pollutes surface water and nearshore waters, and
lighter trash readily escapes into the environment. Floods or heavy rains
(increasingly frequent with climate change) further wash refuse from landfills
and streets into rivers. The leakage of plastic waste is of particular concern:
studies by the World Bank have ranked Vietnam among the top four plastic
polluters globally. Coastal cities like Da Nang, Nha Trang and Vung Tau
struggle with periodic beach pollution from accumulated garbage and debris,
undermining tourism. The government has recognized that traditional “collect-
transfer-dump” practices are unsustainable and is moving toward a circular
economy approach . New regulations mandate waste separation at source and
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for packaging, but implementation is
limited. Initial enforcement has hampered source-separation programs in Hanoi
and Ho Chi Minh City . In summary, the domestic waste sector’s impact is
67
twofold: locally, it degrades urban environments and generates public health
risks, and nationally/regionally, it may feeds the transboundary marine litter
crisis across the East Vietnam Sea/South China Sea .
[Link] Industrial Pollution
Industrial activity contributes significant pollutant loads to Vietnam’s
environment, with effects often concentrated in specific “hotspot” regions. The
country has 283 industrial parks and hundreds of smaller industrial clusters,
many located in coastal provinces . These industries (textiles, food processing,
chemicals, electronics, etc.) produce large volumes of wastewater – estimated
at over 550,000 m³/day from industrial parks alone – as well as solid wastes
and air emissions. Compliance with treatment regulations is improving but
remains uneven. Only about 5% of the 615 registered industrial clusters have
centralized wastewater treatment plants ; the rest often discharge either
partially treated or untreated effluent. Consequently, rivers near industrial zones
(e.g. the Thi Vai River near Ho Chi Minh City, Nhue River near Hanoi) show
elevated levels of heavy metals, ammonia, and chemical oxygen demand
(COD) beyond national water quality standards . One notorious case was the
Thi Vai river pollution by a monosodium glutamate factory in the 2000s, which
devastated fisheries. On the coast, major seaports and industrial estates (e.g.
along Haiphong – Quang Ninh, and Vung Tau – Dong Nai corridors) are sites
of recurring water and sediment contamination. These pollutants accumulate in
sediments and biota; for example, shellfish near industrial effluent outfalls have
shown high cadmium and lead levels . Industrial air pollution (SO₂, NOₓ,
particulates) also indirectly impacts marine areas through deposition and
acidification of rainwater. The national and regional significance of industrial
pollution is evident: domestically it imposes health costs on communities and
cleanup liabilities, while regionally, mobile pollutants like persistent organics
can spread. Vietnam has strengthened its legal framework (the revised Law on
Environmental Protection 2020) to tighten industrial discharge standards and
require Best Available Techniques . Still, enforcement gaps and the fast pace
of industrial growth pose ongoing challenges in controlling this sector’s impacts.
[Link] Aquaculture
Aquaculture – particularly coastal shrimp and fish farming – has expanded
rapidly and is now a major pollution source if not managed sustainably. Vietnam
devotes about 1.1 million hectares to aquaculture production , much of it in
sensitive delta and lagoon environments. Intensive shrimp farming in the
Mekong Delta and south-central coast exemplifies the sector’s impacts: high
stocking densities and heavy feeding lead to a buildup of organic waste
(uneaten feed, feces) in pond water. Periodic pond draining or overflow
releases this nutrient-rich, oxygen-depleting water into adjacent rivers and
estuaries, causing local spikes in turbidity and biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD). Feed waste is significant – feed conversion ratios for intensive shrimp
can be 1.2–1.5:1 or higher, meaning a substantial fraction of feed becomes
waste. Additionally, chemical use is prevalent: farmers apply lime, probiotics,
and antibiotics to prevent disease and improve yields. Antibiotic residues (e.g.
68
chloramphenicol, banned malachite green) have been detected in shrimp and
fish products, leading to import rejections and reputational damage. These
drugs and other chemicals (disinfectants, pesticides for pond prep) can harm
non-target organisms and contribute to antimicrobial resistance when flushed
to the environment. Coastal habitat conversion for aquaculture has also directly
caused environmental loss – particularly mangrove deforestation in past
decades to create shrimp ponds. Although programs now encourage
“mangrove-shrimp” integrated farming, water quality in such areas still suffers
from nutrient loading. The aquaculture sector’s pollution is locally severe (e.g.
parts of Ca Mau Province’s canals have chronically high organic loads and
sulfide levels) and nationally significant as Vietnam is a top aquaculture
producer. Sustainable practices (better feed management, wastewater
treatment ponds, biosecurity and reduced chemical reliance) are being
implemented with support from initiatives like MAE (MARD and (NOW
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT - MAE)), the World Bank
and WWF, aiming to mitigate aquaculture’s environmental footprint.
[Link] Marine Activities and Marine Debris Transport
Marine-based activities – shipping, fishing, and coastal tourism – contribute to
pollution both directly and through the movement of pollutants. The East
Vietnam Sea / South China Sea ’s heavy shipping traffic brings risks of oil spills,
chronic fuel emissions, and waste dumping. Large cargo vessels and tankers
occasionally rinse out oily sludge or release garbage illegally; these discharges
can travel far. Ocean currents and monsoonal winds transport floating debris
(notably plastics) across national boundaries. This transboundary drift of marine
litter is well documented by regional studies and is a key rationale for
coordinated action. Fishing activities contribute lost or discarded gear (nets,
lines, styrofoam floats), which become marine debris hazards (ghost fishing and
ingestion by marine animals). The fisheries sector also generates pollution in
port: fish landing sites often release untreated offal and wastewater into
harbors, raising localized nutrient and bacterial levels. Coastal tourism and
recreation exert pressure on popular beaches and islands; tourist boats in Ha
Long Bay, Cham Islands and others have been implicated in wastewater and
oil leakage incidents that degrade water quality. Anchoring of boats on reefs
also causes direct physical damage and can stir up sediments. The marine
transport sector is further linked to invasive species introduction via ballast
water discharge; Vietnam’s ports have recorded invasive mussels and
barnacles likely introduced in ship ballast. These issues have national security
and economic angles – for instance, debris and oil pollution can harm Vietnam’s
fisheries output and tourism appeal, while also affecting neighboring states’
waters. Recognizing this, Vietnam actively participates in multilateral efforts
(e.g. the IMO’s MARPOL convention for ship waste, the regional action plan on
marine litter). Reducing ship-based pollution (through stricter enforcement of
no-dumping rules, port waste reception facilities, and improved fisheries waste
management) is an ongoing priority to protect Vietnam’s marine environment
and beyond.

69
[Link] Emerging Contaminants
Beyond traditional pollutants, a range of emerging contaminants are gaining
attention for their potential impacts on Vietnam’s marine waters. Microplastics
– microscopic plastic fragments and fibers – are now identified in water and
sediments along Vietnam’s coast. Recent studies have found microplastic
contamination in surface waters of the Mekong and Red River, beach sands,
etc.. These particles can adsorb toxins and enter the food chain, posing
unknown health risks to marine life and humans. Pharmaceutical and personal
care residues are another concern: Vietnam’s use of human and veterinary
pharmaceuticals (antibiotics, hormones, painkillers) has risen, and many of
these compounds pass through wastewater treatment (where it exists) largely
unremoved. Coastal monitoring has begun to detect antibiotic residues and
endocrine-disrupting chemicals in estuarine waters near urban centers, which
could affect aquatic organism health (e.g. feminization of fish). Heavy metal
hotspots from legacy pollution continue to be discovered – for example,
sediments near former mining zones or industrial ports contain high arsenic,
mercury, or lead, which can remobilize. While not “new” contaminants, their re-
entry into waterways under changing conditions (like acidifying water or
dredging) is an emerging issue. Another emerging contaminant class is per-
and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), used in firefighting foams and textiles.
Lastly, harmful algal bloom toxins (such as brevetoxins, cyanotoxins) can be
considered emerging in the sense that their occurrence may increase with
nutrient pollution and warming seas. Each of these emerging contaminants
poses unique challenges: detection methods and regulatory standards are often
lacking, and their long-term ecological effects are not fully understood. Vietnam
is addressing them by updating water quality standards and investing in modern
laboratory capacity. Nevertheless, these pollutants could represent the next
wave of environmental management issues as the country strives to safeguard
its marine and coastal health.
3.1.3 Ecological and Public Health Consequences
[Link] Coral Degradation
Coral reef degradation in Vietnam has reached critical levels, with pollution
synergizing with climate stress to drive widespread losses. Once-flourishing
reefs have suffered sharp declines in coral cover and diversity. Surveys show
that as of 2019, over 50% of the nation’s assessed coral reefs are in poor
condition (live coral cover under 25%) . In some intensively impacted sites,
collapse has been even more dramatic – Nha Trang Bay’s coral cover dropped
by 64% between 2016 and 2019, and over 90% of coral colonies had died by
2019 due to successive disturbances . Chronic land-based pollution is a key
driver: sediment and nutrient runoff from rivers increase turbidity and algal
overgrowth on reefs, weakening corals’ competitive advantage. For example,
researchers attributed the mass mortality in Nha Trang partly to increasing
eutrophication (nutrient enrichment) from sewage and agricultural runoff,
coupled with other stresses like overfishing and Crown-of-Thorns starfish
outbreaks . Coral bleaching events linked to warming have struck Vietnam’s

70
reefs (notably in 2010 and 2016), but recovery is hampered in polluted waters
where resilient coral recruitment is low. The loss of coral reefs has serious
ecological consequences: reefs support at least 355 hard coral species and
myriad fish and invertebrates in Vietnam , so their decline is causing cascading
biodiversity loss. Fish populations that depend on reefs are plummeting – a
2022 survey in Phu Quoc MPA found large reef fish (>20 cm) comprised only
~1% of individuals observed , indicating a severely degraded ecosystem. Coral
degradation also means loss of shoreline protection (reefs buffer waves),
reduced tourism appeal for dive tourism, and diminished fishery productivity.
This imposes socio-economic costs on coastal communities that once relied on
vibrant reefs. The government and local stakeholders have responded with
emergency measures (e.g. closing Hon Mun reef to tourists in 2022, active coral
transplantation projects) . However, without addressing root causes – land-
based pollution, destructive fishing, and climate change – coral reef prospects
remain precarious. The Vietnam case exemplifies how compounded pressures
can drive a swift shift from coral-dominated to algae-dominated reefs, a change
that may be difficult to reverse if action is delayed.
[Link] Tourism Risks
Environmental pollution in coastal zones directly threatens Vietnam’s tourism
industry, particularly the appeal and safety of its beaches, bays, and marine
parks. Water pollution and marine debris have begun to impact tourist
perceptions in formerly pristine destinations. In Da Nang, Vung Tau, and on Phu
Quoc Island, there have been recurring episodes of garbage (plastic bags,
medical waste, tar balls) washing onto beaches during the monsoon season,
leading to unsightly and unsanitary conditions. Clean-up efforts are frequent,
but the reputational damage can reduce tourist arrivals. Bathing water quality is
another concern: high levels of coliform bacteria and occasional algal bloom
toxins have led to temporary swimming bans on some beaches (e.g. after heavy
rains in Ha Long Bay or Nha Trang). In extreme cases, major pollution incidents
force tourism closures – for instance, the Hon Mun Marine Protected Area in
Nha Trang was closed in mid-2022 after surveys revealed severe coral die-off
linked to environmental stress . This prevented snorkeling/diving activities and
drew negative media attention. Over the longer term, the loss of coral reefs and
scenic coastal ecosystems diminishes the very natural attractions (colorful
reefs, clear waters, abundant marine life) that marine tourism depends on.
Similarly, air pollution haze (from urban smog or regional biomass burning)
occasionally affects coastal vistas in Ha Long or Phu Quoc, detracting from
visitor experience. Cruise and port pollution is another facet: as Vietnam
welcomes more cruise ships, managing their waste and air emissions is vital to
avoid polluting harbor cities that double as tourist hubs. The tourism sector also
faces climate-related pollution risks – for example, extreme floods can cause
sewage overflows into streets and beaches, as seen in parts of Hue and Hoi An
in recent years, necessitating disaster clean-ups . All these issues contribute to
a sense of vulnerability that could sway international tour operators and
environmentally conscious travelers away from Vietnam’s coastal destinations

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if not addressed. The government and industry are responding with “green
tourism” initiatives, such as certifying beaches for cleanliness, banning single-
use plastics in certain parks, and improving wastewater treatment in resort
areas. Ensuring a clean, safe coastal environment is recognized as integral to
sustaining Vietnam’s tourism growth.
3.1.4 Climate Change Impacts
[Link] Extreme Rainfall
Climate change is amplifying extreme rainfall events in Vietnam, which in turn
exacerbate pollution runoff into coastal waters. The country has experienced
more intense downpours and severe typhoon seasons in recent years,
especially in central Vietnam. These torrential rains overwhelm drainage and
wastewater systems, causing untreated sewage and solid waste to be washed
directly into rivers and the sea. Urban areas like Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City,
which already have low wastewater treatment coverage (~12–15% ), see
combined sewer overflows during heavy rains – flushing raw sewage, street
litter, and oil residues into canals that drain to coastal estuaries. Flooding events
have become frequent (e.g. historic floods in Hue and Quang Nam in 2020),
mobilizing not only sediments but also contaminants from industrial zones and
landfills. Furthermore, extreme rainfall accelerates soil erosion from agricultural
land, increasing the nutrient and silt load delivered to coastal waters. Satellite
observations after major storms indicate large sediment plumes off river deltas,
which carry fertilizers, pesticides, and organic waste. These pulses can lead to
short-term hypoxia and spike harmful algal blooms after the storm due to
sudden nutrient influx. Another consequence of intense rains is damage to
environmental infrastructure – treatment plants and sewer lines can be
physically damaged by floods, reducing their functionality long after waters
recede. The net effect is that climate-driven rainfall extremes tend to magnify
existing land-based pollution challenges, often undoing incremental progress in
water quality improvement. Coastal ecosystems already stressed by chronic
pollution are further shocked by these episodic pollutant loads. Recognizing
this, Vietnam is integrating climate adaptation into pollution control planning: for
example, designing storm-resilient wastewater systems and establishing buffer
green belts to intercept runoff. Early warning systems and emergency pollution
response (such as moving hazardous chemicals away from flood-prone sites)
are also being improved. Nonetheless, the trend of heavier rainfall under
climate change presents a formidable and unpredictable stress factor for
maintaining coastal water quality.
[Link] Sea-Level Rise
Accelerating sea-level rise in Vietnam – measured at approximately 3–4 mm
per year along the coastline – is compounding pollution problems and creating
new management challenges. As sea levels rise, low-lying waste disposal and
industrial sites in coastal areas become increasingly vulnerable to inundation
and storm surge. Many of Vietnam’s largest landfills (e.g. the Đa Phước dump
near HCMC, or those in the Mekong Delta) are situated on low coastal plains;

72
higher sea levels and more frequent high tides risk breaching these sites,
leading to direct release of trash and leachate into estuaries. There is also
evidence of saline intrusion reaching further up rivers and into groundwater,
which can remobilize pollutants. In the Mekong Delta, salinity now penetrates
tens of kilometers inland during dry-season low flows; this saline water can
desorb heavy metals or pesticides that were bound in soils or river sediments
and carry them into coastal waters. Sea-level rise exacerbates coastal erosion,
which can expose and spread contaminated sediments that were previously
buried or trapped behind mangroves. For instance, centuries-old agricultural
dikes and abandoned waste ponds in the delta are being eroded by tidal action,
releasing legacy nutrients and pollutants. Another impact is on groundwater and
septic systems: rising water tables and saltwater intrusion compromise septic
tanks and pit latrines in coastal communities, causing sewage leakage that finds
its way to the sea. Higher base sea levels also mean that storm surges and
tsunami-like events push farther inland, which was seen when a moderate
typhoon caused unprecedented surge flooding in Da Nang – sweeping urban
pollutants out to the ocean. In terms of natural buffers, mangrove habitats that
filter runoff are themselves at risk from deeper water and prolonged inundation;
areas of the Mekong Delta have lost mangroves due to inundation stress,
diminishing their filtering function . The government’s climate change scenarios
predict up to 0.5 m sea-level rise by 2050, which could significantly alter the
coastal water quality baseline. Vietnam’s response includes reinforcing coastal
landfill protections, relocating some hazardous facilities to higher ground, and
restoring mangroves to build natural resilience. But given the vast length of
coastline (3,260 km) and densely populated deltas, sea-level rise presents a
long-term, diffuse threat that will increasingly intersect with pollution control
efforts.
[Link] Other Climate-Related Issues
Climate change introduces additional stressors that interact with pollution in
Vietnam’s marine environments. Ocean warming is a major factor – average
sea surface temperatures in the East Vietnam Sea / South China Sea have
risen, contributing to more frequent coral bleaching events and altering marine
species distributions. Warmer waters can amplify the toxicity of certain
pollutants (for example, algal blooms tend to produce more toxins in higher
temperatures, and bacterial decomposition of organic pollution accelerates,
potentially causing more hypoxia). Warmer conditions also favor some invasive
or opportunistic species (like Crown-of-Thorns starfish, which feed on corals);
when combined with nutrient runoff, this has led to severe reef degradation
events such as the COTS outbreaks that devastated reefs in Nha Trang Bay
around 2019 . Ocean acidification, driven by increased CO₂ absorption, is
gradually lowering pH in Vietnam’s waters. While the direct rate in coastal
Vietnam is under study, any acidification can reduce the capacity of water to
buffer pollutant inputs and can increase the solubility (and hence mobility) of
metals like aluminum and lead from sediments. Acidified conditions also stress
calcifying organisms (corals, shellfish), making them less resilient to pollution

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impacts. Changes in monsoon patterns are observed as part of climate shifts –
potentially longer dry seasons and more intense wet seasons. Extended
droughts (like the Mekong drought of 2019) reduce river flow, concentrating
pollutants in estuaries and causing higher salinity that can facilitate certain algal
blooms. Conversely, abrupt heavy monsoon onset can flush accumulated urban
pollution in a short burst (as discussed under extreme rainfall). Climate change
may also intensify tropical storms impacting Vietnam; beyond the rainfall and
surge effects already covered, stronger storm winds could stir up contaminated
sediments in coastal bays (resuspending them into the water column) and
damage pollution control infrastructure (like blowing the covers off waste
storage facilities). Human adaptive responses to climate change can have
pollution side-effects too: for example, as freshwater becomes scarcer in some
coastal areas, more reliance on desalination or saltwater aquaculture might
lead to brine discharges; or higher use of agrochemicals to offset climate-
related crop stresses could increase runoff. In summary, climate-related
changes – warming, acidification, shifting monsoons, and extreme events –
often exacerbate the effects of existing pollutants and introduce new
challenges. They make environmental management targets a moving goalpost.
Vietnam’s strategy documents (such as the National Climate Change Strategy
and the updated Environmental Protection Law) emphasize the need for
integrated climate and pollution policies, like building climate resilience into
wastewater infrastructure and conserving ecosystems that provide natural
adaptive capacity. Only by tackling pollution with climate foresight can Vietnam
hope to maintain marine environmental quality under rapidly changing
conditions.
Each of the above key findings underscores that land-based and marine
pollution in Vietnam’s East Vietnam Sea/South China Sea waters is a
multifaceted challenge. Pollution sources are diverse – ranging from farms and
cities to factories and ships – and their impacts are magnified by ecological
vulnerability and climate change. Nationally, pollution threatens Vietnam’s
progress on sustainable development and public health, while regionally it
contributes to shared environmental problems in the East Vietnam Sea / South
China Sea .
3.2 Current Status by Indicator Group
3.2.1 Pollution Sources and Magnitude
[Link] Agricultural Runoff
Agricultural runoff is a significant source of nutrient and chemical pollution
entering Vietnam’s coastal waters. This runoff primarily carries excess
fertilizers, livestock waste, and pesticide residues from farmlands into rivers and
estuaries. Vietnam’s heavy fertilizer usage has been well documented – in 2021
the country imported 4.54 million tonnes of fertilizer (a nearly 20% increase over
2020) , reflecting intensive application on crops. Not all of this fertilizer is
absorbed by plants; a considerable portion leaches into soil and waterways.
Likewise, over 100,000 tonnes of plant protection chemicals (pesticides,

74
herbicides) are used annually , of which an estimated ~20% may run off into the
environment under monsoonal rains. The magnitude of nutrient loading from
agriculture is evident in water quality measurements: rivers draining Vietnam’s
two major granaries – the Red River Delta and the Mekong Delta – show
elevated nitrate and phosphate concentrations during the wet season. For
instance, monitoring in the Red River coastal zone (Thai Binh province) in
2019–2020 found that diffuse sources (largely agriculture) were the dominant
contributors to nitrate and total phosphorus in coastal waters . These nutrient
inputs can cause mesotrophic to eutrophic conditions, supporting algal growth
including harmful species . Apart from nutrients, agricultural runoff also contains
organochlorine pesticide residues and increased sediment loads from soil
erosion in upstream areas.
[Link].1 Fertilizer Import Data
Vietnam’s reliance on imported fertilizers provides an indirect measure of
nutrient input trends. As noted, 4.54 million tonnes of fertilizer were imported in
2021 , up from roughly 3.8 million tonnes in 2020. This import volume has been
on a generally rising trajectory in the past decade, paralleling the intensification
of agriculture. Urea, NPK blends, and phosphate fertilizers constitute major
imports, primarily from China and countries in the region . Domestic fertilizer
production adds to this supply (Vietnam produces some NPK and phosphate
fertilizers, although not enough to meet demand). These figures underscore
why nutrient runoff is a pressing concern: such high usage without
corresponding nutrient uptake efficiency leads to runoff and leaching. Indeed, a
World Bank analysis found that by the mid-2010s Vietnam’s annual fertilizer use
(~10 million tonnes gross weight, including organic fertilizers) resulted in nearly
23,000 tonnes of excess nitrogen entering water bodies each year . The
fertilizer import data are also important because they highlight sensitivity to
global price and supply changes; spikes in fertilizer cost or shortages (as seen
in 2022) could alter usage patterns and thus runoff intensity. In summary,
fertilizer import statistics confirm the large scale of nutrient inputs to Vietnam’s
agriculture and, by extension, the potential nutrient load available to pollute
aquatic systems if not managed.
[Link].2 Data Gaps and Monitoring Challenges
Accurately quantifying agricultural runoff and its impacts remains challenging
due to data limitations. While fertilizer sales and import figures are recorded,
there is a lack of comprehensive monitoring of nutrient concentrations in small
rivers, drainage canals, and groundwater across agricultural landscapes. Most
water quality monitoring focuses on major rivers and select coastal sites,
leaving gaps in understanding diffuse pollution from rice paddies, coffee
plantations, etc. For example, nutrient monitoring in the Mekong Delta is
typically done at a few river mainstream stations, which can underestimate local
hotspot runoff from intensive shrimp-rice farming areas. Pesticide residue data
in water or sediments are similarly sparse; studies are often ad hoc and
localized, making it difficult to assess national trends. Vietnam’s State of the
Environment reports acknowledge these gaps – the 2016–2020 report relied on

75
provincial submissions that vary in quality and often lacked detailed pesticide
or nutrient runoff metrics . Another challenge is attributing water pollution to
specific agricultural sources, since industrial or domestic sources may co-occur.
For instance, high nitrate levels in a river could come from fertilizer or urban
sewage or aquaculture discharge. The DPSIR (Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-
Response) analytical framework used by MAEattempts to link drivers like
fertilizer use to state changes in water quality , but establishing quantitative
source apportionment is difficult without advanced monitoring (e.g. isotope
tracing for nitrogen sources). Seasonal variation adds complexity: heavy rains
cause flushes of runoff that are hard to capture with periodic sampling. Lastly,
groundwater pollution from agriculture (such as nitrate contamination of shallow
wells) is not systematically monitored in coastal rural areas. This is a concern
because contaminated groundwater can seep into estuaries or be used for
drinking, posing health risks. In summary, Vietnam faces significant data and
monitoring challenges in the agricultural runoff domain – bridging these gaps
will require expanding water quality networks into farming areas, employing new
monitoring technologies (remote sensing for sediment plumes, for example),
and ensuring consistent data reporting across provinces.
[Link] Marine and Coastal Water Quality
This section assesses the status of Vietnam’s coastal and marine water quality,
focusing on key parameters and observed trends since 2020. Overall, coastal
water quality varies by location: many open-coast areas remain within
acceptable ranges for basic parameters, but localized pollution hotspots exist
near river mouths, urban-industrial centers, and aquaculture zones. Marine
water quality in offshore areas of Vietnam’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is
generally good, reflecting the dilutive capacity of the open sea, yet nearshore
waters often mirror the influences of human activities on land.
[Link].1 Coastal Water Quality Assessment: Key Parameters and Trends
Vietnam monitors several water quality parameters in coastal zones, including
dissolved oxygen (DO), nutrients (NH₄, NO₃, PO₄), chemical oxygen demand
(COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD₅), coliform bacteria, and certain heavy
metals, comparing values against national marine standards (QCVN for
seawater). Dissolved oxygen levels in most coastal waters have remained
above the critical 4 mg/L level, except in poorly flushed embayments or
immediately at discharge points. However, there are indications of
eutrophication trends: for example, surveys from 2016–2020 showed increasing
inorganic nitrogen concentrations at some coastal stations year-on-year,
especially in the Mekong delta’s coastal waters during the flood season . This
corresponds with elevated phytoplankton biomass observed (occasionally
manifesting as algal blooms). Coastal water in urbanized bays often exhibits
higher COD/BOD from organic pollution. Ha Long Bay, despite its size, has
pockets of low water quality near tourist wharf areas; a 2016–2020 analysis
using a Water Quality Index rated Ha Long’s overall water quality as
“acceptable,” but noted significant improvement in 2020 (pandemic period)
relative to 2016–19 due to reduced anthropogenic input . This suggests that
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normal tourism and shipping activity had been contributing organic and oil
pollutants, temporarily abated in 2020 . Microbial contamination (coliform and
E. coli counts) is a concern at beaches near city outfalls. For instance, coliform
levels at some bathing beaches in Da Nang and Vung Tau have intermittently
exceeded the standard of 1,000 MPN/100 mL after heavy rains, indicating
runoff of sewage and animal waste. Monitoring by the Vietnam Environment
Administration found that water at river mouths such as the Nhue–Day (Hanoi)
and Saigon–Dong Nai (HCMC) systems often fails inland surface water
standards due to nutrient and microbe pollution ; while these are inland
readings, the contamination can carry into adjacent coastal waters, at least
seasonally. Oil and grease in coastal water are monitored near ports: generally
they remain low (<0.1 mg/L) except following spill incidents. For example, after
a 2019 oil spill in Ha Tinh (Nordana Sophie ship sinking), coastal waters there
had oil concentrations several times above the standard temporarily . Heavy
metals in open coastal water usually measure in the low µg/L range, below
national limits, but sediments and biota indicate metal hotspots (e.g. high
copper and zinc in Haiphong Harbour water/sediments due to port activities ).
Trend-wise, the period 2020–2025 has seen incremental improvements in
some parameters in areas where new wastewater treatment came online (e.g.
upgraded sewage plants in Da Nang improved nearshore bacterial counts).
Conversely, emerging issues like microplastics (not yet regulated in water
quality standards) are increasingly detected, with some studies reporting tens
to hundreds of microplastic particles per cubic meter of coastal seawater near
HCMC and Mekong outlets . In summary, while Vietnam’s coastal water quality
is still fairly good in many areas (meeting Class B standards for uses like
navigation or industrial cooling), there are worrying trends of nutrient
enrichment and localized organic pollution that require ongoing attention.
[Link].2 Marine Water Quality Assessment
In the context of Vietnam’s broader marine waters (offshore environments, open
sea areas), water quality remains predominantly in natural or near-natural
conditions for most measured variables. The offshore East Vietnam Sea / South
China Sea has low nutrient concentrations (oligotrophic conditions) and clear
waters, supporting Vietnam’s oceanic fisheries. Surveys by the Institute of
Oceanography indicate that beyond 20–30 km from shore, nitrate levels are
typically <0.1 mg/L and chlorophyll-a is low except in upwelling zones off south-
central Vietnam. However, certain marine areas under Vietnam’s jurisdiction
warrant special mention:
• The Gulf of Tonkin (Bắc Bộ): a semi-enclosed gulf receiving discharge
from the Red River. Its waters on the Vietnam side generally meet
Class A1 marine standards (suitable for aquatic conservation) except
periodically near the delta outflow, where turbidity and nutrient levels rise
during floods. The Gulf’s bottom water can stratify in summer, but no
persistent hypoxic zones have been reported; oxygen remains above
5 mg/L. Transboundary influences include inputs from China’s Beilun

77
 River and potential pollutant transport from China’s coast, but these are
not well quantified.
• The open East Vietnam Sea / South China Sea (East Sea) coast:
spanning central and southern Vietnam, much of this coast abuts deep
water with good flushing. One important feature is the upwelling off Ninh
Thuan – Binh Thuan in summer, which brings nutrient-rich deep water to
the surface and can cause natural algal blooms (sometimes “red tides”).
These upwelled nutrients are not pollution per se, but any anthropogenic
nutrients present can amplify bloom intensity. Some harmful algae (e.g.
Chattonella) have caused fish mortality in central Vietnam waters in past
decades , though the linkage to pollution is still studied.
• Archipelagic waters (Hoang Sa/Paracel and Truong Sa/Spratly): Vietnam
monitors waters around some features it occupies. These are far offshore
and have baseline pristine quality – essentially free of land-based
influence. Coral reef health in these areas is mostly impacted by climate
(bleaching, storms) and potentially overfishing, rather than water
pollution, as confirmed by surveys in the Spratly Islands showing good
water quality but reef declines due to Crown-of-Thorns starfish and
thermal stress .
• Areas of oil and gas extraction: Vietnam has offshore rigs (e.g. Bach Ho
oil field). Environmental monitoring around these platforms generally
finds only localized, temporary increases in hydrocarbons during drilling.
There is no evidence of large-scale contamination from extraction
activities, although a precautionary eye is kept on any produced water
discharges.
In terms of trends, ocean acidification is a concern for marine water
quality in the long term. While specific pH trend data off Vietnam are not
widely published, global models suggest a slight pH drop which could
affect calcifying organisms. Vietnam’s State of Environment report
(2016–2020) did not highlight acidification, indicating it’s not yet part of
routine national assessments . Another trend is the possible rise in sea
surface temperature and its effect on stratification and thus nutrient
cycling in the marine waters – warmer stratified surface layers could
reduce upward nutrient diffusion, potentially counteracting some runoff
nutrient effects in open waters (except in strong upwelling).
Overall, Vietnam’s marine water quality in offshore areas remains
comparatively unpolluted, and the country has a strong interest in
keeping it that way for fisheries and biodiversity. That said, the health of
marine waters cannot be divorced from coastal inputs – hence efforts to
curb coastal pollution are essential to ensure that nearshore
contamination does not radiate outward to national and regional seas.
[Link] Wastewater Pollution (Domestic and Industrial Sources)
Wastewater management is a critical environmental infrastructure gap affecting
Vietnam’s coastal water quality. Inadequate treatment of both domestic

78
(municipal) and industrial wastewater means that large volumes of polluted
water are released into rivers and coastal areas, carrying organic matter,
nutrients, pathogens, and chemicals. Below we detail the current status of
domestic and industrial wastewater management, including infrastructure
coverage, pollutant profiles, and regulatory compliance, and highlight the
impacts on the environment and public health.
[Link].1 Domestic Wastewater Management
Vietnam’s rapid urbanization has outpaced the development of sewage and
wastewater treatment systems. Nationwide, domestic wastewater generation is
roughly 3 million cubic meters per day from urban areas (not counting rural
discharges). However, only a small fraction of this volume is collected and
treated before entering the environment.
a) Infrastructure and Coverage Status: As of 2022, the national urban
wastewater treatment rate remains low – some estimated that 12.5–15% of
urban domestic wastewater undergoes centralized treatment . According to the
Ministry of Construction, Vietnam had 24 municipal wastewater treatment plants
in operation by 2020 with a total design capacity of about 670,000 m³/day ,
serving parts of major cities like Hanoi, Da Nang, and Ho Chi Minh City. By
2022, this capacity expanded modestly (around 50 plants with ~1.8 million
m³/day planned or operating) . Despite these improvements, the coverage is
uneven: central districts of large cities have sewer networks, but peri-urban
areas often rely on combined drainage or none at all. In smaller cities and
towns, sewage is commonly diverted into canals or rivers without treatment.
Rural areas (over 60% of the population) predominantly use on-site solutions
like septic tanks or pit latrines; roughly 40% of rural household wastewater is
collected (via simple drains) while the rest soaks into soil or waterways without
centralized handling . Septic systems are prevalent in urban Vietnam as well –
an estimated 90% of urban households have septic tanks, but these are often
poorly maintained and many leak or discharge partially treated effluent to
drains. The limited sewer infrastructure that exists is often a combined system
(stormwater and sewage together) . This design, common in Hanoi and HCMC,
leads to frequent overflows of untreated sewage during rainstorms. Notably, a
few cities (Hue, Binh Duong New City, etc.) have begun separating sewers to
improve efficiency . The Government’s target under the National Urban
Wastewater Program is to reach 50% treatment of urban sewage by 2030,
which will require massive infrastructure investments including expansions of
sewer networks and new treatment plants. Until now, funding constraints and
land availability for plants have been limiting factors – many planned projects
have been delayed. In summary, current domestic wastewater infrastructure is
insufficient: the majority of municipal wastewater still finds its way to rivers and
coast untreated, indicating a large gap to close.
b) Key Challenges and Impacts: The lack of adequate domestic
wastewater treatment poses serious environmental and public health
challenges. Untreated sewage introduces high loads of organic matter
(measured as BOD and COD), nutrients, and pathogens into water bodies. For

79
example, HCMC’s canal networks (Tham Luong, Nhieu Loc–Thi Nghe, etc.)
receive on the order of 500,000 m³ of untreated sewage per day, resulting in
black-odorous water with zero dissolved oxygen and fecal coliform counts of
10^5–10^6 MPN/100 mL in some sections . These polluted canals discharge to
the Saigon–Dong Nai River system and ultimately to coastal areas (e.g. Can
Gio biosphere reserve), contributing to elevated nutrient and microbe levels
there. A similar situation exists for Hanoi’s urban lakes and the Red River: only
20% of Hanoi’s wastewater is treated, so key drainage rivers like the Nhue and
To Lich are effectively open sewers with ammonia and coliform concentrations
far above standards . Coastal water receiving these flows can exhibit spikes in
enteric bacteria, creating bathing water risks and shellfish contamination. The
impacts on public health are notable: waterborne diseases such as diarrheal
illnesses, cholera, and typhoid, while much reduced from historical levels, still
occur especially after flooding spreads sewage. In many coastal towns (e.g.
Nha Trang, Sam Son) that attract tourists, occasional illness outbreaks or beach
advisories are traced to sewage pollution. Nutrient enrichment from domestic
wastewater (rich in nitrogen and phosphorus from human waste and
detergents) adds to agricultural runoff in driving eutrophication. In enclosed
bays with significant coastal populations (for instance, Ha Long Bay, or bays in
Hai Phong), untreated domestic discharges from surrounding communities are
one contributor to algal growth that can reduce water clarity and harm
aesthetics. Another challenge is that domestic wastewater carries not just
conventional pollutants but also household hazardous substances (like
surfactants, pharmaceuticals, microplastics from laundries). These emerging
pollutants pass untreated into rivers and may bioaccumulate in aquatic
organisms. The cumulative environmental impact of Vietnam’s domestic
sewage is thus a mix of oxygen depletion, disease risk, nutrient loading, and
chemical contamination – all of which degrade freshwater and coastal
ecosystems and strain their capacity to provide services. Socially, poor
wastewater management disproportionately affects low-income and peri-urban
communities who live along polluted canals, facing unpleasant living conditions
and health risks.
In summary on environmental and public health impacts, the continued
discharge of largely untreated domestic wastewater in Vietnam has resulted in
degraded water quality and associated health hazards in many localities.
Environmentally, it has led to the loss of urban aquatic life (many city
rivers/lakes cannot support fish due to pollution), contributed to coastal dead
zones (though small in scale) where oxygen is depleted seasonally, and
contaminated groundwater in some densely populated deltas (nitrate from
septic leaching). Public health impacts include persistent incidence of
waterborne diseases – the Ministry of Health still reports thousands of cases of
acute diarrhea and Hepatitis A annually, with spikes after flood events in areas
with poor sanitation. Furthermore, the pollution undermines cultural and
recreational uses of waterways; for example, Hanoi’s historical lakes have
required costly cleanup to restore them for public use. From an economic
perspective, polluted waterways increase water treatment costs for drinking

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supply and hinder aquaculture in affected estuaries (farmers cannot use
polluted river water for fish culture without treatment). Summarizing, domestic
wastewater mismanagement is both a key pressure on Vietnam’s coastal
environment and a barrier to improving public health outcomes. Addressing it
will yield multiple co-benefits, which is why the government is prioritizing
wastewater infrastructure in current urban development plans and seeking
private sector partnerships (through the new PPP law) to finance treatment
facilities . The improvements in a few cities (e.g. new plants in Da Nang have
already improved coastal water coliform levels) demonstrate the potential gains
from expanding sewage treatment nationwide.
[Link].2. Industrial Wastewater Management
Industrial wastewater can contain a variety of pollutants – from heavy metals
and toxic chemicals to high loads of organic matter – and thus requires careful
management to prevent serious environmental harm. Vietnam’s expanding
industrial sector has increased the volume of industrial effluents, and while
regulatory oversight has improved, compliance and treatment adequacy vary
widely across regions and sectors.
a) Pollutant Profile: The composition of industrial wastewater in Vietnam
depends on the industry type. Key pollutants include:
• Heavy metals: Industries such as metal plating, electronics
manufacturing, battery production, and mining generate wastewater
containing lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), nickel, cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg),
and others . For instance, wastewater from industrial parks in Bac Ninh
(electronics hub) often has elevated copper and nickel, whereas in Ho
Chi Minh City’s textile zones, chromium and zinc from dyes and mordants
are of concern.
• Sources of organic toxins include petrochemical and plastics facilities
releasing phenols, benzene, toluene, and other hydrocarbons.
• Nutrients & Organic Load: Food processing factories (seafood, sugar,
etc.), breweries, pulp and paper mills, and livestock slaughterhouses
release effluents high in organic matter (BOD/COD) and sometimes
nutrients. For example, a seafood processing plant can have BOD values
in the thousands of mg/L if untreated. Fermentation industries contribute
nitrogen-rich waste (from yeast residues).
• Industrial solvents and chemicals: Wastes from pharmaceutical plants,
paint factories, and garment dyeing contain various solvents (acetone,
dichloromethane, etc.), dye stuffs, ammonia, and acids/alkalis. Without
proper treatment, these can cause fish kills and toxicity in receiving
waters.
• Thermal pollution: Not chemical, but power plants and other industries
discharging cooling water can locally raise water temperatures, affecting
aquatic life.

81
In summary, industrial wastewater in Vietnam often carries a “cocktail” of
pollutants, making it more challenging to treat than domestic sewage. The exact
mix at any location reflects the dominant industries present.
b) Geographic Distribution: Industrial wastewater issues are concentrated in
Vietnam’s key economic regions:
• The North: Around Hanoi, Bac Ninh, Hai Duong, and Hai Phong – many
industrial parks line the Nhue-Day and Cau rivers. Downstream of these
parks, water quality has been poor; e.g. the Nhue River often turns black
with odour from combined industrial and craft village discharges, heavily
polluting sections that join the Red River . The Thai Binh River system
also receives loads from the steel and chemical plants in Thai Nguyen
and Viet Tri.
• The Central region: Fewer large industries, but notable zones include the
Chu Lai industrial area (Quang Nam) and the maritime services in Da
Nang. Central coast water is less impacted except near urban centers
(Da Nang’s coastal water has some pollutants from the port and factories
along its Han River).
• The South: The Dong Nai – Saigon river system is the recipient of
wastewater from numerous industrial parks in Ho Chi Minh City, Dong
Nai, Binh Duong, and Ba Ria–Vung Tau. For example, a large proportion
of Vietnam’s textiles, footwear, and chemical production is in this basin.
The Thi Vai River in Ba Ria–Vung Tau was once a notorious case, where
in 2008 a MSG factory’s untreated effluent caused a 10-km stretch of
river to be nearly dead (zero oxygen) . Although enforcement shut that
specific discharge, other industries operate there (power plants,
refineries in Phu My) requiring vigilance. In the Mekong Delta, industrial
activity is more agro-based (rice mills, seafood processing) and
scattered, with notable clusters around Can Tho and Long An.
• Craft villages: These are traditional handicraft production communities,
often rural, but are significant point sources. Northern Vietnam has many
(recycling villages for paper, plastics, metals). Wastewater from these
small enterprises usually goes untreated into local ponds and rivers.
Geographically, the challenge is that industrial facilities are often located
along watercourses for convenient wastewater disposal, meaning
pollution is directly introduced to rivers that flow to the sea. Coastal
industrial zones (e.g. Dung Quat, Vung Tau) have ocean outfalls which
can create localized marine pollution if treatment is insufficient.
c) Regulatory Compliance Status: Vietnam has a comprehensive legal
framework for industrial wastewater discharge. Key regulations include the Law
on Environmental Protection (with specific discharge standards QCVN for
industrial effluent) and a requirement that all industrial zones have centralized
wastewater treatment and automatic monitoring for large polluters. Compliance
has been improving but still uneven:

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 • Industrial Parks (IPs): Most large IPs have built wastewater treatment
plants (WWTPs) as mandated. As of 2020, about 90% of active IPs were
reported to have some treatment facility . However, not all are properly
operated. There have been cases where WWTPs were either under-
capacity or even bypassed at night. The government has installed
continuous wastewater monitoring at some IPs to transmit data to
authorities. For example, in 2019 MAEinspected industrial parks and
caught dozens violating standards by discharging effluent with high
pollution levels (some had BOD exceeding limits by >5 times, or heavy
metal concentrations above allowed).
• Outside IPs & Craft villages: Smaller factories outside zones and craft
villages are harder to regulate. Many lack on-site treatment.
Environmental police have found clandestine pipes from factories (e.g.
textile dyeing in Ho Chi Minh City suburbs) that dump untreated
wastewater into sewers or canals. Enforcement of regulations in these
cases has improved with communities and media helping to identify
polluters. Fines and suspensions are issued, but some repeat offenders
consider fines a cost of business if enforcement is inconsistent.
• Transparency: In recent years, Vietnam has increased public disclosure
of industrial polluters (publishing “blacklisted” facilities). This, combined
with stronger community reporting rights in the 2020 law , is gradually
pushing companies towards better compliance.
In summary, while the rules exist on paper, compliance status ranges
from full compliance in modern, foreign-invested factories to very poor
compliance in informal or outdated operations. The overall trend is toward
improvement – large incidents triggered a regulatory crackdown and
greater political will to enforce rules. Still, monitoring infrastructure (like
online sensors) and enforcement capacity need further enhancement,
especially to cover the thousands of small-scale dischargers.
d) Critical Issues and Management Gaps: Key gaps in industrial wastewater
management include:
• Insufficient treatment capacity in some industrial hubs. Even where
centralized plants exist, their capacity may not match the full load if
industries expand. This was observed in some older IPs where expansion
outpaced infrastructure.
• Illegal bypass and dumping: Some enterprises secretly bypass treatment.
• Enforcement and penalties: Though laws allow severe penalties, in
practice fines for violations have sometimes been low to deter large
profitable companies. Court cases against polluters are still relatively
rare, though increasing.
• Data reliability: Self-monitoring by companies can be unreliable. The
push for continuous automated monitoring is addressing this, but not all
significant sources are covered yet.

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 • Industrial cluster coverage: Many small industrial clusters and craft
villages don’t have collective treatment due to cost or space. Individual
small businesses often cannot afford proper treatment units.
• Emerging pollutants and pretreatment: Regulations focus on classical
pollutants (BOD, standard heavy metals, etc.). But newer contaminants
(e.g. pharmaceutical residues from drug factories, microplastics from
textile fibers) are not specifically regulated. There’s also a gap in ensuring
industries pre-treat hazardous components before sending to centralized
plants – if not done, the centralized plants can be upset or discharge
those contaminants.
• Emergency preparedness: A gap exists in responding to accidental
discharges (chemical spills, etc.). Many local authorities lack equipment
to contain toxic spills that reach waterways.
These critical issues highlight that while Vietnam has made progress
(particularly after learning from serious incidents), ongoing effort is
needed to strengthen the industrial wastewater management regime.
Solutions under consideration or in progress include raising fines (the
revised law allows much higher fines or facility closure for big violations),
extending wastewater treatment requirements to craft villages (with state
support for building common facilities), and enhancing inter-agency
coordination so that industrial planning always includes environment
infrastructure from the start.
e) Strategic Priorities: Improving industrial wastewater management is a high
priority for Vietnam’s environmental authorities and features in strategic plans:
• Infrastructure Investment: The government is encouraging more
investment in wastewater treatment through public-private partnerships
and foreign aid. A target has been set that 100% of industrial parks must
have proper wastewater treatment by 2025, and new IPs will not be
approved without treatment facilities in design.
• Technological Upgrades: Adopting advanced treatment technologies
(e.g. biological nutrient removal, membrane filtration) especially for high-
strength or toxic wastewater. Key sectors targeted include textile dyeing
(for color and toxic dye removal) and chemical manufacturing.
• Strengthened Enforcement: The 2020 Law on Environmental Protection
and subsequent decrees place heavier liability on company owners for
pollution. The strategy is to make compliance cheaper than non-
compliance. The establishment of an environmental police force within
provinces aims to increase surprise inspections. The use of citizen
reporting (hotlines, mobile apps to report discharge) is also being
promoted.
• Pollution charges and incentives: Vietnam is revising its environmental
fee system to increase fees for wastewater discharge, particularly for
those exceeding standards, to create an economic incentive to treat.

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 Conversely, companies that excel in waste management may get tax
breaks or recognition (the “green label” program for industrial facilities).
• Zoning and relocation: Authorities are considering relocating highly
polluting small industries from sensitive areas (e.g. upstream of water
supply intakes or near protected wetlands) into controlled zones with
treatment facilities. For example, Hanoi has ongoing projects to move
craft metal plating workshops into an industrial cluster with a shared
wastewater plant.
• Regional cooperation: On a transboundary level, Vietnam is engaging in
dialogues with upstream countries (China, Laos, Cambodia) to manage
industrial pollution in shared river basins (like the Mekong), since some
pollution crosses borders. Strategically, Vietnam recognizes that
controlling industrial wastewater is essential for achieving its
development goals sustainably. By prioritizing infrastructure, strict
enforcement, and modern compliance tools, Vietnam aims to significantly
reduce the industrial pollutant load entering its rivers and coastal seas in
the coming decade. Success in this arena will help protect public health,
preserve aquatic ecosystems, and maintain the country’s attractiveness
for investment and tourism.
[Link] Municipal Solid Waste Situation
Municipal solid waste (MSW) management in Vietnam has undergone gradual
improvements but still faces systemic challenges. The “waste flow” – from
generation, source handling, collection, and processing to final disposal – is
characterized by gaps and inefficiencies that result in environmental pollution,
including leakage of waste into waterways and coastal areas. This section
breaks down the situation into sub-components, examining generation trends,
the collection and handling system, recycling and recovery, disposal practices,
and overall system performance.
[Link].1 Waste Generation Overview
Solid waste generation in Vietnam has been rising in line with population
growth, urbanization, and economic development. As of the mid-2020s, the
country generates an estimated 25 to 27 million tonnes of solid waste per year
. This equates to an average per capita waste generation of about 0.7–0.8
kg/person/day, though rates vary widely. In large cities like Hanoi and Ho Chi
Minh City, per capita generation is higher (0.9–1.5 kg/day) due to higher
consumption and packaging use, whereas rural areas produce 0.3–0.5 kg/day
per person . Notably, Vietnam’s total waste generation increased by ~46% from
2010 to 2019 , reflecting rapid growth. The composition of MSW is roughly: 45–
55% organic (food and green waste), 10–15% plastics, 8–12% paper, with the
remainder being glass, metal, textiles, and others . A defining trait is the high
organic fraction, which has implications for treatment (compost potential) and
landfill methane generation. Seasonal variations exist too – more organic waste
in summer months due to high fruit consumption, and spikes in packaging waste
around holidays (Tet). It’s also worth noting that official generation figures

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usually count collected waste; actual total generation might be higher since
some waste is unmanaged or burned on site in rural areas. Urban vs rural:
Urban areas contribute about 60–70% of the total MSW by volume despite
having ~35% of the population. Metropolitan HCMC alone generates over
9,000 tonnes/day of waste, and Hanoi around 6,500 tonnes/day, which together
form a significant share of the national total . In contrast, entire rural provinces
generate just a few hundred tonnes per day each, but these smaller streams
are more likely to be uncollected or disposed informally. The waste generation
trajectory is expected to continue upward as Vietnam’s GDP and consumption
grow, which underscores the importance of having robust systems to manage
the increasing volumes and to implement waste reduction strategies (the
government’s National Strategy on Integrated Solid Waste Management
foresees waste generation peaking by 2030 with widespread waste reduction
efforts ). Overall, the waste generation picture is one of rapidly growing
quantities and evolving composition (e.g., more plastic packaging and e-waste
now than a decade ago), which pose challenges for the downstream waste
management system.
[Link].2 Waste Management Flow Analysis
The journey of waste from its source to final fate in Vietnam involves multiple
stages, with significant losses (leakage) and inefficiencies along the chain.
Broadly, the flow can be described as:
• Generation at source: in households, markets, businesses, etc.
• Initial handling/storage: individuals may sort some materials (like
cardboards sold to recyclers), but generally waste is stored unsorted in
bins or bags.
• Collection (formal or informal): either by municipal collection services or
informal waste pickers.
• Transportation to intermediate points: often waste is taken to transfer
stations or directly to dumps/landfills.
• Processing/recovery: limited sorting, recycling, or composting occurs at
certain facilities or by informal sector.
• Final disposal: majority in landfills or dumps, some incineration.
Analysing this flow:
• At source: Currently, source separation of waste is minimal. Pilot projects
in Hanoi, HCMC, and Da Nang attempted requiring households to
separate recyclables or organics, but compliance has been low and the
program implementation has faltered due to lack of sustained
enforcement and insufficient separate collection infrastructure . Thus,
most waste is mixed. Households typically accumulate daily waste in
plastic bags which are placed at curbside or communal bins for collection.
Organic content in waste is high moisture (>70%), which often causes
foul leachate in collection containers and trucks.

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• Informal pre-collection: A notable aspect of Vietnam’s waste flow is the
role of the informal recycling sector. Thousands of freelance waste
pickers and itinerant buyers roam neighborhoods to collect or buy
recyclables (paper, cardboard, plastics, metal) from households or
dumpsters . They recover an estimated 8–12% of generated waste for
recycling before formal collection, providing an important service. For
example, scavengers at the community level may remove cardboard and
PET bottles, which they sell to scrap dealers, thereby diverting those from
the waste stream.
• Collection (formal): Urban solid waste collection coverage is relatively
high. It averages 85–90% in cities , though in peripheral or low-income
areas it can be less. Collection is typically daily or every other day for
households in city centers, using a variety of methods: pushcarts (small
alleys), communal bins and compactor trucks on main streets, and
sometimes boat collection in canal areas. In rural areas, collection
services cover roughly 40–60% of waste , focusing on town centers;
much rural waste is still burned or buried by generators themselves. The
formal collectors are often state-owned Urban Environment Companies
(URENCO) or increasingly private contractors under city contracts. A
challenge in collection is narrow streets and traffic in cities, which hamper
efficient truck operation, leading to reliance on manual carting to
aggregation points.
• Transfer and transportation: In big cities, transfer stations receive waste
from smaller vehicles and load it into larger trucks for hauling to disposal
sites outside the city. For instance, Hanoi uses several transfer stations
to consolidate waste before sending it ~40 km to the Nam Son landfill.
Efficient transfer is necessary to reduce traffic and costs. However, odor
and leachate control at these stations is sometimes an issue, causing
complaints from nearby residents. Some smaller municipalities lack
formal transfer stations, meaning collection trucks drive directly to dumps,
which is less efficient.
• Processing and recovery: There are a limited number of facilities for
sorting or composting municipal waste. A few cities have tried mechanical
sorting plants (HCMC had a waste-to-energy sorting and composting
plant, Da Nang has a small recycling plant). Many of these have struggled
due to high contamination of waste and operational issues. Composting
of organics has likewise seen pilot projects, but due to the mixed nature
of waste, compost quality is poor. Only about 10–15% of municipal waste
is currently recycled or composted through formal or informal means, the
rest ends up disposed . Waste-to-energy (WtE) incineration is just
beginning; a large WtE plant near Hanoi (Soc Son) is slated to handle
4,000 tonnes/day with energy recovery, potentially boosting processing
rates. Until these come online at scale, processing remains the weak link
– much potential value in waste is not recovered, and waste that could
be treated (organics to compost/biogas) instead goes to dumps.

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 • Final disposal: Currently, the end of the line for most waste is landfill or
open dumping. Vietnam has around 458 landfill sites for MSW . However,
only about 121 are considered relatively sanitary (with some liners or
leachate treatment); 337 sites are non-sanitary open dumps . An
estimated 70-75% of collected waste is landfilled or dumped , whereas
incineration without energy recovery accounts for a small fraction (~1-
2%, mostly in island or isolated communities and some medical waste
facilities). The reliance on landfills, many of which are nearing capacity
or are poorly constructed, is a major issue. In coastal provinces, some
dumps are quite close to the shoreline or in mangrove areas (e.g., many
Mekong Delta provinces historically sited dumps in low coastal land).
These can leak leachate to sea and also contribute plastic debris to the
ocean.
In summary, the flow analysis reveals multiple points where waste “escapes”
the intended path: during collection (windblown litter or overflow), via informal
dumping by those not reached by services, through open dumping at non-
sanitary sites, and due to limited recycling. The overall system is still
transitioning from a basic collect-and-dump model to a more integrated solid
waste management approach.
[Link].3 Initial Waste Management at Source
At the household and business level, initial waste management practices in
Vietnam are gradually evolving but remain rudimentary in most places. Source
separation – the sorting of waste into categories like organic, recyclable,
hazardous – is not widely practiced, despite regulatory moves to require it. For
example, a regulation effective 2025 mandates waste generators to separate
recyclable waste, food waste, and other waste, with fines for non-compliance,
but public awareness and infrastructure for this are still lacking. Earlier attempts
in HCMC (2018) and Da Nang to pilot source separation saw initial enthusiasm
but eventually stalled; reasons included lack of separate collection (mixed
collection nullified household efforts) and insufficient public communication . As
a result, the common behavior is to mix all household waste together. One
exception is that many households do informally separate items of obvious
value: for instance, selling cardboard, glass bottles, or metal scrap to itinerant
buyers (ve chai) is a traditional practice in Vietnamese cities. These buyers on
bicycles or motorbikes provide a small income to households for their
recyclables and thus serve as an incentive for a bit of sorting. Kitchen organic
waste in rural areas may be fed to pigs or chickens (hence recycled as feed),
but in urban settings it’s usually discarded. Hazardous household waste (like
batteries, CFL bulbs, e-waste) is rarely segregated at source; people tend to
throw them in regular trash, due to limited take-back or collection programs.
Some communities have started informal initiatives, e.g., neighborhood groups
collecting used batteries separately or youth campaigns to collect e-waste, but
these remain sporadic.
Waste storage at source is also a factor: Households typically store daily waste
in plastic bags. Street-front houses set these bags out for collection, while those

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in alleys wait for pushcart collectors. The use of sealed bins is not yet the norm
– many use open baskets or hang bags on a nail by the door, which can attract
rats or stray dogs. This can lead to scattered garbage on streets if bags are
torn, especially in areas with many street vendors or markets. Traditional wet
markets are a particular hotspot for poor source management: large volumes of
vegetable trimmings and fish waste accumulate, often dumped in nearby drains
or piled at street corners, causing odor and clogging unless promptly collected.
One positive trend is growing public consciousness in some urban populations
about plastic waste reduction at source. There are now community campaigns
promoting reusable bags and saying “no” to single-use plastics (in Hanoi, some
supermarkets have trialed banana leaves instead of plastic wrap for produce).
While small in scale, they indicate initial shifts in consumer behavior that could,
over time, reduce waste generation. Additionally, schools have been educating
children about separating recyclables, which may gradually influence family
habits.
Overall, however, the initial stage of waste management at source remains a
weak link. Without systematic source separation, downstream recycling or
composting becomes harder due to contamination. The government recognizes
this and has integrated source separation into the new Law on Environmental
Protection 2020, aiming for better implementation by assigning responsibility to
local authorities and setting up pilot models in all major cities. Success will
depend on sustained public education, providing separate bins, and ensuring
that collection methods align. In conclusion, while there are pockets of progress,
most waste in Vietnam still enters the management stream as mixed refuse,
complicating later stages and contributing to inefficiency and pollution.
[Link].4 Pre-Collection Utilization and Recovery
Before formal waste collection takes place, there is an important phase where
certain materials are removed from the waste stream for reuse or recycling. In
Vietnam, this pre-collection recovery is largely driven by the informal sector and
community practices:
• Informal recyclers: As mentioned, itinerant waste buyers and roaming
scrap collectors play a crucial role. Typically, these individuals go door-
to-door (especially in urban residential areas and shops) to purchase or
collect items like old newspapers, cardboard, metal scraps, plastic
bottles, and even used electronics. They offer small sums (for instance,
5,000–10,000 VND per kg of cardboard) which incentivizes people not to
throw those items away. After collection, they bring these materials to
intermediate depots (small scrapyards or warehouses often located in the
city outskirts). From there, materials are bulked and sold to recycling
processors. A 2018 study estimated that in Hanoi and HCMC, informal
recyclers recover roughly 10–15% of total waste generated by weight ,
focusing on high-value streams (paper, metals, PET plastic). This
reduces the burden on municipal services and provides livelihoods for
thousands of urban poor. However, these activities are unregulated;

89
 workers often operate in unsafe conditions, and not all materials they
collect are handled properly (some fraction still ends up dumped if they
can’t sell contaminated or low-value plastics).
• Community reuse: Many Vietnamese households practice direct reuse or
repurposing of items. Old clothing might be passed on to relatives or
donated. Glass jars are cleaned and reused for food storage. Large
durable goods like appliances are repaired rather than discarded when
possible, supporting a vibrant repair market. Food waste in some cases
is separated to feed animals (especially in peri-urban areas raising
livestock). Leftover construction materials from home renovations are
sometimes given away for other projects.
• Organic waste for animal feed or compost: In rural communities and even
some urban fringe areas, organic waste (vegetable peelings, spoiled
food) is collected by pig farmers or others to use as slop for pigs or
compost for gardens. This traditional practice has declined in big cities
due to fewer livestock, but in smaller towns it still diverts a portion of
organics away from dumps. There are also enterprising collectors who
gather food waste from restaurants/canteens to produce animal feed or
to run worm farms, etc.
• Industrial and commercial pre-sorting: Some industries and businesses
contract directly with recyclers for their waste. For example, a factory
might sell its cardboard packaging waste directly to a recycling mill,
bypassing municipal collection. Similarly, offices often segregate paper
and arrange for it to be picked up by recycling agents. This parallel stream
ensures that a lot of high-quality recyclable waste (especially from
commercial sources) is captured at the source.
Despite these recovery mechanisms, a considerable proportion of
potentially recyclable materials still ends up in the trash due to
convenience or low value. Low-value plastics (multi-layer films, dirty
styrofoam, thin bags) are often not collected by informal recyclers. Some
cities have community programs encouraging residents to bring
recyclables to designated collection days (sometimes exchanging them
for small gifts), but these are not yet widespread.
In summary, pre-collection utilization and recovery in Vietnam is significant and
primarily informal. It provides environmental benefit by reducing waste to be
disposed and nurturing a culture of reuse, but it is not sufficiently integrated into
the formal waste management strategy. Strengthening this stage (for instance,
by formalizing and supporting informal collectors, improving recycling market
conditions for more materials, and expanding household awareness programs)
could greatly improve overall waste management efficiency. For now, we can
credit the informal sector with keeping a noticeable fraction of waste out of
dumps, albeit in a haphazard manner.
[Link].5 Formal Collection Operations

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Formal municipal solid waste collection in Vietnam is typically carried out by city
or district public service companies or increasingly by private companies under
contracts. The operations involve human labor and a fleet of vehicles, and they
face logistical challenges especially in dense urban areas:
• Collection workforce: Major cities employ thousands of sanitation workers
who carry out daily waste collection. They use handcarts to navigate
alleys, emptying household bins or picking up bags, then transfer waste
into larger trucks. These workers often start in early morning or late night
to avoid traffic. They face exposure to waste and health hazards;
providing protective equipment and fair labor conditions is a concern.
• Equipment and vehicles: Collection equipment ranges from basic
(handcarts, tricycles) to modern (compactor garbage trucks). In city
centers, compactor trucks of 5–10 tonne capacity are used to service
main roads and communal container points. In narrow lanes, smaller 3-
wheeled motorized carts or pushcarts are used. Hanoi and HCMC have
begun to upgrade their fleets with newer trucks to reduce drips of
leachate and improve fuel efficiency. Some districts have installed large
sealed bins (e.g. 240L or 660L wheeled bins) at public points for people
to deposit waste, which trucks can mechanically lift – but these are not
everywhere. Overall, equipment shortfalls often mean waste can pile up
if trucks break down or during peak holidays.
• Coverage and frequency: Urban collection coverage is high, but service
frequency can vary by neighborhood. In affluent central wards, collection
might be daily. In some peri-urban wards, it might be 2–3 times a week,
which can lead to local dumping or burning on off-days. Rural areas often
have communal collection points where waste is picked up weekly, if at
all. There’s an ongoing effort to extend daily collection to more areas to
curb illegal dumping.
• Waste leakage during collection: A notable issue has been spillage of
waste and leachate during collection and transport. It is common to see
drippings from garbage trucks on roads because of high organic content
and inadequate sealing . This causes foul odors and water pollution
(especially when such trucks travel long distances to landfills). Some
cities now require trucks to be covered and not overfilled; enforcement is
gradually improving cleanliness.
• Public compliance with set-out times: Municipalities often designate times
for residents to put waste out (e.g., after 7pm for nighttime collection). In
practice, compliance varies. Some streets see waste dumped at all
hours, which then attracts pests. Public awareness campaigns and
possibly fines are used to improve compliance. For example, Da Nang
has implemented fines for littering or putting waste out at the wrong time.
• Integration with street sweeping: In many Vietnamese cities, the same
urban environment companies handle street sweeping and drain
cleaning. Swept debris (leaves, dust) and dredged silt from drains also

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 enter the solid waste stream. These operations help prevent litter from
entering waterways, but the collected silt can be hazardous (with oil,
heavy metals). Handling and disposing of street sweepings is part of the
overall challenge.
• Financial and institutional aspects: Waste collection is funded through
various channels: there are modest waste fees collected from
households (often via electricity bills or local ward collection), but these
cover only part of the cost. City budgets subsidize the rest. The push for
private sector participation aims to improve efficiency; in some cities,
multiple companies might be responsible for different zones.
Coordination and maintaining service standards can be an issue in such
cases.
In summary, formal waste collection in Vietnam is extensive but stressed
by growing volumes, constrained infrastructure, and human factors. Most
cities manage to avoid accumulation of uncollected waste on a routine
basis (aside from occasional service disruptions, such as when landfills
protest and block incoming waste, leading to temporary city pileups).
However, the quality and environmental safety of collection operations
need improvement – newer closed trucks, better route planning, and
more frequent service in underserved areas are key needs identified.
Encouragingly, government investments (often with development aid
support) have been directed at upgrading waste collection and transfer
facilities in recent years, which should gradually modernize this
fundamental step in the waste management chain.
[Link].6 Post-Collection Recovery and Processing
After waste is collected, there are limited but evolving measures in Vietnam to
recover materials or treat waste before final disposal. Historically, collected
waste went directly to dumpsites with minimal processing. In recent years,
attention has grown on material recovery facilities (MRFs), composting plants,
and waste-to-energy initiatives:
• Recycling facilities: Some cities have small sorting facilities where mixed
waste is screened for recyclables. For example, Ho Chi Minh City’s Tam
Sinh Nghia plant (prior to its upgrade to a WtE incinerator) used a
mechanical-biological treatment process: waste was put through
conveyors where workers and machines picked out plastics, metals, etc.,
and the organics were composted. However, the efficiency was low due
to heavily contaminated inputs. The recovered recyclables from such
plants are often of poor quality and fetch low prices, limiting economic
viability. A few private sector recycling parks exist, focusing on specific
streams (e.g., a plant in Hai Duong that recycles plastic film into pellets).
Overall, formal recycling of post-collection mixed waste is very small,
perhaps only a few percent of total waste. Most recycling in Vietnam still
originates from the informal pre-collection stage or direct industrial scrap.

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• Composting: Vietnam’s waste’s high organic fraction makes composting
an attractive idea. Several municipal composting plants have been built
(Can Tho, Ben Tre, Hanoi’s Cau Dien in the past, etc.). Many have
struggled with operational issues: the incoming waste often contains
glass, plastic, and heavy metals, yielding low-grade compost that farmers
are reluctant to use. Some plants have closed or operate below capacity
for these reasons. One successful example is a smaller-scale
composting program in Da Lat city (a vegetable-farming region) where
source-separated market waste is composted into fertilizer that is
accepted by local farmers. This highlights that quality of feedstock is
crucial. As of 2020, less than 5% of Vietnam’s MSW was composted into
usable product . There is potential for expansion if source separation of
organics can be implemented in markets, hotels, etc.
• Anaerobic digestion: Currently not much used for MSW in Vietnam,
though biogas is common on farms. Future plans may consider anaerobic
digestion of organic municipal waste to produce biogas energy and a
digestate fertilizer; this approach could be integrated into waste-to-
energy projects.
• Waste-to-Energy (Incineration): Vietnam is starting to invest in WtE
plants to both reduce landfill volume and generate electricity. As of 2022,
a major WtE plant by Thien Y company in Hanoi (Soc Son) is in
commissioning, aiming to burn 4,000 tonnes/day and generate ~75 MW.
HCMC also tendered WtE projects, converting some existing landfill
operations into incinerators. These plants will use moving-grate
incineration technology designed to handle unsorted waste with high
moisture (often supplemented by adding dry waste or auxiliary fuel to
maintain calorific value). If they run successfully, they can significantly
reduce the amount of waste going to landfills (incineration can cut volume
by ~90%). However, challenges include high capital and operating costs,
managing air emissions (meeting standards for dioxins, particulates), and
ash disposal (fly ash being hazardous). At present, only a couple of
smaller WtE facilities are operational (e.g., a 75 tonnes/day plant in Can
Tho opened in 2018 ). The next 5–10 years will be telling as large facilities
ramp up.
• Medical and Hazardous waste processing: Vietnam has specialized
incinerators for medical waste in most provinces now, and some
hazardous waste treatment centers (e.g., Vietstar and URENCO
facilities) that handle industry waste with methods like cement kiln co-
processing. This indirectly benefits MSW management by reducing
dangerous materials entering the MSW stream. Still, household
hazardous waste (batteries, chemicals) often go into MSW untreated.
• Informal sector at landfills: Even after collection, informal pickers operate
at many dumps and landfills, scavenging for recyclables before final
burial. At sites like HCMC’s previous dumps or Hanoi’s Nam Son,
hundreds of workers recovered plastics, metals, etc., from incoming

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 waste piles. This is dangerous work with health risks, and authorities
have at times tried to restrict access for safety. With new WtE plants,
such scavenging might diminish since waste will be immediately
incinerated. But at conventional landfills it still accounts for some
recycling (and provides livelihood to waste-pickers).
In summary, post-collection recovery in Vietnam is currently limited and
not yet optimized. A large majority of collected waste still goes to final
disposal without significant material or energy recovery. However, the
ongoing investments in composting and waste-to-energy signal a shift in
strategy. If these facilities are effectively operated and combined with
improved waste segregation, Vietnam could see a jump in the proportion
of waste that is recycled or converted to energy, thus reducing
environmental pressures from landfills. It is a sector in transition: moving
from essentially zero processing two decades ago to gradually building
an integrated system that aims for the goals of the national solid waste
strategy (which include 85% of urban organic waste to be
reused/composted by 2025, and 60% of plastic waste recycled ).
Achieving those goals will require overcoming the present technical and
management hurdles in post-collection waste processing.
[Link].7 Final Disposal Requirements
Final disposal of municipal solid waste in Vietnam predominantly means
landfilling. Ensuring that disposal sites meet environmental requirements has
been a persistent issue. Quality of landfills: Out of 458 known dumping sites,
only about 20–25 could be considered sanitary landfills by international
standards (lined with leachate collection, gas management) . The rest are open
dumps or minimally engineered landfills. Government standards (TCVN) call for
new landfills to have bottom liners (clay or geomembrane), leachate treatment
systems, daily cover of waste with soil, and systems to collect biogas, but many
older sites do not comply. Some critical deficiencies:
• Lack of lining: Many dumps (especially those established pre-2000) were
just pits or depressions filled with waste. For instance, in the Mekong
Delta, some landfills were simply low-lying fields where waste was
dumped, allowing contamination of groundwater and adjoining canals. As
a result, monitoring by MAEhas found elevated pollutants (ammonia,
COD, heavy metals) in water around such sites .
• Leachate management: Even at the main sanitary landfills like Hanoi’s
Nam Son or HCMC’s Da Phuoc, leachate volume is a big challenge due
to high rainfall and high organic content. Often leachate ponds overflow
in heavy rain. Treatment plants for leachate (which is a toxic mix of
ammonia, organics, etc.) sometimes operate below capacity. In smaller
dumps with no treatment, leachate simply percolates or flows out. This
has led to contaminant plumes – e.g., around the Da Phuoc site in HCMC,
nearby river water has shown increased ammonia and coliform,
indicating leachate impact.

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 • Gas emissions: Open dumps emit uncontrolled methane and unpleasant
odors (H₂S, etc.). Frequent fires occur as methane ignites or waste is
openly burned to reduce volume. Residents near dumps frequently
complain of smoke and smell. Sanitary landfills are supposed to capture
gas – some do (Hanoi has trialed flaring systems and even a small power
generation from landfill gas at Nam Son Phase I). But elsewhere, gas is
not managed.
• Vectors and aesthetics: Most dumps do not fully apply daily cover, so
waste is exposed, attracting flies, rats, and stray animals. Windblown
litter escapes landfill boundaries, causing trash to scatter into
surrounding areas or water bodies. This is commonly seen at coastal
dumps where plastic bags end up in mangroves or on beaches nearby.
• Capacity and closure: Many landfills have exceeded their design
capacity. For example, Hanoi’s Nam Son landfill was designed with
multiple phases but parts have filled ahead of schedule, leading to
emergency measures like height extensions. Some older dumps (like
Hanoi’s Cau Dien dump) were closed only after massive accumulations
and then had to be remediated. Closing a dump is itself a challenge –
ideally it should be capped with impermeable layers and vegetation to
prevent infiltration and emissions. A few sites have been properly closed
and converted (e.g., Hanoi’s 1990s dump in Thanh Tri was closed and
partly turned into a park), but many closed dumps still pose pollution risks
due to inadequate closure practices.
• Special waste in landfills: Household hazardous waste and even some
industrial hazardous waste sometimes end up in MSW landfills. Since
only about 70% of hazardous waste is formally treated , the rest may get
co-disposed. The dumps generally are not designed for such waste,
raising concerns about long-term contamination (heavy metals, etc.
entering leachate).
To address these issues, Vietnam’s regulations require new facilities to
meet certain disposal quality criteria, and periodic monitoring of
groundwater around landfills is mandated. The National Strategy for
Environmental Protection sets a goal to upgrade or close substandard
dumps. Some progress has been made – for example, provincial
programs have shut down dozens of small rural dumps and redirected
waste to larger regional landfills where some management is possible.
But enforcement is inconsistent, partly due to costs (sanitary landfills are
expensive, and smaller provinces lack budget).
Environmental assessment of landfills: Studies of soil and water near big
landfills show contamination zones extending a few kilometers. For instance,
one multi-year study found heavy metal buildup in soils and rice paddy near
Hanoi’s Nam Son landfill, likely from irrigation water contamination . Another
found that groundwater down-gradient of HCMC’s Go Cat (now closed) had
high COD and ammonia. These illustrate the need for strict landfill controls.

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In conclusion, the critical assessment of Vietnam’s waste disposal system is
that it remains the weak link in waste management. Quality sanitary landfills are
too few, and even those face operational issues. The prevalence of unsanitary
dumps represents an ongoing risk to surface and groundwater quality and
marine environments (via leachate and litter). Addressing this is urgent – either
by upgrading dumps to sanitary status with liners and leachate treatment, or by
replacing them through waste reduction and new treatment technologies like
WtE. The government has indeed prioritized phasing out open dumps: targets
include closing 100% of unsanitary landfills in urban areas by 2025 . Reaching
that will require substantial investments and improvements in local enforcement
of landfill standards, but it is a key step to mitigating one of the largest direct
pollution sources in the solid waste sector.
[Link].8. Critical Assessment of Waste Management System
Evaluating Vietnam’s overall municipal waste management system reveals
significant strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats:
• Strengths: High collection coverage in urban areas means most city
waste is at least being gathered, preventing the worst of urban refuse
accumulation. The informal recycling sector provides a foundation of
resource recovery (Vietnam achieves a notable recycling rate for certain
materials like paper and metal through this sector). There is growing
political will and public awareness to improve waste management,
evidenced by new laws requiring source separation and circular economy
plans . Pilot successes (like small-scale composting and community
recycling programs) demonstrate the feasibility of improved practices in
Vietnamese context. International support and investment are flowing
into modern waste treatment (e.g., JICA and World Bank projects on solid
waste).
• Weaknesses: The system still largely relies on landfilling, with 73–75% of
waste landfilled, much in substandard sites . Infrastructure lags behind
needs – insufficient sanitary landfill capacity, very few waste-to-energy
plants operational, and limited formal recycling facilities. Funding is
another weakness: waste fees collected cover only a portion of O&M
costs, leading to chronic underfunding of waste services (workers often
underpaid, equipment not optimally maintained). Institutional
fragmentation exists, where different aspects of waste are handled by
different agencies ( MAEfor policy, Construction Ministry for urban waste
planning, city Public Works departments for operations), sometimes
resulting in coordination gaps. Enforcement of regulations like anti-
dumping laws is inconsistent across regions.
• Opportunities: Vietnam’s commitment to a “circular economy” (Decision
687/QD-TTg) opens policy space for innovations in recycling and waste
reduction. There is considerable low-hanging fruit: for example, even
modest improvements in source separation could dramatically boost
recycling of plastics and organics. The youth population is quite engaged

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 on environmental issues nowadays, which could be harnessed in public
campaigns and volunteer clean-up or recycling initiatives. Technological
leapfrogging is possible – Vietnam can adopt proven waste-to-energy
tech and modern composting without needing to go through decades of
incremental steps. Additionally, private sector involvement (both
domestic firms and foreign investors) in waste treatment is increasing
because waste is now seen as a resource (energy, materials); this can
bring much-needed capital and expertise.
• Threats: The waste problem is escalating with consumption trends – if
nothing changes, by 2030 Vietnam could generate well over 35 million
tonnes/year of MSW, straining any system. Marine plastic pollution
tarnishes Vietnam’s international image and could hurt tourism and
fisheries if not curtailed – continued leakage of waste to rivers is an
environmental threat. Social opposition to waste facilities has emerged:
for instance, residents near the Nam Son landfill have periodically
blocked garbage trucks in protest of odors and pollution, causing city
waste crises. This NIMBY (Not In My BackYard) factor means new
landfills or incinerators face public acceptance challenges; indeed, Hanoi
has struggled to site a new landfill because of community pushback.
Another threat is climate change: more intense rainfall can cause landfill
failures or flooded waste dumps (as seen in 2020 central Vietnam floods
where waste washed out ), compounding pollution.
In critical summary, Vietnam’s MSW management is at a crossroads. The
traditional model of “collect and dump” is no longer tenable due to
environmental impacts and lack of space for new dumps. The system’s
weaknesses have led to visible problems like polluted waterways, plastic
litter, and overflowing landfills, which society and government now
recognize as urgent issues. However, the emerging strengths and
opportunities – policy reforms, public awareness, and new investments –
provide a pathway to overcome these weaknesses. The transition to a
modern, sustainable waste management system will require addressing
the gaps in infrastructure, financing, and governance identified above. If
Vietnam can capitalize on opportunities (like implementing EPR for
packaging , scaling up recycling industries, and engaging communities in
waste reduction), it can turn the corner on waste pollution. This critical
juncture is perhaps best encapsulated by the stark statistic that 85% of
waste is currently buried without treatment – a figure the country is
determined to reduce drastically in the coming decade through concerted
improvements across the board.
[Link] Hazardous Waste
Hazardous waste management is an increasingly important component of
Vietnam’s pollution control efforts. Hazardous wastes are generated from
various sources – industry, healthcare, agriculture, and households – and
contain substances that are toxic, flammable, infectious, or otherwise
dangerous to human health and the environment. Managing these wastes

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properly is critical to prevent soil, water, and air contamination. Vietnam has put
in place strong regulations to identify and handle hazardous wastes, but
practical implementation still faces challenges.
[Link].1 Hazardous Waste Categories
Key categories of hazardous waste in Vietnam include:
• Industrial hazardous waste: This is the largest category by volume. It
comes from manufacturing processes (chemicals, electronics, metal
plating, textiles, etc.) and contains heavy metals, solvents, waste oils,
acidic/alkaline sludges, and other toxic by-products. For example,
electroplating factories produce sludge rich in chromium and cyanide,
and electronics assembly yields waste with lead and brominated
compounds. The Ministry of Industry and Trade estimates industrial
hazardous waste at >400,000 tonnes per year nationally, much of which
arises in industrial zones in the greater Hanoi and HCMC regions .
• Medical and infectious waste: Hospitals, clinics, and laboratories
generate infectious wastes (bandages, sharps, biological samples) as
well as hazardous chemical waste (mercury from thermometers,
outdated drugs, etc.). Vietnam’s rapidly expanding healthcare sector –
over 13,500 medical facilities nationwide – produces ~47 tonnes of
medical hazardous waste and 125,000 m³ of wastewater per day .
Infectious waste requires special handling to prevent disease
transmission.
• Electronic waste (e-waste): With increasing consumer use of electronics,
e-waste is a growing category. Discarded computers, phones, appliances
contain heavy metals (lead, cadmium), rare earths, and persistent
organics (like PCB capacitors in older equipment). While no precise
figures are given, the volume is significant; for example, some informal
recycling craft villages (e.g. in Bac Ninh) handle thousands of tonnes of
imported e-waste annually, exposing workers and the environment to
hazards .
• Household hazardous waste: This includes items like batteries,
fluorescent bulbs (contain mercury), expired chemicals (pesticides,
cleaning agents), and paint or solvent containers. Individually these are
small, but collectively they form a hazardous stream that often ends up
mixed with regular trash due to limited separate collection. Rough
estimates suggest households generate a few kilograms of hazardous
waste per capita annually (including batteries, bulbs, etc.).
• Agricultural hazardous waste: The use of agrochemicals results in
hazardous wastes such as leftover or banned pesticides, empty pesticide
containers, and veterinary medicine waste. Vietnam uses large amounts
of pesticides (over 100,000 tons/year as noted ), and the disposal of their
packaging is a problem – many end up discarded in fields or canals. Also,
livestock farms produce veterinary waste (needles, expired drugs) that

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 require careful disposal to avoid antibiotic resistance proliferation.
In recognition of these categories, Vietnam has a listing of hazardous
waste types in Circular 36/2015 by MONRE (now MAE), which
categorizes wastes and provides codes for tracking.
[Link].2 Hazardous Waste Content
The hazardous content of these wastes includes:
• Heavy metals: Common ones are lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), cadmium
(Cd), chromium (Cr), and arsenic (As). These are found in batteries (Pb,
Cd), fluorescent lamps (Hg), thermometers (Hg), e-waste (Pb in CRT
glass, Cd in semiconductors), plating sludges (Cr, Cd), etc. If released,
they can contaminate soil and water, bioaccumulate in the food chain,
and cause health issues like neurological damage or cancer.
• Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs): These are toxic chemicals that
persist in the environment and bioaccumulate. Vietnam’s history with
Agent Orange during the war also left dioxin hotspots, which are
remediated. POPs are a priority because of long-term ecosystem and
health impacts (e.g., endocrine disruption, cancer).
• Industrial solvents and by-products: These include things like benzene,
toluene, methylene chloride, etc. from chemical and pharmaceutical
manufacturing, and by-products such as phenolic tars or resin wastes.
They are often flammable, volatile (contributing to air pollution if not
controlled), and toxic to aquatic life if dumped.
• Medical and pharmaceutical waste: Content includes not just infectious
agents (pathogens) but also drugs like antibiotics, cytotoxic cancer drugs,
and disinfectants. If these enter waterways untreated, they can foster
antibiotic-resistant bacteria or harm wildlife (e.g., hormone drugs causing
fish endocrine issues).
• Other: Used lubricating oils (from vehicles, machinery) are hazardous
due to PAHs and heavy metals; asbestos waste from construction
(asbestos is still used in roofing sheets widely, those waste contain
carcinogenic fibers); and explosives or radioactive waste (small amounts
from industry or medical equipment) also fall under hazardous content
categories.
The combination of these hazardous contents means that any
mismanagement can lead to serious contamination. For example, heavy
metals and POPs have been found in alarming levels around informal
recycling villages: a study in a craft village that recycles e-waste found
lead in surface water at 10 times the standard, and high POP
concentrations in the soil .
[Link].3 Management Challenges
Vietnam faces multiple challenges in hazardous waste management:

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• Collection and segregation: Ensuring hazardous wastes are separated
from general waste at the source is difficult. Many businesses, especially
small ones, do not properly segregate or register their hazardous wastes.
Households almost never separate their hazardous items due to lack of
awareness and dedicated bins. Thus, a lot of hazardous waste ends up
in landfills or informal dumps (e.g., pesticide containers tossed in fields,
or used batteries thrown in household trash).
• Treatment and disposal capacity: While there are licensed hazardous
waste treatment companies (e.g., URENCO’s hazardous waste facility
near Hanoi, or Vietstar in the south), their capacity is limited relative to
the total hazardous waste generated. For example, the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment (now- MAE) reported that only about 70%
of known industrial hazardous waste was being collected and treated
properly as of 2020 . The rest likely goes untreated or is stored on site
indefinitely. Incinerators for medical waste exist in most provinces, but
not all operate efficiently (some small hospital incinerators have had
emissions issues, releasing dioxins due to low combustion temperature).
Secure landfills for hazardous waste are few – some hazardous waste
gets stabilized and disposed in dedicated cells at large landfills, but many
provinces lack such facilities.
• Illegal dumping and improper recycling: The value of certain hazardous
wastes (like e-waste or used oil) encourages informal recycling under
unsafe conditions. E-waste is often dismantled in backyards, with open
burning of wires to recover copper, acid leaching of circuit boards for gold,
etc., releasing pollutants . Similarly, used lead-acid batteries are broken
to recover lead in informal smelters. Illegal dumping incidents have
occurred – for instance, hazardous industrial sludges being trucked out
at night and dumped into rivers or fields to avoid disposal fees. Such
incidents periodically make news and enforcement actions.
• Regulatory enforcement and tracking: Vietnam has regulations requiring
hazardous waste generators to register and only use licensed handlers,
and manifest systems to track waste movement. However, enforcement
is uneven. Some companies under-report their hazardous waste
generation to save on treatment costs. The environmental police have
caught companies mixing hazardous waste with regular waste to evade
higher fees. The monitoring of thousands of small sources (e.g., small
clinics generating infectious waste, or many agrochemical users) is very
challenging for authorities.
• Legacy contamination: Past improper disposal has left contamination that
is costly to clean. Old industrial sites sometimes have contaminated soil
that requires remediation before reuse. Managing these “historical”
hazardous wastes is another challenge with limited resources.
• Public and occupational safety: There is a challenge to ensure the safety
of workers handling hazardous waste (informal recyclers often work

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 without protection, getting exposed to toxins). Additionally, communities
near treatment or disposal sites worry about pollution – e.g., proposals to
build hazardous waste landfills often meet local resistance due to fear of
leaks.
Addressing these challenges requires strengthening the entire chain:
from generator responsibility (e.g., through Extended Producer
Responsibility for things like e-waste and pesticide packaging), to
collection networks (special bins for batteries in cities, take-back
programs), to expanding treatment infrastructure and strict law
enforcement against violators. Vietnam’s updated environmental law in
2020 and a new decree in 2022 on solid waste provide a framework for
improvement . Notably, the country has also engaged in international
programs, which have built some capacity for hazardous waste handling.
In conclusion, while progress is being made (most large hospitals now
autoclave or incinerate infectious waste, and large industries contract
licensed waste firms), hazardous waste management remains an area
requiring further strengthening to prevent insidious pollution that could
undermine public health and environmental quality.
[Link] Aquaculture Pollution
Aquaculture, particularly coastal aquaculture, is a major economic sector for
Vietnam but also a source of localized pollution and environmental impact.
Vietnam is one of the world’s top aquaculture producers (especially for shrimp
and fish), with intensive farming systems that can contribute to water pollution
if not managed sustainably. Key pollution issues from aquaculture include
nutrient and organic waste loading, chemical use, and habitat modification.
[Link].1 Coastal Shrimp Farming
Shrimp farming (notably of species like black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon
and white-leg shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei) is extensive in Vietnam’s coastal
provinces, from the Mekong Delta in the south to some central provinces.
Coastal shrimp ponds often occupy intertidal areas, including what were once
mangrove forests. In the Mekong Delta alone, roughly 700,000 hectares are
under shrimp farming (mix of extensive, improved extensive, and intensive
systems) . Pollution issues from shrimp farming stem from:
• Pond effluent: Ponds are periodically drained, especially after harvest,
releasing water rich in organic matter (uneaten feed, shrimp feces,
plankton) and nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus) into canals and creeks
that lead to estuaries. Intensive shrimp ponds, with feed inputs of 20–30
tons per ha per crop, can generate effluent with very high biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) and suspended solids. This can cause oxygen
depletion in receiving waters, leading to fish kills or stress on wild aquatic
organisms.
• Sedimentation: Over a crop, sludge accumulates in ponds from feces and
algal debris. Farmers often clean ponds by discharging this sludge into

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 the environment. This sludge can smother benthic life and release
nutrients and sulfides.
• Salinization: In some areas, water from shrimp ponds (saline) leaks or is
discharged into freshwater environments or agricultural lands, causing
secondary salinization of soil and water. This has been an issue in the
Mekong delta where shrimp expansion inland has salinized adjacent rice
fields.
• Habitat loss: Although not “pollution” in a chemical sense, the conversion
of mangroves to shrimp ponds removes the natural water filtration that
mangroves provided and leads to erosion and release of carbon stored
in those soils. Vietnam has lost a significant portion of its mangroves
historically to aquaculture (though mangrove replanting and mixed
mangrove-shrimp farming models are now being promoted to mitigate
this).
Shrimp farming is thus a major non-point pollution source in certain
coastal water bodies. Studies have shown elevated nutrients and organic
content in water around shrimp farming clusters. For example, canals in
Ca Mau’s shrimp areas often have high ammonia and low dissolved
oxygen, particularly during pond discharge events.
[Link].2 Organic Loading from Feed Waste
Aquaculture practices, especially intensive ones, involve heavy feeding of
formulated feeds or raw feeds, and not all of that is consumed by the cultured
animals. The feed conversion ratio (FCR) in many Vietnamese farms can be
around 1.2–1.5 for shrimp (meaning 1.2–1.5 kg feed per 1 kg shrimp produced)
, but can be higher in practice if feed management is poor. Uneaten feed and
feces contribute to organic pollution:
• BOD/COD in effluent: As feed wastes degrade, they drive up biological
and chemical oxygen demand in water. High BOD can cause hypoxic
conditions in pond outflows and receiving waters, stressing or killing
aquatic organisms. Fish and shrimp farms that flush water with high
organic loads have been known to cause oxygen sag in small rivers or
creeks.
• Eutrophication: The breakdown of feed releases nutrients (N, P). Excess
phosphorus from fish feeds can trigger algal blooms in closed water
bodies. For instance, some coastal lagoons in central Vietnam (where
cage fish farming exists) have experienced algal blooms due to nutrient
build-up from fish feed.
• Sedimentation of organics: In static pond systems, organic sludge settles.
If not managed, this leads to pond bottom anoxia (black, sulphide-rich
mud) which can generate toxic gases (H₂S) that harm the cultured stock
and, when discharged, harm outside ecosystems. Many shrimp farmers
in the Mekong simply let sludge out into mangrove creeks, leading to
black, anoxic mud banks near sluice gates.

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 The organic loading issue is partly addressed by technologies like
feeding trays to minimize waste, probiotics to help degrade waste in situ,
and periodic sludge removal to treatment ponds. However, adoption of
these practices is not universal due to cost and knowledge gaps.
[Link].3 Chemical Use Patterns
Aquaculture relies on various chemicals for pond preparation, disease control,
and water quality management. Common chemicals and their pollution
implications:
• Fertilizers (urea, superphosphate): Used in extensive ponds to fertilize
water for natural food. These add nutrients (N, P), potentially contributing
to eutrophication if flushed out.
• Lime (CaO/Ca(OH)₂): Applied to adjust pH and disinfect pond bottoms. It
can raise pH and alkalinity of effluent; typically lime is benign but overuse
can alter receiving water pH.
• Chlorine (Calcium hypochlorite): Widely used to disinfect water before
stocking shrimp. Residual chlorine can be toxic to aquatic life if large
volumes of chlorinated water are discharged without neutralization.
• Antibiotics and other drugs: Shrimp and fish farmers have used
antibiotics (oxytetracycline, enrofloxacin, etc.) to treat bacterial diseases,
despite restrictions. These can accumulate in sediment and the
environment. Antibiotic residues in effluent can promote antibiotic-
resistant bacteria in the ecosystem . Other compounds include anti-
parasitics (formalin, trifluralin historically in shrimp), which can also have
toxic effects on non-target species.
• Pesticides: Occasionally, pesticides (like organophosphates or teasap for
killing pond pests) are used to eliminate predators or unwanted species
in ponds. If released, these can kill wild fish/invertebrates outside the
pond. There were instances of fish kills in Vietnam linked to ponds
releasing water treated with potent pesticides.
• Probiotics and enzymes: These are increasingly used as an eco-friendlier
alternative to chemicals, aiming to improve water quality by enhancing
decomposition. They generally have benign effects, but their efficacy
varies.
Vietnam has regulations banning harmful chemicals in aquaculture (e.g.,
Malachite Green, certain antibiotics), and extension programs encourage
judicious use. However, enforcement at farm level is difficult.
The spatial pattern of chemical use pollution tends to align with intense
farming zones. For example, areas of the Mekong Delta with dense
shrimp farms have detected antibiotic residues in adjacent canals, and
labs have found multi-drug-resistant bacteria in those waters, suggesting
antibiotic overuse.
[Link].4 Pond Discharge Impacts

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The cumulative impact of many farms discharging effluent around the same
time can significantly degrade local water quality. Consider:
• Disease-driven discharge: During disease outbreaks (like shrimp white
spot disease), farmers often dump water to save whatever crop remains.
This can release huge loads of virus-laden and organic-rich water all at
once. Such releases can spread pathogens to wild crustaceans and other
farms downstream, and cause acute oxygen drops. Coastal waters near
intensive shrimp areas have shown higher prevalence of shrimp
pathogens even among wild populations, linking to farm discharge.
• Seasonal water exchange: Many farms do a water exchange or harvest
drain at end of dry season, which in aggregate can flush estuaries with
effluent. Reports from e.g. Ninh Thuan’s shrimp farming area note that at
harvest time, nearshore waters become turbid and foul-smelling due to
the mass release of pond water.
• Sediment plumes: Discharged pond water, especially if containing
sludge, can create visible sediment plumes in receiving waters. In some
delta creeks, layers of black sediment can be seen blanketing creek beds
where farmers routinely release sludge, altering those micro-habitats
drastically.
• Mangrove health: In integrated mangrove-shrimp systems, moderate
waste can be absorbed by mangroves, but if overloaded, it can harm
mangroves. There have been observations in Ca Mau that mangroves
closest to sluice gates (where waste exits ponds) exhibit poorer growth
or die-off, likely from too much organic deposition and perhaps sulphide
buildup from decaying matter.
It should be noted that not all aquaculture is equally polluting: intensive
systems (small ponds, heavy feeding) are the main contributors, whereas
traditional extensive systems (large ponds, no feeding, rely on tidal
exchange) have lower inputs but can still cause mangrove loss and
altered salinity regimes. The push now is to implement better
management practices (BMPs) in aquaculture – such as settling ponds
for effluent, not discharging during low tide (to maximize dilution), and
coordinated water exchange schedules to avoid all farmers discharging
at once. Some areas have set up common wastewater treatment canals
for clusters of farms, but coverage is limited.
In conclusion, aquaculture has both benefits and environmental costs. It has
alleviated fishing pressure by producing fish/shrimp, but the way it’s managed
can lead to significant local pollution and ecosystem changes. Vietnam’s
challenge is to maintain its aquaculture productivity while reducing these
impacts through improved farm design, regulation of chemical use, and
treatment of effluents – efforts that are increasingly part of national agricultural
and coastal management plans.

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[Link] Industrial Waste
Industrial solid waste – distinct from industrial hazardous waste – encompasses
the non-hazardous by-products of manufacturing, construction, and other
industrial processes. This includes materials like packaging, scrap materials
(wood, metal, plastics) that are not contaminated with hazardous substances,
as well as factory office waste, etc. Efficient management of industrial waste is
key for resource recovery and minimizing the burden on municipal waste
systems.
[Link].1. Industrial Waste Composition and Quantities
Vietnam’s rapid industrialization has led to a sharp increase in industrial solid
waste (ISW) generation. According to estimates by MAE, industrial solid waste
(excluding mining waste) was over 7 million tonnes per year by 2020. Key
components of industrial waste include:
• Inert materials: like cinder, slag, ash from manufacturing (e.g., coal ash
from power plants, which in 2019 was about 12 million tonnes nationwide
– though this is sometimes categorized separately as industrial by-
product) . Also, concrete rubble from construction/demolition, which has
grown with urban redevelopment projects.
• Scrap metals: Steel offcuts from metalworking, turnings from machining,
etc. Much of this is recycled; Vietnam has an active scrap metal market,
including imports for steel mills. So while generated as waste, scrap metal
often doesn’t reach disposal but goes to recyclers.
• Waste plastics, paper, and cardboard: Factories (especially in packaging,
consumer goods) produce substantial scrap plastic and paper. E.g.,
packaging factories might have offcuts, defective products. Many of these
are also recycled via commercial channels.
• Organics: Food/beverage industries produce organic wastes (spent
grains, fruit peels, etc.) which may be used as animal feed or compost.
Wood processing industries generate sawdust and offcuts.
• Textile clippings and leather scraps: From garment and shoe
manufacturing – some are reused (shoddy cloth, etc.), others disposed.
• General trash: Like broken pallets, crates, office waste from factory sites,
etc.
The composition varies greatly by industry: a shipyard produces scrap
metal and sandblasting grit; a pharmaceutical plant produces lots of
packaging waste; an electronics factory has plastic reels and cardboard
spools, etc. On average, a significant portion of industrial “waste” has
residual value, leading to a fairly high recycling rate in this segment –
likely higher than for MSW. For example, over 70% of paper and
cardboard waste in Vietnam gets recycled, much of it coming from
industrial/commercial sources . Similarly, valuable plastics (like PET,
HDPE) and metals are recovered.
Regional generation: The majority of ISW comes from the major industrial

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 regions – around HCMC and the Southeast (the southern key economic
zone) and around Hanoi and Hai Phong (northern key economic zone).
These areas have dense industrial parks and output.
[Link].2 Industrial Waste Management in Vietnam
Industrial waste management is partly integrated into municipal systems and
partly handled through private sector recycling and disposal:
• Within industrial parks (IPs): Many IPs have set up waste collection
services for their tenant factories. These often contract with private waste
management companies. Non-hazardous wastes like packaging and
organics are typically collected and either recycled or sent to local landfills
if no recycle value. Some IPs encourage recycling by segregating waste
at source (e.g., separate bins for recyclables).
• Recycling and reusing: A lot of industrial waste is sold to recyclers. For
instance, textile scraps are sold to companies making rags or padding;
plastic scraps go to plastic recyclers (Vietnam has many plastic recycling
villages and formal plants). Metal scrap is a commodity. So the market
drives a significant portion away from disposal. In
2018, [Link] reported that 73.5% of solid waste nationally (including
industrial) is landfilled or dumped – implying ~26.5% is recovered; the
recovery rate is likely higher for industrial subset because of value.
• On-site management: Some large industries treat their own waste: e.g.,
sugar mills often use bagasse (sugarcane fiber waste) as fuel; cement
plants may use certain industrial wastes (slags, fly ash) as raw material
or fuel (co-processing).
• Construction & demolition (C&D) waste: This is a growing industrial waste
stream. In big cities, it’s partly reused (crushed for base material) but also
much ends up illegally dumped on city outskirts because formal systems
aren’t well developed. Piles of construction rubble in peri-urban areas are
a common sight.
• Data and monitoring: Up to recently, comprehensive data on industrial
solid waste was lacking, as companies only reported hazardous waste.
The new regulations require better reporting. Implementation of Extended
Producer Responsibility (EPR) for packaging and products under the
revised LEP may also indirectly improve industrial waste recycling
because producers will have targets to use recycled content, etc. .
• Services and infrastructure: Most non-hazardous industrial waste
ultimately goes to the same landfills as municipal waste if not recycled.
Cities like HCMC and Hanoi accept industrial waste at their landfills for a
fee. Some provinces have dedicated areas for industrial waste in their
landfills. However, because of higher fees for industrial waste disposal,
some smaller generators might try to mix it with municipal waste to save
cost (e.g., paying residential rates).

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 • One challenge in industrial waste management is small craft or scattered
industries not in IPs: e.g., craft villages or small workshops. They may
not have formal waste services and might dump or burn wastes, causing
local pollution (e.g., plastic recycling villages often burn unrecyclable
plastics, releasing toxins). Integrating these into formal systems is
needed.
[Link].3 Hotspots and Regional Data
“Hotspots” for industrial waste issues are areas with high industrial
concentration and insufficient waste management facilities:
• Craft villages in the Red River Delta: As earlier mentioned, places like the
plastic recycling village of Minh Khai (Hung Yen) have significant waste
spillage – waterways clogged with plastic debris, open burning practice .
Metal recycling villages (e.g., Da Hoi in Bac Ninh) have heaps of coal
slag and metal slag around, which leach into fields. These localized sites
have visible environmental degradation.
• Industrial zones without co-located disposal: Some older industrial zones
did not plan waste treatment on-site, relying on municipal systems which
got overwhelmed. For instance, the Bien Hoa industrial zone near HCMC
historically dumped waste in what became huge piles (some of it
hazardous, causing contamination of nearby canals).
• Mining and mineral processing areas: Not exactly “industrial solid waste”
in manufacturing sense, but places like Thai Nguyen (mining and
metallurgy) have large slag dumps (some heavy-metal laden) affecting
environment. Quang Ninh coal mining produces coal gangue piles that
can cause acid runoff. These are regional waste management issues.
• Southern Key Economic Region: including Binh Duong, Dong Nai, HCMC
– these produce the largest volumes of industrial waste. While these
provinces have more infrastructure and aggressive recycling industries,
they also face rapid waste increases. Binh Duong, for example, invested
in a large waste treatment complex (South Binh Duong Waste Complex)
that handles both municipal and industrial waste, turning some into
compost or burning for power, but even it strains at times with volume.
Regional data: According to a 2017 report, HCMC generated about
1,500–2,000 tonnes/day of industrial solid waste (non-hazardous) . Binh
Duong and Dong Nai combined likely similar. In the north, Hanoi’s
industrial waste (excluding construction debris) was around 300–400
tonnes/day because heavy industries are fewer (many around Hanoi are
relocated to provinces). The central region’s industrial waste is lower,
given less industry.
• Port cities and shipbreaking: Haiphong and Vung Tau have shipyards,
etc., which produce bulky wastes (scrap metal, oily wastes).
Management is usually via sale of scrap and hazardous to specialized
companies.

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[Link].4 Monitoring and Data Gaps
There are significant data gaps in industrial waste. Companies are mandated
to report waste generation but compliance is mixed, and small enterprises often
don’t. The lack of a centralized database meant planning was reactive. This is
being addressed by new online reporting systems.
Another gap is waste auditing to see how much is recycled vs disposed; much
recycling is informal or via unregistered buyers, so it’s not captured in official
stats. For instance, if a factory sells all its cardboard waste to a local recycler, it
might not even count that as “waste” in reporting, thus underestimating
generation.
Fly-tipping (illegal dumping) of industrial waste – occasionally large illegal
dumps are found on abandoned land – indicates monitoring gaps. E.g., piles of
textile scraps were found dumped in suburbs of HCMC in 2019, traced to small
garment workshops avoiding disposal fees.
Without good data, designing facilities is difficult. Some provinces possibly lack
industrial waste treatment capacity simply because they undercounted the
waste needing disposal.
[Link].5 Industrial Waste Recycle
On a positive note, Vietnam’s industry has a culture of not wasting valuable
materials. Recycling is quite active:
• Paper recycling: Vietnam recycles ~1.5 million tonnes of paper per year,
much from industrial scrap. Mills rely 60-70% on wastepaper. Local scrap
plus imports feed them.
• Plastic recycling: There are hundreds of small and medium recyclers
turning post-industrial plastic scraps into pellets. Vietnam’s recycled
plastic use is growing, though a lot is exported as pellets too.
• Metal recycling: The steel industry has multiple furnaces using scrap
(Hoa Phat, Pomina, etc.). Copper recycling is also present in craft
villages.
• By-product reuse: Some industries reuse each other’s waste – e.g.,
power plant coal ash is used in cement making; rice husk ash from rice
mills can be an additive; brewery spent grain as cattle feed, etc.
• Emerging circular initiatives: Big companies in electronics (Samsung,
etc.) have zero-landfill goals for their factories, meaning they find
recyclers for almost all waste. Some IPs are exploring “industrial
symbiosis” where one factory’s waste is another’s input.
Thus, the industrial sector is in some ways ahead of municipal in
recycling, driven by cost savings and profit motive. This contributes to
resource efficiency and reduces environmental load, but the informal
nature of some recycling also has downsides (like environmental issues
in craft villages).

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In summary, industrial solid waste in Vietnam is a significant stream that has
seen increasing management attention. The main issues revolve around
ensuring proper disposal for the fraction that isn’t readily recyclable, integrating
the myriad of small producers into formal waste systems, and addressing
legacy and informal practices that cause local pollution. With continued
industrial growth under Vietnam’s economic plans, improving industrial waste
management is crucial to avoid simply shifting pollution from point-source
water/air to land via waste.
[Link]. Oil Pollution Sources and Incidents
Oil pollution in Vietnam’s marine and coastal environment arises from several
sources: shipping activities (operational discharges and accidental spills),
offshore oil and gas operations, and coastal oil storage and handling facilities.
Given Vietnam’s long coastline along a major international shipping route and
its own petroleum industry, the country faces ongoing risks of oil contamination
in its waters.
[Link].1 Major Incidents
Vietnam has experienced numerous minor to moderate oil spill incidents,
though fortunately few very large spills in recent history. Notable incidents
include:
• Vessel collisions and sinkings: One of the larger events was the 2001
collision of tanker Formosa One with another vessel near Vung Tau,
spilling about 615 tonnes of diesel . Another was the 2007 sinking of a
freighter in central Vietnam that released bunker fuel affecting beaches.
More recently, in 2019 the cargo vessel Nordana Sophie sank near Ha
Tinh with 178 tonnes of fuel (as cited earlier) , causing a local spill that
oiled ~3 km of coastline. Each year, there are some incidents of smaller
ships or barges sinking in ports or rivers (for example, a barge on the
Saigon River in 2020 spilled tens of tonnes of oil).
• Mystery oil spills (tar balls): Possibly the most pervasive are the chronic
incidents, where lumps of oil/tar wash ashore across multiple central and
southern provinces. One such event occurred in early 2021, impacting
Khanh Hoa beaches with clumps of weathered oil over several days .
Another wave of tar balls hit Ha Tinh province’s beaches in Feb 2024,
totaling about 1 tonne of oil washed up . These are believed to originate
from ships illegally cleaning out tanks at sea or minor spills upstream that
eventually congeal and land on shore. They may not be “incidents” in a
singular sense but collectively cause significant pollution.
• Offshore platform leaks: Vietnam’s offshore oil fields (like Bach Ho, Rong)
have had a good safety record, but minor leaks have occurred. For
instance, in 2005 a small leak at Bach Ho was reported, and
PetroVietnam has internal reports of some well control issues with minor
spillage. No major blowouts have happened in Vietnamese waters (unlike
the Montara and Deepwater Horizon events elsewhere).

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 • Harbor and pipeline spills: Spills at ports or during bunkering happen
occasionally. In 2018, a pipeline at Nha Be Depot in HCMC leaked a few
hundred cubic meters of fuel into the river (clean-up was swift). In
Haiphong, there have been accidents where oil depots caught fire or
leaked, polluting local water. Also, war-era shipwrecks sometimes seep
oil (e.g., WWII wrecks in coastal waters could still release small oil
amounts).
While individual spills (aside from the 1994 Neptune Aries and 2001
Formosa One which are historically cited ) have been relatively limited in
volume, their frequency and cumulative impact raise concern.
[Link].2 Response Capacity
Vietnam has built a tiered oil spill response system. The National Committee for
Search and Rescue (VINASARCOM) leads national responses . Three regional
Oil Spill Response Centers (NOSRCs) are established:
• Northern center (Hai Phong),
• Central center (Da Nang and Nha Trang),
• Southern center (Vung Tau) .
These centers stock equipment like booms, skimmers, dispersants, and
have trained staff. They can handle medium spills and provide training to
local entities. The 2019 improvements included enhanced coordination
with the IMO’s GISEA program .
Additionally, industry resources: PetroVietnam and Petrolimex have their
own spill response units and stockpiles. Major ports have some
equipment. The Ministry of Defense (Navy) can be mobilized for larger
offshore incidents with ships and aircraft.
A legal framework exists requiring ports and oil facilities to have oil spill
contingency plans (Decree 30/2017/ND-CP). In 2019, (NOW MINISTRY
OF AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT - MAE)’s circular outlined
steps for clean-up and damage assessment . It mandates initial
assessment within 10 days of a spill and further detailed assessment if
needed .
In practice, response capability has improved: e.g., when tar balls hit
Khanh Hoa beaches, local authorities quickly organized beach clean-ups.
For bigger spills, Vietnam often requests help from neighbors if needed
(within ASEAN there’s collaboration).
Internationally, Vietnam is party to MARPOL (covering pollution from
ships) and various conventions. Domestically, the National Oil Spill
Response Plan (approved 2020) delineates roles across ministries
(Transport, Defense, etc.) .
Overall, Vietnam’s response capacity is considered moderate – adequate
for spills up to a few thousand tonnes, but a truly massive spill (e.g.,
>10,000 tonnes) would stretch capacity and likely need international
support. Regular exercises are conducted, and Vietnam has engaged in
regional ASEAN spill drills.

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[Link].3 Impact Zones
Certain zones are identified as high-risk or impact-prone for oil pollution:
• Shipping lanes & choke points: The area off Vung Tau where ships
enter/exit the busy port cluster (HCMC, Phu My) sees dense traffic,
raising collision risk. The Gulf of Tonkin approach to Haiphong is another
busy lane. Oil from incidents in these lanes can drift to nearby coasts
(e.g., the 2001 collision off Vung Tau affected nearby mangroves).
• Coastal refineries and terminals: Vietnam now has two large refineries –
Dung Quat in Quang Ngai and Nghi Son in Thanh Hoa – each with
offshore single-point mooring for crude oil offloading. These are potential
spill points. Areas around these (Quang Ngai coast, northern Central VN
coast) are thus sensitive zones. Dung Quat had a minor incident of
pipeline leak once but contained.
• Offshore oil fields: Fields like Bach Ho are offshore (Bach Ho ~ 120 km
SE of Vung Tau). A large spill there could drift widely depending on
currents (potentially toward the Mekong delta or even to East Vietnam
Sea / South China Sea open waters). But impact on coast would depend
on weather, probably limited unless monsoon drives it.
• Areas with recurring tar ball landing: Central provinces from Quang Tri to
Phu Yen historically report tar ball wash-ups, presumably because of
ocean current patterns that deposit spilled oil from ships traveling along
that route (perhaps from the Malacca/Singapore route up the East Sea).
These areas (including tourist beaches like Nha Trang, Da Nang) have
thus become zones that periodically suffer oil contamination from distant
unknown sources. Environmental impact of oil in Vietnam’s waters
includes mangrove oiling (mangroves in Can Gio were oiled in some
small spills), beach pollution affecting tourism, and harm to marine life
(reports of oiled seabirds are rare, but likely some impact on fishery
resources if nursery areas get oiled). One transboundary note: Oil spills
in the East Vietnam Sea / South China Sea can cross borders. Vietnam
has had to contend with oil slicks drifting from unknown sources that
might originate from other countries’ waters, and likewise spills in
Vietnam could affect neighbors (e.g., a spill in south Vietnam could drift
to Cambodia or even Thailand via currents).
Given this, Vietnam participates in regional agreements (ASEAN Oil Spill
Response Action Plan, etc.) and has bilateral understandings (with China
in Gulf of Tonkin, etc.).
In summary, oil pollution in Vietnam, while not catastrophic in recent times,
remains a continuous risk with persistent low-grade incidents and occasional
larger events. Proactive risk management (traffic separation schemes, better
enforcement of ship discharge rules) and maintaining strong response
readiness are key to minimizing the environmental and economic impacts on
Vietnam’s rich but vulnerable coastal waters.

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3.2.2 Pollution Hotspots and Sensitive Areas
[Link] Hotspots
Pollution hotspots in Vietnam’s coastal and marine environment are locations
where contaminant concentrations or ecosystem impacts are significantly
higher than background levels, often due to concentrated human activities. Key
pollution hotspot areas include:
• Urban-industrial coastal zones: The waters around major cities and
industrial hubs are hotspots. For example, Hai Phong – Ha Long Bay
area in the north receives pollution from Hai Phong’s port (oil, waste) and
nearby industries (cement, shipbuilding) and Ha Long’s tourism and coal
mining. Sections of Ha Long Bay have elevated coliform and occasional
surface oil sheen . Similarly, Da Nang Bay has zones of heavy metal
contamination from decades of port and military activities (studies found
higher nickel and arsenic in sediments near the port). In the south, the
HCMC – Vung Tau coastal area is a major hotspot: the Saigon – Dong
Nai river system delivers nutrients, industrial chemicals, and sewage into
coastal Can Gio mangrove forest and nearshore; Vung Tau has oil
terminals and shipping traffic (historically, DDT and oil residues have
been found in its sediments).
• Industrial park clusters and estuaries: Estuaries where multiple industrial
discharges converge are notably polluted. The Thi Vai River estuary in
Dong Nai/Ba Ria–Vung Tau is infamous: historically receiving toxic
wastewater (like from a MSG plant) leading to fish kills . Although
improved, it is still a sensitive area with ongoing industrial load. Another
is the hạ lưu (lower reach) Cau River in Bac Ninh/Thai Nguyen area,
which carries effluent from craft villages and industrial parks – it’s
considered one of the most polluted rivers in Vietnam, affecting the coast
of Bac Giang/Thai Binh.
• Craft villages and agriculture runoff areas: While smaller scale, these
inland hotspots affect coastal waters indirectly. For example, in Nhue–
Day River basin (Hanoi area) polluted by craft villages and sewage, water
flows to Ninh Binh’s coastal wetlands, contributing to eutrophication and
poor water quality. Likewise, the Mekong Delta canals in shrimp farming
areas like Ca Mau or Bac Lieu can be very degraded (black water, low
oxygen) and flush into the sea at certain tidal cycles, creating local
nearshore pollution plumes.
• Areas of frequent algal blooms or hypoxia: The Venice-like lagoons of
central Vietnam (e.g., Tam Giang – Cau Hai in Thua Thien-Hue) have
become nutrient hotspots due to both upstream agriculture and intensive
aquaculture within them. This has led to periodic fish die-offs from algal
blooms and oxygen crashes, marking them as inland hotspots that
connect to the sea. Some blooms have vented to coastal waters, e.g.,
the 2019 red tide in Phu Loc area (Central VN) that was partly attributed
to aquaculture effluent.

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 • Mining and legacy pollution sites: The Quang Ninh coal mining region
results in acid mine drainage and coal particles washing to Ha Long Bay
– certain parts near Cam Pha are turbid and acidic. The Da Nang “dioxin
hotspot” (around the airport, from Agent Orange storage) was historically
leaching some dioxin to the Han River and then sea (though remediated
recently). These hotspots are characterized by poor water quality indices
– e.g., monitoring has shown COD and nutrient levels in those areas
exceeding national standards by 2-5 times in worst cases , and
biodiversity loss (few sensitive species survive in those waters).
The government has identified many of these in environmental reports
and targeted them for remediation or stricter control. For instance, the
Nhue-Day and Cau rivers have special pollution control action plans; Ha
Long Bay is getting heightened protection measures (closing some coal
ports, regulating tourism boats) to mitigate hotspot issues.
[Link] Sensitive Areas
Sensitive areas are ecologically important or socio-economically valuable
zones that are particularly vulnerable to pollution. In Vietnam’s marine context,
these include:
• Coral reef areas: Vietnam’s reefs are mostly in the central and southern
waters (e.g., around Nha Trang – Hon Mun MPA, Con Dao islands, Phu
Quoc, and the Spratly and Paracel archipelagos). Coral ecosystems are
highly sensitive to sediment, nutrient, and chemical pollution. For
example, increased sedimentation from coastal construction in Nha
Trang and nutrient spikes from city runoff have been linked to reef
degradation . Coral cover at Hon Mun plunged, with scientists partly
attributing it to water quality decline in addition to other stresses . Coral
reefs in these areas underpin tourism and fisheries, so pollution poses
both ecological and economic risks. The government has declared
several MPAs (marine protected areas) to conserve reefs (e.g., Cu Lao
Cham, Phu Quoc, Con Dao, Nha Trang Bay), but enforcement of water
quality around them is a concern.
• Mangrove forests: Vietnam’s mangroves (about 150,000 ha remaining,
mainly in the Mekong Delta and some in north e.g., Can Gio, Xuan Thuy)
act as natural filters and fish nurseries. They are sensitive to oil spills and
excessive nutrient or pesticide loads. The Can Gio mangrove biosphere
reserve near HCMC is an example: it’s downstream of a metropolis;
fortunately, it has maintained overall health, but large oil spills or
continued heavy metal accumulation could damage it. Northern
mangroves like in Thai Binh (Tien Hai reserve) suffer from pollution of the
Red River. Mangroves can accumulate heavy metals in their sediments;
studies at Can Gio found increasing copper and lead levels in mangrove
mud over time from upriver sources .
• Seagrass beds: Extensive seagrass meadows exist around Con Dao,
Phu Quoc, and in some coastal lagoons. These are vital for dugongs (in

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 Phu Quoc) and fisheries. Seagrasses are very sensitive to turbidity
(sediment runoff) and nutrient-driven algal overgrowth. The seagrass bed
in Phu Quoc’s Phu Quoc MPA has shown signs of stress, likely from
tourism development causing sediment and sewage inflow. Another
significant seagrass area is at Lang Co and Tam Giang lagoons –
increased aquaculture and upland deforestation have muddied these
waters and reduced seagrass coverage.
• Delta estuaries and wetlands: The Mekong Delta coastal wetlands (e.g.,
Ca Mau National Park, U Minh mangroves) and Red River Delta wetlands
(Xuan Thuy National Park, a Ramsar site) are biodiversity hotspots
(birds, aquatic life) but also pollution sinks. Xuan Thuy receives the Red
River plume with pollutants from Hanoi region ; it has seen changes in
species composition possibly linked to water quality. In Ca Mau, shrimp
farm effluents threaten the balance of its coastal mudflat ecosystems
where migratory birds feed.
• Unique habitats (caves, upwelling zones): Less commonly cited, but the
karst caves of Ha Long (with unique marine lakes) are sensitive to water
pollution. The South-Central upwelling zone (Binh Thuan province)
supports rich fisheries; though largely offshore, it could be impacted by
large-scale oil spills or plastic debris.
• Small islands with limited resilience: Islands like the Cham Islands (Cu
Lao Cham) or Ly Son have small freshwater and delicate coastal waters;
increased tourism and waste (e.g., plastic pollution, sewage) can quickly
degrade their environment. Cham Islands MPA has struggled with coral
damage partly due to sediment and anchor damage (triggers include
mainland runoff).
Given these sensitivities, Vietnam prioritizes these in pollution control efforts.
Many sensitive areas overlap with protected areas, enabling some regulatory
focus. For example, laws forbid polluting activities (like certain discharges or
ship fuel discharge) in MPAs. Also, Vietnam joined the UNESCO Man and
Biosphere network (e.g., Can Gio, Cu Lao Cham are biosphere reserves) where
sustainable practices are advocated.
Special attention is paid to transboundary sensitive areas as well – e.g., the
Mekong Delta wetlands are linked to the larger Gulf of Thailand ecosystem;
Vietnam works with other Mekong countries to manage upstream pollution
because if those wetlands degrade, it not only affects Vietnam but regional
biodiversity.
In summary, sensitive coastal and marine areas in Vietnam include coral reefs,
mangroves, seagrasses, delta wetlands, and special ecosystems, all of which
provide irreplaceable services and habitat but face threats from various forms
of pollution documented in previous sections. Protecting these areas is a
national priority reflected in Vietnam’s commitments to international
environmental conventions and its own conservation strategies.

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3.2.3 Discussion and Conclusions
[Link] Priority Transboundary Pollution Issues
Given Vietnam’s location in the East Vietnam Sea/South China Sea and the
interconnected nature of marine systems, many pollution issues are
transboundary, affecting or originating in multiple countries. The most pressing
transboundary pollution concerns include:
[Link].1 Oceanic Transport of Marine Plastics
Marine plastic litter is a quintessential transboundary problem. Ocean currents
and wind move floating debris across national waters, so debris generated in
Vietnam can end up on foreign shores and vice versa . Research has shown,
for example, that a proportion of plastic waste from the Mekong River travels
into the East Vietnam Sea/South China Sea and can drift towards the
Philippines or Malaysia, depending on monsoon currents. Conversely,
Vietnam’s central coast regularly experiences wash-ups of plastic waste (and
tar balls) that may have originated from high-traffic shipping lanes or
neighboring countries . The monsoon-driven currents in the East Vietnam Sea
/ South China Sea form a seasonal “carousel” carrying floating litter in a circuit
around the region . This means efforts by Vietnam alone cannot solve marine
plastic pollution; coordinated regional action is critical. Recognizing this,
Vietnam is part of the ASEAN Regional Action Plan on Marine Debris and
participates in UNEP’s Coordinating Body on the Seas of East Asia (COBSEA)
initiative on marine litter . In summary, marine plastics are a shared problem
where Vietnam’s actions (like reducing single-use plastics, improving waste
management) will benefit its neighbors and vice versa. Joint clean-up, data
sharing, and source-reduction campaigns are priority collaborative actions.
[Link].2 Shipping Corridors and Oil Spill Drift
The East Vietnam Sea / South China Sea is one of the world’s busiest maritime
highways, with thousands of vessels (including oil tankers) traversing Vietnam’s
adjacent waters annually. Pollution from shipping – oil spills, operational
discharges (bilge water, tank washings), and introduction of invasive species in
ballast water – is inherently transboundary. An oil spill in international waters or
foreign waters can drift into Vietnam’s EEZ. As noted, tar balls on Vietnam’s
shores are often attributed to illegal discharge by ships from various nations .
Similarly, a major tanker accident in the region could spread oil across several
countries’ coastlines. Vietnam’s southern coast near Vung Tau sits at the
entrance of the Malacca-Singapore route; a spill there could easily affect
Indonesia, Malaysia, or vice versa . Besides oil, invasive marine organisms via
ballast water are a concern – port surveys in Vietnam have noted foreign
barnacle or mussel species, which can alter local ecosystems; controlling this
requires international regulations (MARPOL, Ballast Water Management
Convention) enforcement across all countries’ ships, not just Vietnam’s. To
mitigate these corridor risks, Vietnam collaborates regionally: for oil spills, there
is the ASEAN Oil Spill Response Action Plan allowing mutual assistance; for
invasive species, Vietnam has begun implementing IMO guidelines on ballast

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water and is involved in research on biofouling with regional partners. In short,
the only effective management of shipping-related pollution is a concerted
regional approach to strict enforcement of marine pollution laws (zero tolerance
for illegal oil dumping, for instance) and shared emergency response capability
for accidents.
[Link].3 Riverine Plumes and Cross-Border Nutrient Flows
Several major rivers that traverse or border Vietnam carry pollutants from
upstream countries into Vietnamese waters. The Red River, which originates in
China, brings not just water but also sediment and agricultural runoff from
Yunnan and the Guangxi region into the Gulf of Tonkin . Likewise, the Mekong
River flows through China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia before
Vietnam, collecting pollutants along the way (fertilizers, pesticides, industrial
effluents). By the time the Mekong reaches Vietnam’s delta, it carries a heavy
nutrient load that contributes to coastal eutrophication in the East Vietnam Sea
/ South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand . Transboundary collaboration is
needed to manage these nutrient and pollution loads at the basin level. Vietnam
is a member of the Mekong River Commission (MRC) with Laos, Cambodia,
and Thailand, working on water quality monitoring and sharing data upstream-
downstream. Similarly for the Red River (called Yuan/Thao in China), Vietnam
has bilateral agreements with China on water release from dams and some
water quality information sharing, but this could be strengthened. There have
been instances of industrial accidents or mining in upstream countries
impacting Vietnam’s rivers (e.g., a toxic spill from a mine in Laos or China could
cause fish kill in Vietnam’s territory). These highlight the necessity of cross-
border early warning systems and agreed standards for discharge in shared
basins. Additionally, air pollution and deposition is another transboundary
vector: e.g., burning of coal or biomass in upwind countries can deposit
nutrients (nitrogen) or contaminants into Vietnam’s coastal waters via rain (as
part of acid rain or dust). Integrated efforts, such as those under the UNEP
Regional Seas program and MRC’s environmental program, aim to address
such issues. In conclusion, Vietnam’s water quality is partly at the mercy of
upstream practices, making it essential to engage in robust transboundary
water management frameworks to ensure that shared rivers are protected from
excessive pollution that could endanger delta and coastal health regionally.
[Link] Impacts on Environment and Society
Pollution in Vietnam’s marine and coastal environment has multifaceted
impacts that threaten ecological sustainability, public health, and economic
development. The discussion below outlines these impacts in terms of
environmental integrity, social well-being, and economic vitality, noting that all
are interlinked (sustainability impacts).
[Link].1 Sustainability Impacts
a) Environmental impacts: The degradation of water quality and habitats
undermines key ecosystem functions. For instance, excess nutrients and
organic pollution are causing eutrophication in some bays and river deltas,

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leading to algal blooms and hypoxic (low-oxygen) events that result in fish kills
and loss of biodiversity . Coral reef decline due to sedimentation and pollution
(among other stressors) reduces coral cover and structural complexity,
translating to loss of marine species that depend on reefs. Mangrove loss or
reduced health (from oiling or waste inundation) diminishes shoreline
stabilization and nursery grounds for fish. As these ecosystems degrade, the
services they provide – water filtration, carbon sequestration, habitat provision
– are compromised. Notably, reduced coral and mangrove cover means less
natural protection against storms and erosion, increasing vulnerability of
coastlines to climate change effects. Pollution has also been observed to cause
shifts in species composition: more tolerant, often non-native or opportunistic
species (like certain jellyfish or invasive algae) can proliferate in degraded
waters, while sensitive native species (like seagrasses, hard corals) die off. The
net environmental impact is a reduction in marine biodiversity and resilience,
threatening Vietnam’s status as having globally significant ecosystems.
b) Social Impacts: Coastal communities in Vietnam are intimately tied to the sea
for livelihood and culture, so pollution directly affects their well-being. One major
social impact is on human health: polluted waters lead to contaminated seafood
(e.g., high heavy metal or microbial levels), raising the risk of foodborne illness
for consumers . Coastal residents reliant on local seafood may suffer chronic
health issues (like arsenicosis or mercury exposure symptoms) if contamination
is significant. Furthermore, as noted in Key Findings, waterborne diseases can
spike in communities where water is polluted – cases of diarrhea, skin
infections, and other illnesses have been recorded near heavily polluted rivers.
Another social aspect is the loss of traditional livelihoods: when fish stocks
decline due to habitat pollution, small-scale fishers see reduced catches,
undermining their income and way of life. In some areas, fishers have had to
switch occupations or migrate because their local waters are no longer
productive or safe. There’s also the cultural erosion – many Vietnamese coastal
communities have spiritual and cultural practices tied to the sea (festivals,
ancestral fishing grounds); pollution that makes areas off-limits or unproductive
can erode these practices and communal identity. Social conflicts can arise too:
communities often protest when they perceive environmental injustice, such as
pollution from an industrial project – as seen in the 2016 protests after the
Formosa Ha Tinh fish kill. Such incidents strain trust between citizens,
businesses, and government, highlighting that social cohesion is also at stake.
As one example, waterborne disease outbreaks in coastal communities have
increased burdens on local healthcare and reduced quality of life .
c) Economic impacts: The economic costs of pollution are significant and cut
across several sectors. In fisheries and aquaculture, pollution can cause
outright losses – e.g., the mass fish kill of 2016 in central provinces (due to
industrial toxic release) led to estimated losses of hundreds of millions of USD
in fishery revenue and severe impacts on fishers’ livelihoods. Even less
dramatic pollution (chronic contamination) can lead to product rejections: as
mentioned, Vietnamese aquaculture products have at times been rejected in

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export markets due to antibiotic or chemical residues , tarnishing their
reputation and causing financial loss. Tourism is another pillar of Vietnam’s
economy that is highly sensitive to environmental quality. Beach resorts and
marine parks rely on clean, attractive environments. Pollution incidents –
sewage on beaches, oil slicks, or just general litter – can lead to loss of tourists
and revenue. For instance, a study estimated that a serious oil spill affecting
Vietnam’s prime tourist beaches could result in tens of thousands fewer tourist
arrivals, translating to big revenue downturns. Public costs are also huge: the
government must spend more on water treatment for coastal cities as source
water gets dirtier, on healthcare for pollution-related illnesses, and on
environmental cleanup (e.g., dredging polluted sediments, remediating
contaminated sites). There are also opportunity costs: a polluted environment
means lost opportunities for sustainable industries like mariculture of high-
value, sensitive species (oysters, clams) or marine biotech prospecting,
because those require pristine conditions. Additionally, damage to ecosystem
services has long-term economic implications – for example, mangroves and
reefs provide storm protection valued at millions of dollars per year by reducing
disaster damage; losing them makes coastal infrastructure more at risk, likely
increasing future spending on engineered defenses . In summary, pollution
imposes both direct costs (loss of output in fisheries/tourism, cleanup costs)
and indirect costs (healthcare, disaster vulnerability) that collectively hamper
socio-economic development and the “blue economy” potential Vietnam aspires
to harness .
In specific terms, as highlighted in earlier sections: reduced coral cover and
mangrove stands threaten the Blue Economy potential (diving tourism,
sustainable fisheries) and food safety issues (like antibiotic residues) in exports
reduce market value and income . These combined impacts illustrate that
environmental health is a foundation for social and economic health. Sustaining
Vietnam’s coastal environment in good condition is thus not only an ecological
goal but a societal imperative for continuing growth and improving living
standards.
Specific impacts:
• Ecosystem Services: The loss of ecosystems due to pollution directly
translates to loss of services they provide. For instance, coral reef
degradation has led to diminished fish spawning grounds, reducing
fishery yields for local communities . Mangrove loss means weaker
natural water filtration and more pollutants reaching nearshore waters, as
well as reduced carbon sequestration (affecting climate mitigation efforts)
. It also compromises coastal protection, as noted above, potentially
leading to greater storm damage costs. These impacts threaten the
aspirations of Vietnam’s Blue Economy development, which depends on
healthy ecosystems as a foundation for sectors like fisheries, tourism,
and marine renewable resources.
• Socio-Economic Burdens: Public health issues, such as the noted uptick
in waterborne diseases, incur costs for families and the healthcare

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 system . For example, cholera outbreaks in coastal areas (there was one
in northern Vietnam in 2007 associated with seafood and sanitation)
cause suffering and productivity loss. Aquaculture product rejections due
to contaminants (e.g., antibiotic or heavy metal residues) directly hit
farmers’ incomes and Vietnam’s export revenue . In 2019, for instance,
several shrimp shipments were rejected by Japan for antibiotic residues,
leading to not only lost product but also stricter surveillance on all
Vietnamese shrimp (meaning higher costs for compliance). Summing up,
the societal burden of coastal pollution is borne by both individuals (in
health bills, lost jobs) and by the nation (in weakened export performance,
remediation expenses).
In conclusion, the impacts of land-based and marine pollution in Vietnam’s
coastal waters are far-reaching: they degrade ecosystems (undercutting
biodiversity and resilience), harm human health and social well-being, and inflict
significant economic costs and risks. This underscores the urgency of tackling
the pollution issues identified – for the sake of Vietnam’s environmental
sustainability, the prosperity of its coastal communities, and overall economic
development goals.
[Link]. Risk Assessment
From the analysis of pollution sources and impacts, it is evident that Vietnam
faces several environmental risks if current trends continue or worsen. A
qualitative risk assessment highlights which issues pose the greatest threat in
terms of likelihood and severity:
• Increasing frequency of extreme pollution events: There is a risk of acute
events (e.g., industrial accidents causing fish kills, large oil spills)
occurring with greater frequency as industrial and shipping activities
intensify. The likelihood of such an event is moderate to high, given past
incidents, and the severity can be very high (widespread marine life
mortality, loss of public trust, costly clean-ups). This risk is compounded
by limited monitoring and enforcement gaps.
• Long-term ecosystem regime shifts: Chronic pollution could push certain
ecosystems past a tipping point. For example, coral reefs might shift to
algae-dominated rubble fields (a regime shift that’s hard to reverse) , or
hypoxia could become seasonally regular in some bays (creating “dead
zones”). Likelihood of gradual regime degradation is high if no action, and
severity is high because these changes can be effectively permanent on
human timescales, with cascading effects on fisheries and tourism.
• Public health crises: If wastewater treatment remains inadequate, there
is a risk of serious disease outbreaks (cholera, hepatitis, etc.) in coastal
cities or consumption of tainted seafood leading to health crises (e.g.,
mass lead poisoning from fish). Likelihood may be moderate (improving
sanitation lowers odds, but pockets of risk remain), but severity could be
high (disease outbreak can cause panic, mortality, economic loss from
trade/travel restrictions).

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 • Climate change interaction: Risks are amplified by climate change –
heavier rains can cause more pollutant runoff and sewage overflow
(increasing acute pollution episodes), while higher temperatures can
exacerbate algal blooms and pathogen proliferation in water . Sea-level
rise might inundate landfills or contaminate groundwater with
saline/polluted water. The likelihood of such compounded scenarios is
increasing, and severity could be high especially in low-lying, densely
populated delta areas.
• Failure of marine-dependent industries: If pollution continues, risk grows
that certain industries face collapse. For example, parts of the
aquaculture industry could fail (shrimp farms already battling disease
might be overwhelmed by poor water quality stressors), or tourism in
certain areas might plummet due to reputational damage (e.g., if iconic
spots like Ha Long Bay develop a persistent pollution problem).
Likelihood for localized industry failures is moderate; severity where it
occurs is high (job losses, economic downturn in affected locale).
Assessing which risks are most pressing, marine plastic and
transboundary spill events stand out as priority due to international
dimension and difficulty to control solely by Vietnam (hence needing
preventive risk mitigation). On the domestic side, river and coastal water
quality deterioration is a creeping risk that could culminate in major losses
if not curbed. Risk assessment feeds directly into management: it
indicates that Vietnam should prioritize preventive measures for high-
severity, reasonable-likelihood risks (like large oil spills and industrial
accidents) through strict controls and contingency planning , while also
mitigating chronic risks (improving wastewater infrastructure to reduce
the steady degradation). One can quantify some risk indicators – e.g., the
probability of fisheries collapse in a polluted area can be modeled, or
health risk from contaminant levels can be gauged. Such analysis should
be embedded in Vietnam’s policymaking (there are early moves: (NOW
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT - MAE)’s
environment reports now sometimes do risk mapping for hotspots).
In summary, the current risk profile suggests Vietnam is at a crossroads:
without intervention, moderate to high likelihood events could impose
very high costs; but with proper investment and governance (risk
reduction strategies), these can be managed. Therefore, risk assessment
underscores the need for urgent action in pollution management as
discussed in subsequent sections on management and recommended
actions.
[Link]. Interaction on Current Management and Institutions
Pollution management in Vietnam’s marine and coastal areas involves multiple
legal frameworks and institutional players, both domestically and regionally.
The effectiveness of pollution control depends on how these laws and agencies
interact and coordinate.
[Link].1. Legal Frameworks

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Vietnam has developed an extensive legal framework for environmental
protection that covers many aspects of land-based and marine pollution. Key
laws include:
• The Law on Environmental Protection (LEP) 2020, which is the
overarching environmental law. The 2020 revision (effective 2022)
introduced concepts like circular economy and Extended Producer
Responsibility (EPR) for waste management . It sets out pollution
standards, requires EIAs for projects, and includes provisions for marine
environmental protection (e.g., controlling marine dumping, regulating
coastal wastewater discharges).
• The Law on Marine and Island Resources and Environment 2015,
specifically focusing on marine spatial planning and environmental
management of seas and islands. It underpins planning of MPAs and
controlling marine pollution sources, integrating with LEP.
• Sectoral laws: The Fisheries Law 2017 has provisions on protecting
aquatic ecosystems (e.g., banning destructive fishing that can pollute or
disturb habitats). The Water Resources Law 2012 governs water quality
and allocation in rivers and groundwater (important for addressing
upstream sources). The Maritime Code incorporates some MARPOL
conventions, making illegal ship waste discharge punishable.
• Many decrees and regulations detail standards (like QCVN for water
quality, effluent standards for industries). For instance, there are stringent
discharge standards for coastal waters (Category A for conservation
areas, B for others).
• International conventions: Vietnam is party to MARPOL (for ship
pollution) , the London Convention on Dumping at Sea, the Stockholm
Convention (POPs), Basel Convention (hazardous waste movement),
and is working to join the Minamata Convention (mercury). These commit
Vietnam to global standards on pollution control.
• Regional agreements: Under ASEAN, Vietnam adheres to frameworks
like the ASEAN Heritage Parks (which include some Vietnam sites) and
has endorsed the ASEAN Marine Debris Action Plan, committing to
reduce plastics. The legal framework is thus fairly comprehensive on
paper. Recent improvements, such as the LEP 2020, align Vietnam’s
laws more closely with international best practices (introducing EPR for
packaging is a major step ). Enforcement provisions are present (fines,
criminal liability for serious pollution).
However, implementation challenges exist. Local regulations (e.g.,
provincial decisions on waste fees or zoning of industry) sometimes may
conflict or be inconsistently applied with national standards. A continuing
task is harmonizing these and ensuring subordinate legislation is updated
to reflect new laws (e.g., the older regulations need alignment with LEP
2020’s new provisions).

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In summary, Vietnam’s legal frameworks provide a solid foundation, but
enforcement and inter-agency coordination are critical to turn these laws into
real environmental outcomes.
[Link].2. Agency Mandates
Several government bodies share responsibility for managing land-based and
marine pollution:
• The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (now Ministry of
Agriculture and Environment - MAE) is the primary environmental
regulator. Within MAE, the Department of Environment and Department
of Seas and Islands are key departments. MAE formulates
environmental policies, sets standards, and oversees issues like marine
pollution, waste management and EIA approvals. MAE’s Department of
Environment handles solid waste and hazardous waste policy.
• The MAE (former MARD) plays a role regarding agriculture runoff,
forestry (mangroves), and fisheries/aquaculture management. It
oversees sustainable farming programs and aquaculture practices.
MAE’s Department of Fisheries deals with aquaculture guidelines (e.g.,
limiting antibiotic use).
• The Ministry of Construction (MOC) is in charge of urban water supply
and sanitation infrastructure . It sets technical standards for wastewater
treatment plants, sewerage systems, and is involved in planning
integrated solid waste management infrastructure . MOC’s involvement
is crucial as most urban drainage/wastewater projects are under its policy
guidance or implemented by local construction departments.
• The Ministry of Industry and Trade (MOIT) regulates industrial sectors. It
issues industry-specific environmental guidelines and is involved in
pollution control in industrial zones (e.g., requiring IPs to have
wastewater treatment) .
• The Ministry of Transport (particularly the Vietnam Maritime
Administration) is mandated with preventing and responding to marine
pollution from ships . It implements MARPOL in Vietnamese ports,
controls ballast water management, and is part of oil spill response (as
harbor authorities often lead first response).
• The Ministry of Public Security has an Environmental Police Department
(C49) tasked with enforcing environmental laws and investigating
violations . They conduct inspections and can bring criminal cases
against serious polluters (there have been cases of factory managers
prosecuted for pollution).
• At the provincial level, Departments of Natural Resources and
Environment (DONRE) in each province are the frontline agencies
managing environmental issues . They issue permits (wastewater
discharge permits, etc.), monitor local environmental quality, and
coordinate enforcement with local police. Similarly, each coastal province

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 may have a Sub-Department of Seas and Islands for coastal zone
management.
The mandates sometimes overlap; for example, MAE have stakes in
water quality in agriculture areas. Ideally, cross-sector committees or
inter-ministerial working groups resolve overlapping issues (the National
Steering Committee on Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation is
one such body spanning MOC, MOH, etc., focusing on sanitation).
In practice, coordination has been a challenge historically – e.g.,
industrial zone wastewater falls between MOIT (industry oversight), MOC
(infrastructure), and MAE(environment monitoring) – gaps led to
untreated wastes. The government has been trying to clarify roles: the
LEP 2020 gives MAE clearer authority to enforce environmental
protection across sectors, and EIA processes involve multi-agency
appraisal to ensure concerns of each are addressed.
A notable inter-agency mechanism: The National Committee for Search
and Rescue (VinSARCOM) leads oil spill responses and comprises
various ministries (Defense, Transport, MAE) – a good example of
mandated coordination.
Effectiveness of agencies still varies by locality – some provincial
DONREs are strong and active, others lack capacity. Enhancing local
capacity and clear mandates is an ongoing institutional reform area.
In summary, the institutional framework assigns primary environmental
guardianship to MAE and its provincial arms, but success hinges on
effective collaboration with sectoral bodies like MAE, MOC, MOIT, etc.,
to integrate pollution control in their domain activities (agriculture,
infrastructure, industry).
[Link].3 Regional Participation
Vietnam recognizes that many environmental issues are regional, and thus it
actively participates in regional cooperative frameworks:
• PEMSEA (Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of
East Asia): Vietnam has been a longtime partner in PEMSEA , which
promotes integrated coastal management (ICM). Through PEMSEA,
Danang and other local governments implemented ICM programs to
manage pollution and resources holistically. Vietnam committed to
PEMSEA’s Sustainable Development Strategy for the Seas of East Asia
(SDS-SEA) which includes objectives on pollution reduction.
• COBSEA (Coordinating Body on the Seas of East Asia): Under UNEP’s
auspices, Vietnam works with 8 other countries on marine and coastal
environment issues . COBSEA has a regional Action Plan with projects
on marine litter, reef management, etc., which Vietnam contributes to
(e.g., sharing data on marine plastic sources).

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• ASEAN forums: Vietnam signed the Bangkok Declaration on Marine
Debris (2019) and supports the ASEAN Framework for Action on Marine
Debris . Regionally, Vietnam hosted an ASEAN Conference on marine
plastic in 2020, signaling leadership on the issue. In broader
environment, Vietnam engages in ASEAN Working Groups on water
resources and on coastal and marine environment.
• Mekong River Commission (MRC): For the Mekong basin, Vietnam is a
member (with Laos, Cambodia, Thailand) of the MRC, cooperating on
water quality monitoring and management of the Mekong’s resources.
One outcome is the MRC’s water quality monitoring program, which
tracks pollutants at points including near the Vietnam border, giving early
warning of any concerning trends.
• Bilateral cooperation: Vietnam has environment cooperation agreements
with neighbors China, Laos, Cambodia. For example, Vietnam and China
have a joint working group on environmental management for the Red
River and Beilun River, including information sharing on water
discharges. With Cambodia, Vietnam cooperates on managing
transboundary fisheries and water in the Mekong delta (e.g., joint patrols
to prevent illegal waste dumping across borders).
• Global commitments: Vietnam’s regional participation extends to fulfilling
obligations under global frameworks. For instance, as part of the
Stockholm Convention, Vietnam collaborated with neighboring countries
to eliminate certain POPs regionally. As a signatory to the Paris
Agreement on climate change, Vietnam’s efforts to reduce black carbon
and methane (some from waste management improvements) also
contribute to regional air and ocean quality indirectly.
This regional and international engagement benefits Vietnam by
providing technical support, funding (for example, the World Bank/GEF-
funded projects on reducing pollution often come through these
partnerships), and aligning Vietnam’s practices with global standards. It
also allows Vietnam to advocate its interests – such as pressing upstream
Mekong countries to consider downstream impacts, or pushing for
stronger regional action on plastics.
Vietnam’s proactive stance is illustrated by its hosting of the 2021 ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) workshop on marine environmental protection –
showing initiative in convening region-wide discussions on controlling
marine pollution.
In conclusion, Vietnam’s institutional interplay isn’t confined within its
borders; it actively engages in and benefits from regional cooperative
mechanisms. These partnerships enhance Vietnam’s capacity to handle
transboundary issues (like shared fish stocks, migrant marine species,
drifting pollution) and ensure that its national actions are complemented
by neighbors’ actions, leading to more effective overall outcomes.

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[Link] Gaps and Priority Challenges
Despite progress in policy and management, several gaps persist in Vietnam’s
efforts to manage land-based and marine pollution. Addressing these is crucial
for closing the implementation deficit between well-intentioned laws and on-the-
ground improvements. Key challenge areas include:
[Link].1. Institutional Arrangements
While the framework of responsible agencies exists, overlaps and inefficiencies
hamper performance. One gap is in integrated management: issues like coastal
water quality require multi-sector collaboration, but Vietnam’s institutions often
operate in silos. As noted, MAE leads environment, but influence over sectors
like transportation is limited. Institutional overlaps can cause confusion – e.g.,
who is accountable for river pollution although they are under MAE now. A more
unified watershed or coastal zone management institution could help; Vietnam
has ICM boards in some provinces, but not everywhere. There is also a gap in
decentralization vs. capacity: environmental management responsibilities have
been pushed to provinces (devolution per the LEP), but not all provinces have
the technical or financial capacity in DAE to effectively implement. This leads to
uneven enforcement – strong in cities like Da Nang, weaker in remote provinces
due to resource constraints.
Furthermore, data sharing and coordination mechanisms between agencies
need strengthening. For example, during an oil spill, Ministry of Transport, MAE,
and others coordinate via an ad-hoc committee – establishing permanent joint
task forces for recurring issues (like marine plastics) would institutionalize
coordination. Vietnam has some inter-sector committees (e.g., National
Committee on Climate Change that also touches on oceans, or river basin
organizations for a few rivers), but these need empowerment and resources.
Another institutional gap lies in local community involvement – while laws
mention community rights to be informed and to complain (the LEP 2020 even
allows communities to sue polluters under certain conditions ), in practice
communities sometimes are not effectively integrated into monitoring or
decision-making. Bridging that gap is important for transparency and early
detection of issues.
[Link].2 Implementation Gaps
Vietnam’s policies generally align with international standards, but
implementation lags in several areas:
• Technical Capacity: There’s a shortfall in technical expertise and
equipment for monitoring and treating pollution. Many cities lack sufficient
laboratories to test water quality frequently, or modern forecasting
systems for pollution risk (like predictive models for algal blooms). Skilled
personnel in fields like marine toxicology, environmental engineering, and
coastal modeling are in short supply, especially at local levels. While
donor projects have provided some training, retaining skilled staff in
government (versus going to private sector) is a challenge. For example,

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 environmental police and DONRE staff need continuous training in new
techniques (like using drones or satellite data to spot illegal dumping). A
shortage of qualified operators for wastewater treatment plants has also
been noted; some plants underperform because of operational skill gaps.
• Enforcement: Enforcement of pollution laws remains inconsistent. Fines
for violations have increased, but enforcement actions can be sporadic
and sometimes lenient, particularly if the polluter is a major employer.
There are reports that some companies would rather pay fines than invest
in treatment, if enforcement is infrequent. Also, detection of violations is
a challenge; Vietnam has relatively few environmental inspectors relative
to the number of potential sources. There’s also an issue of corruption in
enforcement (isolated cases where inspectors were bribed to overlook
violations, undermining rule of law). Strengthening enforcement means
more frequent inspections (surprise checks at night for factories known
to bypass treatment at off-hours), strict follow-up on mandated corrective
actions, and prosecutions where needed to deter egregious polluters.
The legal system has provisions for criminalizing severe pollution, but
actual prosecutions have been few – raising that might be needed to send
a message.
• Infrastructure and funding gaps: Many actions are not implemented due
to lack of funding. For example, building the required number of sewage
treatment plants in all coastal towns is an immense financial task. The
National Strategy on Environmental Protection mentions mobilizing
private investment, but incentives or frameworks (like viable wastewater
tariffs or PPP models) are still developing . Often, good plans remain on
paper (like a plan to collect and treat 100% of craft village wastewater by
X year) because budget isn’t allocated or projects stall.
• Public awareness and behavior: On ground-level implementation,
changing public behavior is crucial for issues like littering and waste
segregation. Despite campaigns, many citizens and businesses still
dump waste in canals or fail to comply with regulations (e.g., fish
processors sometimes flush blood and offal into rivers illegally). This
points to gaps in environmental education and engagement – while not
strictly enforcement, it’s part of the broad implementation challenge.
In summary, bridging the gap from policy to action requires boosting
technical know-how, consistent and fair enforcement (with strong political
backing to environmental authorities to act even against powerful
violators), and ensuring that necessary investments and maintenance for
pollution control infrastructure are made.
Specifically: lack of technical capacity can hinder tasks like pollutant source
tracing or managing complex emergencies, and weak enforcement means laws
on paper do not sufficiently deter polluters . Both must be strengthened for
meaningful improvement.
[Link].3 Data Scarcity: Validating Root Causes and Gaps

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A persistent challenge is the shortage of comprehensive, high-quality
environmental data to inform decisions. For instance, marine water quality
monitoring is limited in spatial and temporal coverage; the State of Environment
Report 2016-2020 itself noted data gaps in coastal monitoring . Without robust
data, pinpointing the worst problems and tracking progress is difficult. Specific
gaps:
• Pollutant loading and source data: How much nutrient flows from the Red
River each year? What is the exact contribution of aquaculture vs.
agriculture to nitrogen in a given bay? These require monitoring and
modeling that is currently patchy. Research exists in isolated studies
(e.g., some measurements in Red River Delta ) but an integrated
database or continuous monitoring is lacking.
• Marine ecosystem health indicators: Data on coral reef health, seagrass
extent, mangrove water quality filtering, etc., are collected by different
agencies or research institutes on irregular projects. A unified system
(like a periodic marine ecosystem assessment beyond just water
chemistry) would help identify sub-tidal habitat degradation not visible
from water samples alone.
• Pollution incident and chronic exposure data: There’s incomplete
documentation of smaller spills or discharge incidents and their impacts.
Often these are anecdotal or reported by media without systematic
compilation. Also, long-term health data linking to environmental
exposure (e.g., cancer clusters possibly related to water contamination)
is not well developed in Vietnam’s public health surveillance.
These data gaps mean management might not address root causes
effectively because of uncertainty – for example, if a fish kill happens,
sometimes agencies cannot conclusively identify the cause due to lack
of baseline data or timely samples, which hinders accountability and
learning to prevent future events.
Vietnam is moving toward better data collection – installing automatic
monitoring at industrial outfalls, participating in UNEP’s Global
Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) for water, and developing a
national environmental database under MAE. However, a lot of legacy
data is fragmented among ministries and provinces.
A particular gap is sharing of data: various ministries collect
environmental data (MAE on fisheries stocks, MAE on water quality,
MoH on disease incidence, etc.). Integrating these could provide powerful
insights (for example, correlating disease spikes with water quality
drops). There is a plan for an integrated coastal zone database being
worked on by MAE’s Dept of Sea and Islands to serve ICM needs.
Thus, a priority challenge is to improve environmental monitoring, data
management, and transparency. This will validate if measures taken are
working and clearly identify where further effort is needed, as well as
strengthen early warning for emerging issues (e.g., detection of new

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 contaminants like microplastics or PFAS requires research and data
collection which is currently minimal in Vietnam).
In conclusion, addressing data scarcity is a foundational task, as it
underpins evidence-based policy and helps to validate root causes of
problems (for instance, confirming through data that a certain river
contributes X% of pollutant load to a bay would validate targeting that
river’s catchment for interventions).
[Link].4 Financial Constraints
Finally, financial limitations pose a significant hurdle. Pollution control
infrastructure and programs demand substantial investment and long-term
maintenance:
• Wastewater treatment funding: It’s estimated Vietnam needs billions of
dollars to build sufficient urban wastewater treatment by 2030. Yet,
current budget allocations are not enough, and cost recovery through
tariffs is low. Many environmental projects rely on ODA loans/grants (e.g.,
World Bank loans for drainage in Can Tho or JICA support for HCMC
wastewater plant). Over-reliance on external funding could be risky if
priorities change.
• Solid waste management costs: Modernizing waste collection fleets,
constructing sanitary landfills or WtE plants, and implementing recycling
facilities all require capital and operational budgets. There is often a gap
between the calculated costs of proper waste management and the fees
that can be collected. For example, households pay only a small monthly
waste fee, which doesn’t cover full service costs . Without subsidization
or fee reform, cities struggle to upgrade waste services.
• Maintenance and operation: Even when infrastructure is built, ensuring
funds for continuous operation is a challenge. Some smaller towns have
had to shut down wastewater plants due to inability to pay electricity and
staff. Similarly, environmental monitoring (deploying patrol boats, running
labs) is costly and often underfunded, leading to infrequent sampling and
patchy enforcement presence.
• Economic pressures: Local governments sometimes prioritize immediate
economic development (jobs, tax revenue) over environmental spending,
particularly when budgets are tight. This can delay environmental
investments or lead to lax enforcement to not “scare off” investors. It’s a
systemic challenge to align sustainable financing mechanisms – like
green taxes, polluter pays schemes – to generate the funds needed.
Vietnam is trying new avenues like public-private partnerships (PPP) for
waste treatment (e.g., a PPP contract for Hanoi’s Soc Son WtE plant) ,
and implementing EPR whereby producers finance the recycling of
packaging . These could alleviate government burden if done well.
Also, international climate finance or pollution funds might be tapped; for
instance, to combat plastic pollution, Vietnam is receiving some

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 international climate/ocean funds due to the synergy with climate
adaptation (cleaner coasts are more resilient).
The gap remains, however: environmental spending as a proportion of
GDP in Vietnam is still relatively low (not public data easily, but anecdotal
evidence suggests it’s under 1%). Bridging this gap requires not only
more money but better use of money (efficiency, anti-corruption in project
execution).
Financial constraints thus slow the roll-out of necessary infrastructure
and reduce the scale or speed of response programs, leaving the country
vulnerable in the interim. Innovative financing – like environmental bonds
or cross-subsidies from polluting industries – could be explored to secure
more resources.
In summary, solving Vietnam’s coastal pollution challenges is not just
technical or administrative – it’s equally about finding the financial means
and economic models to sustain solutions. Without addressing the
funding gap, plans risk being under-implemented, perpetuating the
issues we’ve identified.
[Link] Recommended Priority Actions (with Emphasis on Regional
Cooperation)
To address the identified issues and gaps, a suite of priority actions is
recommended. These actions are aimed at preventing and reducing land-based
and marine pollution in Vietnam’s coastal waters, and many have the added
benefit of fostering regional cooperation given the transboundary nature of
pollution. Key priority actions include:
[Link].1 Infrastructure Investment
Accelerating investment in environmental infrastructure is foundational.
Vietnam should:
• Expand and upgrade wastewater treatment: Prioritize building
wastewater treatment plants in all major coastal cities and industrial hubs
by 2030, with interim solutions (e.g., modular or nature-based treatments)
for smaller towns. Seek innovative financing (green bonds, PPPs) to raise
capital . For example, construct additional plants in the Mekong Delta
towns to treat both domestic and aquaculture wastewater before it
reaches estuaries. Ensure new developments (industrial parks, tourism
zones) have requisite treatment systems upfront (enforce zero liquid
discharge or full treatment for new large resorts or IPs).
• Improve waste collection and disposal: Invest in modernizing waste
collection fleets (sealed trucks, separate collection vehicles for
recyclables/organics) and build regional sanitary landfills or waste-to-
energy facilities to eliminate open dumping . A practical goal is to close
or rehabilitate all substandard dumps (337 unsanitary sites ) within 5
years, replacing them with regulated facilities. This requires central
government funding support to poorer provinces. Meanwhile, ramp up

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 material recovery facilities (MRFs) in each province to reduce landfill
loads by sorting and recycling more waste.
• Green infrastructure: Where possible, invest in “green” solutions like
constructed wetlands for polishing wastewater in rural areas, mangrove
replanting as natural filters/buffers (plant mangroves along 70% of
Mekong coastal mudflats where erosion isn’t too severe, which also helps
trap pollutants) . These are cost-effective and climate-resilient. For
instance, expand mangrove rehabilitation programs in the Red River
delta (Xuan Thuy, etc.) to enhance nutrient uptake and shoreline stability.
• Monitoring and early warning systems: Invest in a national coastal water
quality monitoring network with real-time sensors at river mouths and key
marine sites. Tie this with an early warning system for red tides or
pollution incidents (perhaps using satellite imagery and modeling).
Regionally, share this data with neighbors – e.g., connect with China and
ASEAN partners on a East Vietnam Sea / South China Sea monitoring
initiative for timely alerts of cross-border pollution .
[Link].2 Strengthened Enforcement
Improve enforcement of existing regulations to ensure polluters are held
accountable and deter future violations:
• Increase inspection frequency and capacity: Expand the Environmental
Police unit and provincial inspector teams. Provide them with better tools
(drones to spot illegal discharges, portable water test kits). Surprise
inspections should particularly target known hotspots (industrial clusters
along Thi Vai, craft villages in Bac Ninh, etc.) at off-peak hours. Over the
next 3 years, aim to inspect all high-risk facilities (e.g., chemical plants,
large farms) at least once per year.
• Toughen penalties: Apply the full range of sanctions available, including
higher fines (updated via decree if needed to reflect true environmental
damage costs) and, where appropriate, suspension of operations for
recalcitrant polluters. Publicize enforcement actions to send a message.
For example, if a factory illegally dumps waste into a river, impose the
maximum fine and require it to pay cleanup costs and compensation to
affected communities (this is allowed under LEP).
• Judicial action: Encourage utilization of criminal provisions in severe
cases to prosecute environmental crimes. Train prosecutors and judges
on environmental law (with support from e.g. UNDP or ASEAN Judicial
forums). One landmark prosecution of a major polluter could greatly
boost compliance consciousness.
• Community monitoring and whistleblower support: Engage local
communities as eyes and ears. Implement hotlines and reward systems
for reporting violations leading to enforcement . Protect whistleblowers
legally to encourage inside reporting from industry workers about secret

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 pollution. Vietnam’s mass fish kill protests in 2016 show community will
act if government doesn’t; better to integrate them proactively.
Regionally, strengthened enforcement has a cooperative dimension: Vietnam
can share techniques and coordinate on transboundary enforcement (e.g., joint
patrols in border rivers for illegal dumping, joint crackdowns on vessels violating
MARPOL in the East Vietnam Sea / South China Sea with neighboring coast
guards) .
[Link].3 Watershed Management
Adopt an integrated watershed and coastal zone management approach to
tackle pollution at source:
• Upstream pollution control: Work with MARD and provincial authorities to
reduce agricultural runoff. Promote best management practices (BMPs)
in agriculture: precision fertilizer application, organic farming, riparian
buffer strips . Aim to cut chemical fertilizer use by, say, 10% in 5 years in
key basins (Red River, Mekong) through education and subsidies for
organic alternatives. Expand biogas digesters and waste treatment in
livestock farms to curb manure runoff. For aquaculture, enforce effluent
treatment ponds in shrimp farms and encourage more closed-loop
systems (recirculating aquaculture) to reduce discharges.
• River basin committees: Strengthen or establish inter-provincial river
basin organizations (RBOs) for major rivers (existing for Dong Nai,
planned for Red River) with real power to set effluent load limits and
coordinate pollution control among provinces. Use these bodies to
implement a “pollutant load reduction plan” for each basin, based on
scientific analysis of how much reduction is needed to achieve water
quality goals downstream.
• Protect and restore natural filters: Conserve wetlands, floodplains, and
forests in watersheds that naturally trap sediments and pollutants.
Implement reforestation in critical hillslopes to reduce erosion (e.g., in
central Vietnam steep watersheds feeding sediment into coastal
lagoons). Restoration of mangroves and estuarine wetlands, as
mentioned, also fits here as part of integrated watershed-to-coast
planning .
• Transboundary cooperation: Continue and enhance dialogue with
upstream countries (China for Red, Lancang-Mekong Cooperation for
Mekong) to manage water quality. Possibly propose a joint Mekong water
quality agreement that includes regular data sharing and commitment to
pollution reduction. Also engage in the new “Asean Working Group on
Water Resources Management” to align watershed efforts regionally.
Effective watershed management will drastically cut land-based pollutant entry
into coastal waters, tackling problems at their roots.

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[Link].4 Circular Economy and Waste Reduction
Accelerate the shift to a circular economy to address waste at all stages:
• Implement Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Under new
regulations, ensure producers of packaging, electronics, etc., finance or
organize the collection and recycling of their products . Set clear targets
(e.g., producers must recycle 50% of packaging they put out by 2025,
rising thereafter). This will reduce plastic and hazardous waste leakage.
Already, the formation of a Packaging Recycling Organization Vietnam
(PRO Vietnam) is a step; support and monitor such initiatives for efficacy.
• Promote eco-design and substitution: Encourage industries to redesign
products to use less material and less toxic material. For example,
promote alternatives to single-use plastics (like biodegradable materials
or reuse systems). Vietnam’s upcoming ban on certain single-use
plastics by 2025 should be reinforced by helping businesses adopt
alternatives and by education campaigns to change consumer behavior
(bring your own bag, etc.).
• Waste reduction campaigns: Launch national and local campaigns akin
to “Zero Waste Cities” model. For instance, start with pilot cities or
communities that commit to reducing waste generation per capita by X%.
Provide them with technical assistance (composting at source, etc.). Da
Nang or Hoi An might be good pilots given their tourism interest in being
seen as green.
• Recycling and market development: Develop markets for recycled
materials to ensure economic viability. This can include government
procurement policies favoring recycled content (for example, use
recycled plastic in public works where suitable). Also, invest in modern
recycling facilities to improve efficiency and output quality, making
recycled goods more competitive.
• Upgrading informal sector integration: Assist informal waste pickers to
formalize into cooperatives or social enterprises, so they can be
supported (with microcredit, better equipment, safety training) and linked
into the municipal waste management chain as legitimate recycling
service providers, which can significantly boost recycling rates and
livelihoods.
By embracing circular economy practices, Vietnam will reduce the total volume
of waste that could pollute the environment, thereby easing the burden on end-
of-pipe solutions and turning waste into economic resources.
[Link].5 Collaborative Governance
Foster collaborative governance models both domestically and internationally:
• Multi-stakeholder involvement: Form environmental management boards
or committees that include government agencies, local communities,
businesses, and NGOs for key areas (e.g., a committee for Ha Long Bay

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 management or the Mekong Delta coastal management). Such platforms
ensure each stakeholder’s perspective is heard and responsibilities
shared. For example, industries could voluntarily commit to targets in
these forums beyond compliance (CSR initiatives to clean local beaches,
etc.).
• Regional and international cooperation: Continue to strengthen ties with
ASEAN, MRC, PEMSEA, etc., as noted, but move from planning to joint
actions. For instance, initiate a Gulf of Tonkin Environmental Partnership
with China to jointly manage that semi-enclosed sea’s environment –
actions could include coordinated oil spill response drills, or synched
seasonal fishing and pollution control measures (like both countries not
discharging dredge spoils in sensitive period). Similarly, push within
ASEAN for a regional agreement on plastic pollution akin to the model of
the Bonn Agreement for oil spills in Europe.
• Capacity building through partnerships: Use collaborative networks to
build capacity – e.g., twinning of Vietnamese coastal cities with cities
abroad that have good practices. Danang could partner with, say, San
Francisco (for zero waste strategies) or Nha Trang with Australia’s Great
Barrier Reef authorities (for reef management under tourism).
• Public participation and transparency: Foster a culture of collaboration
with the public by enhancing transparency (publish pollution data online
in near real-time – an effort already started with some air quality data,
extend to water quality). Citizens can only effectively participate if
informed; thus, publish an annual “State of the Coasts” report accessible
to the general public, highlighting progress and setbacks.
• Pollution incident cooperation: On transboundary emergency response,
formalize agreements (like the recently approved National Plan for oil
spills can be supplemented by MoUs with other ASEAN states to assist
each other with equipment if a big spill occurs). Also, join global initiatives
such as the Global Ghost Gear Initiative (GGGI) to tackle abandoned
fishing gear, which is a cross-border marine debris issue – collaboration
can yield shared best practices for gear retrieval and prevention.
By employing collaborative governance, Vietnam will ensure that solutions are
more holistic, accepted by stakeholders, and effectively implemented. The
complexity of land-based and marine pollution requires such cooperation – no
single entity can solve it alone. Emphasizing partnerships and co-management
can fill institutional and resource gaps by pooling knowledge, effort, and funds.
In conclusion, implementing these priority actions – investing in infrastructure,
tightening enforcement, managing pollution at the watershed level, advancing
circular economy, and enhancing collaborative governance – will significantly
mitigate pollution in Vietnam’s coastal waters. It will also demonstrate Vietnam’s
commitment to regional leadership in marine environmental protection,
reinforcing cooperative efforts that amplify the impact of Vietnam’s own
measures. These actions align with national goals for a “blue economy” and

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sustainable coastal development, ensuring that Vietnam’s marine resources
can support prosperity for generations to come.
3.3 Methodology and Analysis
The methodology underpinning this technical report combines qualitative and
quantitative approaches to analyze pollution status and management in
Vietnam’s coastal waters from 2020 to present. It draws on a variety of data
sources and analytical frameworks to ensure a comprehensive and evidence-
based evaluation.
3.3.1 Analytical Approach
This assessment employs a DPSIR framework – Driver, Pressure, State,
Impact, Response – to systematically examine the pollution issue . Under this
model:
• Drivers (socio-economic causes, e.g., urbanization, industrialization,
population growth in coastal areas) are identified as underlying factors
increasing pollution loads.
• Pressures (direct pollutant releases, e.g., discharge of untreated
wastewater, solid waste dumping, agricultural runoff) are quantified
where possible. We compiled recent statistics (2020 onward) on waste
generation, effluent volumes, etc., from government reports and
academic studies.
• State refers to the condition of the environment. We reviewed monitoring
data on coastal water quality parameters (DO, nutrient concentrations,
coliform counts, etc.) and ecological indicators (e.g., coral reef cover,
seagrass extent) to gauge environmental health. Data sources included
Vietnam’s national State of the Environment Report 2016–2020 ,
research articles (many from 2020–2024 to capture latest findings), and
regional datasets (COBSEA, MRC water quality data).
• Impacts on ecosystems, health, and economy were evaluated by
integrating field data (like fish kill reports, contamination levels in seafood
) with socio-economic information (fisheries statistics, tourism revenue,
health records of disease outbreaks). We also used case studies (e.g.,
the 2016 Ha Tinh fish kill incident, recent microplastic studies) to illustrate
cause-effect relationships.
• Responses (policy and management interventions) were analyzed by
reviewing legal documents, government plans, and project outcomes. We
looked at 2020–2025 policy updates such as the new Law on
Environmental Protection (2020) and the National Action Plan on Marine
Plastic Debris, assessing their implementation status via government
progress reports and stakeholder interviews (when available from
literature or news sources).
Geospatial analysis was used to map hotspots; for instance, GIS data on land
use and discharge points helped correlate heavy pollution zones with upstream

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sources. Temporal analysis (pre-2020 vs. post-2020) was done where data
allowed, to detect recent trends (improvements or deteriorations) in pollutant
levels and ecosystem health. Given the recency focus, much data came from
2020–2024 publications and monitoring, ensuring the report reflects current
conditions.
We also applied a risk assessment lens to identify and prioritize issues by
severity and likelihood, as presented in section 2.3.3. This involved expert
judgment and, where available, modeling outcomes (for example, oil spill
trajectory modeling results from PEMSEA and others to judge transboundary
risk ).
The approach is inherently interdisciplinary, combining natural science (marine
ecology, hydrology, chemistry) with social science (policy analysis, economics).
Triangulation of evidence was key: we cross-verified information from different
sources. For instance, if official data said a wastewater treatment rate was X%,
we checked it against any independent audits or project evaluations to confirm
reliability. Divergences (like differing estimates of plastic waste generation ) are
noted and reasoned through in the text.
Furthermore, stakeholder perspectives (government, community, industry)
were considered via secondary sources – e.g., media interviews with officials
or community leaders were used to gauge enforcement challenges and public
sentiment. While no primary surveys were conducted for this report due to its
scope, reliance on up-to-date literature and reported stakeholder inputs gave a
balanced view.
3.3.2 Validation
The information and conclusions in this report have been validated through
multiple means:
• Use of credible sources: We prioritized official publications ((NOW
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT - MAE)’s reports ,
MARD statistics, international organizations’ studies) and peer-reviewed
journal articles for data points. Each critical fact is sourced from reliable
references (as evidenced by the numerous citations).
• Cross-referencing data: Important metrics (e.g., “23 million tons of
household waste annually” ) were cross-checked against more than one
source to ensure consistency. If discrepancies arose, we investigated
likely reasons (different years, definitions) and chose the most current or
authoritative figure.
• Expert consultation (indirect): Although this report didn’t involve direct
interviews, it leverages works by experts. For example, the section on
coral reef loss cites a study by coral ecologist Dr. K.S. Tkachenko (2021)
, which itself went through scientific peer validation. Similarly, many data
points on waste and water quality come from World Bank or UN reports
that underwent their own validation processes.

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 • Logical consistency checks: We examined whether trends and impacts
described align logically (does the described impact follow from the
pressure given known science?). For instance, if nutrient levels are high
and reports of algal blooms exist, that is consistent. We flagged any
anomalies (none major were found beyond normal variance).
• Comparative benchmarking: Where possible, we compared Vietnam’s
data with regional figures to sense-check. E.g., Vietnam’s plastic waste
mismanagement (some older studies) was compared to similar
economies to ensure our statements on Vietnam being a top marine
plastic source are valid .
• Feedback from existing reviews: The State of Environment Report 2016–
2020 underwent review by Vietnam’s scientific council; its findings (e.g.,
identification of continuing complex pollution at craft villages ) were taken
as validated by that process.
• Triangulating qualitative judgments: For risk and priority actions,
validation came from observing convergence in recommendations across
sources. The recommended actions in section 2.3.6 echo suggestions
from multiple policy papers (UNEP, World Bank, ADB) – indicating
consensus on their validity.
All analysis steps and assertions have been traced to sources via citations in
the report to enable readers to verify claims (the references list at the end
provides full details for transparency and further validation). Limitations in
available data are openly acknowledged (e.g., noting data gaps in water quality
monitoring), which is part of validating that conclusions are drawn within the
constraints of evidence.
3.3.3 Limitations
While comprehensive, this study has certain limitations:
• Data limitations: As noted, consistent time-series data for some
parameters (especially post-2020) are lacking. The COVID-19 pandemic
in 2020–2021 also disrupted some field monitoring (e.g., fewer surveys
in those years), potentially limiting data recency for certain indicators. We
mitigated this by using 2022–2024 studies wherever available (for
example, 2023 papers on Ha Long Bay water quality ).
• Scope of pollution types: The focus is broad (nutrients, solid waste,
hazardous chemicals, oil, etc.). Some emerging contaminants like
microplastics or pharmaceuticals, which have fewer studies in Vietnam
yet, may not be quantified in detail. We included discussion qualitatively
but could not deeply analyze their state due to limited data. This means
the report may understate those if they turn out to be significant.
• Attribution of impact: In complex ecosystems, attributing an impact solely
to pollution is challenging. Coral reefs, for example, are also affected by
ocean warming and overfishing. We have tried to attribute conservatively
(stating pollution as a contributing factor among others and citing

136
 evidence for it ). Nevertheless, there is some uncertainty in impact
assessment as multiple stressors interplay.
• Geographical balance: Vietnam’s coastline is long; data coverage is
uneven (more in developed areas, less in remote coasts). Our analysis
might emphasize areas like the Red River Delta, central tourist zones,
and HCMC/Mekong Delta where data abound, whereas some northern
central provinces or minor islands get less mention. The assumption is
issues there are analogous to similar contexts covered.
• Policy implementation analysis: We reviewed written policies and
anecdotal reports of enforcement, but a full audit of implementation
effectiveness was beyond scope. Thus our evaluation of management
effectiveness is qualitative, relying on reported outcomes or lack thereof
(e.g., noting that despite laws, wastewater treatment is still only ~15% in
urban areas ). There could be on-ground progress not captured in
publications yet.
• Future projections: The report largely assesses current and past trends;
forecasting future scenario (e.g., how climate change will exactly alter
pollution dispersion) was limited. Risk assessment qualitatively
addresses plausible futures but not with quantitative modeling due to
resource constraints.
• Regional factors: We assume continued regional cooperation but political
or economic changes regionally (e.g., if upstream countries build more
dams or loosen environmental regs) could alter transboundary pollutant
flows beyond what current agreements mitigate. This uncertainty is hard
to fully incorporate except to stress cooperation need.
Acknowledging these limitations ensures a cautious interpretation of findings.
Where data or knowledge gaps exist, we recommended measures in section
2.3.5 (like improved monitoring, research). This report should thus be seen as
a robust but not infallible basis for action; adaptive management is advised,
where strategies are refined as more data become available or as conditions
evolve (particularly with climate change impacts accelerating).
Continued research and periodic reassessment (for example, a follow-up
evaluation in 2025 or 2030 with fresh data) are recommended to update findings
and adjust recommendations accordingly, ensuring Vietnam’s pollution
management remains effective and evidence-based over time.

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References
Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2021). Vietnam Environment, Climate
Change, and Disaster Risk Management Report. Manila: ADB.
Ha, H.T. & Chu, N.D. (2021). “Marine plastic debris in Vietnam: Overview of
policies and implementation.” Journal of Vietnamese Environment, 13(1), 12-
21.
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment ((NOW MINISTRY OF
AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT - MAE)) (2022). National State of
Environment Report 2016–2020 (in Vietnamese). Hanoi: MAEPublishing.
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment ((NOW MINISTRY OF
AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT - MAE)) (2020). Law on Environmental
Protection 2020 (No. 72/2020/QH14). Hanoi.
Nguyen, K.A. et al. (2023). “Coastal water quality and carrying capacity in Ha
Long Bay, Vietnam: Impacts of tourism and pandemic slowdown.” Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 186, 114402.
Partnership in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA)
(2018). State of the Coasts of Viet Nam: Managing Pollution and Preserving
Ecosystem Services. PEMSEA, Quezon City.
Tkachenko, K. et al. (2021). “Extensive coral reef declines in Nha Trang Bay,
Vietnam: Acanthaster planci outbreak as final event in a sequence of
disturbances.” Marine and Freshwater Research, 72(9), 1353-1367.
Vietnam Administration of Seas and Islands (VASI) & COBSEA (2021). National
Action Plan on Marine Plastic Debris Management (2020–2030). Hanoi: (NOW
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT - MAE).
Vietnam Maritime Administration (2020). “Report on implementation of
MARPOL and oil spill response capacity.” Presented at ASEAN Maritime
Transport Working Group Meeting, Bangkok.
World Bank (2022). Vietnam: Solid and Industrial Waste Management
Assessment. Washington, DC: World Bank
(Additional references used for this report are to be added further)

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CHAPTER 4. ECOSYSTEMS
4.1. Key findings
Vietnam's coastal and marine ecosystems represent critically important natural
assets that provide essential ecological services supporting millions of
livelihoods while contributing significantly to national climate resilience
objectives. This comprehensive assessment synthesizes the current status of
three interconnected blue carbon ecosystems: mangrove forests, seagrass
meadows, and coral reef systems, drawing upon extensive field surveys,
remote sensing analyses, and institutional data spanning multiple decades.
The national mangrove estate encompasses approximately 168,538 hectares
as of 2019, representing a 7.3% net decline from the 1995 baseline of 181,724
hectares. This aggregate trend, however, masks substantial regional
heterogeneity. The Mekong Delta provinces collectively harbor approximately
80% of national mangrove coverage, with Ca Mau Province alone maintaining
55,743 hectares representing the largest contiguous mangrove formation in the
country. Critically, between 2016 and 2020, several provinces demonstrated
recovery trajectories, including Soc Trang with 25.1% expansion and Bac Lieu
with 20.8% gains, attributable to coordinated restoration initiatives. Conversely,
Ba Ria Vung Tau experienced catastrophic losses of 40.8%, driven by severe
coastal erosion processes.
Seagrass ecosystems present a more concerning trajectory, with national
coverage estimated at approximately 17,000 hectares distributed across
fourteen species assemblages. Historical analyses indicate that seagrass
extent has declined by more than 50% since baseline surveys in the 1990s, with
particularly severe losses documented in the Tam Giang-Cau Hai Lagoon
system where coverage contracted from 2,450 hectares in 1999 to
approximately 1,000 hectares by recent assessments, representing a 60%
reduction. Phu Quoc Island retains the largest seagrass formation at 10,063
hectares, providing critical foraging habitat for endangered dugong populations.
Coral reef systems span the Vietnamese coastline from the Gulf of Tonkin to
the Gulf of Thailand, supporting more than 340 Scleractinia species.
Contemporary condition assessments reveal substantial degradation, with only
1.4% of surveyed reefs exhibiting excellent condition (greater than 75% live
coral cover) while 37.3% are classified as poor (less than 25% cover). The Nha
Trang Bay case study illustrates the extreme spatial heterogeneity of reef
conditions, with offshore sites maintaining up to 75% coral cover while
nearshore localities adjacent to river discharge and dredging operations exhibit
cover values as low as 0.6%, representing a virtual elimination of reef structure.
Blue carbon stocks within Vietnamese mangrove systems are estimated at 844
to 889 Mg C per hectare of total ecosystem carbon, with national climate
mitigation potential of 4.41 million tonnes CO2 equivalent for the 2021-2030
period under current policy frameworks. The economic valuation of ecosystem
services, while subject to substantial methodological uncertainty, indicates
mean values of USD 4,185 per hectare per year for mangrove systems,
encompassing fisheries support, coastal protection, and carbon sequestration
functions.
Governance arrangements for coastal ecosystems remain fragmented across
the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development for forest management, the
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment for marine protection, and
Provincial People's Committees for land-use planning and enforcement. The
Marine Protected Area system currently encompasses twenty designated sites
with proposals to expand to thirty, yet implementation effectiveness remains
constrained by insufficient funding, enforcement capacity deficits, and
continued incursion of destructive fishing practices.
4.2. Current Status by Ecosystem and by Indicator
4.2.1 Mangroves and Coastal Wetlands
[Link] National Extent and Temporal Dynamics
Vietnam's mangrove forests constitute a nationally significant natural resource
distributed along approximately 3,260 kilometers of coastline. Comprehensive
remote sensing analysis utilizing Landsat satellite imagery processed through
the Google Earth Engine platform reveals that national mangrove extent totaled
168,538 hectares in 2019, representing the culmination of complex
spatiotemporal dynamics over the preceding quarter century. Comparison with
the 1995 baseline of 181,724 hectares indicates a net reduction of 13,186
hectares, equivalent to a 7.3% decline over the 24-year assessment period.
However, this aggregate trajectory masks substantial intra-period variability.
Between 1995 and 2010, mangrove area declined to 156,667 hectares,
representing a loss of 25,057 hectares or 13.8% contraction. The subsequent
2010-2019 period witnessed partial recovery, with net gains of 11,871 hectares
representing 7.6% expansion. This reversal reflects the implementation of
national restoration policies, enhanced legal protections, and the maturation of
planted forests established in earlier decades. The temporal pattern
underscores both the vulnerability of mangrove systems to anthropogenic
pressures and their capacity for recovery when appropriate management
interventions are sustained.
[Link] Zonal Distribution and Characteristics
Vietnam's mangrove distribution exhibits pronounced latitudinal zonation
reflecting underlying gradients in climate, hydrology, and geomorphology. The
national territory can be disaggregated into four principal biogeographic zones,
each characterized by distinctive mangrove assemblages and management
challenges.
Table 1: Zonal Distribution of Mangrove Area (1995-2019)

Zone 1995 (ha) 2010 (ha) 2019 (ha) Change (%)

I. Northeast (NE) 31,038 19,752 20,486 -34.0%

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 II. Red River Delta (RD) 12,637 11,477 14,127 +11.8%
III. Central Coast (CC) 7,681 2,571 2,508 -67.3%
IV. Mekong Delta 130,368 122,867 131,417 +0.8%
(SE+SW)
National Total 181,724 156,667 168,538 -7.3%

Source: Pham Hong Tinh et al. (2022), Landsat/GEE analysis

Figure 1 illustrates the uneven spatial distribution of these forests, highlighting
the two primary centers of concentration: the extensive Mekong Delta system
in the south and the notable mangrove formations in the Hai Phong - Quang
Ninh area in the north.

FIGURE 1: SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF MANGROVE FORESTS ALONG THE COAST OF

VIETNAM.
Note: The map highlights the significant density of mangrove cover (green)

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Zone I (Northeast Region) encompasses the complex karst geomorphology of
Quang Ninh Province, including Ha Long Bay and Bai Tu Long Bay. This region
experienced severe losses between 1995 and 2010, with area declining from
31,038 to 19,752 hectares, representing a 36.4% reduction. The subsequent
period showed modest recovery to 20,486 hectares by 2019. Environmental
conditions in this zone are characterized by the northeast monsoon influence,
substantial tidal amplitude variation, and highly indented coastlines creating
diverse microhabitats.
Zone II (Red River Delta) represents the prograding deltaic system of the Thai
Binh and Red River systems. Mangrove area in this zone increased from 12,637
hectares in 1995 to 14,127 hectares in 2019, representing an 11.8% net
expansion. This positive trajectory reflects successful restoration efforts
initiated in the 1990s, particularly in Thai Binh Province where 1,399 hectares
of planted forests have matured. Historical records indicate that Nam Dinh
Province experienced approximately 63% conversion of original mangrove
extent to shrimp ponds by 2001, yet subsequent policy interventions have
partially reversed these losses.
Zone III (Central Coast) exhibits the most severe proportional decline, with
mangrove area contracting from 7,681 hectares in 1995 to merely 2,508
hectares by 2019, representing a 67.3% reduction. This zone experiences the
narrowest coastal plains, highest wave energy exposure, and most intensive
infrastructure development pressures. Analysis of 263 documented coastal
erosion sites indicates that geomorphic constraints severely limit restoration
potential in many localities. Infrastructure development accounts for 21.2% of
conversions in this zone, substantially exceeding the national average of 9.4%.
Zone IV (Mekong Delta, combining Southeast and Southwest subzones)
harbors approximately 78% of national mangrove coverage and exhibited net
stability over the assessment period, declining from 130,368 hectares to
122,867 hectares between 1995 and 2010 before recovering to 131,417
hectares by 2019. This region benefits from optimal hydrological conditions
supplied by the Mekong and Dong Nai river systems, extensive deltaic sediment
deposition, and relatively lower infrastructure development pressures
compared to northern regions.
[Link] Provincial-Level Analysis: Mekong Delta
Disaggregated analysis of the Mekong Delta provinces reveals substantial
heterogeneity in mangrove dynamics between 2016 and 2020, reflecting
differential exposure to anthropogenic pressures and natural hazards, as well
as varying effectiveness of provincial management interventions.
Table 2: Mekong Delta Provincial Mangrove Changes (2016-2020)
Province 2016 (ha) 2020 (ha) Change (ha) Change (%)
Ca Mau 53,924 55,743 +1,819 +3.4%
Ho Chi Minh City 33,029 32,404 -625 -1.9%
(Can Gio)

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 Soc Trang 5,506 6,889 +1,383 +25.1%
Bac Lieu 2,905 3,510 +605 +20.8%
Ba Ria Vung Tau 2,790 1,652 -1,138 -40.8%
Kien Giang 5,417 5,234 -183 -3.4%
Ben Tre 4,770 5,069 +299 +6.3%
Tra Vinh 3,247 2,721 -526 -16.2%
Tien Giang 1,617 1,763 +146 +9.0%
Source: Pham Thu Thuy et al. (2022), CIFOR Working Paper
Ca Mau Province maintains the largest provincial mangrove estate, expanding
from 53,924 to 55,743 hectares between 2016 and 2020, representing a 3.4%
increase. District-level analysis within Ca Mau reveals that Ngoc Hien District
accounts for the largest absolute gains, expanding from 32,039 to 34,093
hectares, a 6.4% increase attributable to successful coastal restoration projects
supported by international development partners. Nam Can District similarly
exhibited positive trajectories with 3.1% expansion. Conversely, Dam Doi
District experienced a 7.1% decline from 5,506 to 5,115 hectares, while Tran
Van Thoi District suffered severe losses of 22.4%, from 1,136 to 882 hectares,
driven by intensified coastal erosion.
The Can Gio Mangrove Biosphere Reserve in Ho Chi Minh City, designated as
a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 2000, experienced a modest 1.9% decline
from 33,029 to 32,404 hectares. This slight contraction reflects ongoing
pressures from urban expansion and infrastructure development despite formal
protection status. The Reserve encompasses approximately 75,740 hectares
total area including buffer zones, with the core mangrove forest representing a
critical ecological corridor connecting the Dong Nai River system to the South
China Sea.
The most alarming provincial trajectory is observed in Ba Ria Vung Tau, where
mangrove area contracted catastrophically from 2,790 to 1,652 hectares,
representing a 40.8% loss over merely four years. This dramatic decline is
attributed to severe coastal erosion processes exacerbated by upstream
hydrological modifications and the intensification of extreme weather events
associated with climate change. Similarly, Tra Vinh Province experienced a
16.2% reduction from 3,247 to 2,721 hectares, reflecting ongoing conversion
pressures and coastal erosion.
Positive trajectories in Soc Trang (25.1% increase) and Bac Lieu (20.8%
increase) provinces demonstrate the potential for mangrove recovery when
restoration initiatives are sustained and coordinated with community-based
management approaches. These provinces have implemented integrated
coastal zone management frameworks that balance aquaculture development
with mangrove conservation objectives, achieving measurable rehabilitation
outcomes.
Table 2b: Ca Mau Province District-Level Mangrove Changes (2016-2020)
District 2016 (ha) 2020 (ha) Change (ha) Change (%)

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 Ngoc Hien 32,039 34,093 +2,054 +6.4%
Nam Can 11,845 12,216 +371 +3.1%
Dam Doi 5,506 5,115 -391 -7.1%
Phu Tan 2,930 3,059 +129 +4.4%
Tran Van Thoi 1,136 882 -254 -22.4%
U Minh 468 378 -90 -19.2%
Source: Pham Thu Thuy et al. (2022), CIFOR Working Paper
District-level analysis within Ca Mau Province reveals substantial intra-
provincial heterogeneity in mangrove dynamics. Ngoc Hien District, located at
the southernmost tip of the Mekong Delta, accounts for the majority of Ca Mau's
mangrove estate and exhibited the largest absolute gains, expanding from
32,039 to 34,093 hectares between 2016 and 2020, representing a 6.4%
increase. This positive trajectory reflects successful implementation of large-
scale restoration projects supported by international development partners
including GIZ, USAID, and the World Bank, combined with community-based
forest protection agreements that provide livelihood incentives for mangrove
conservation.
Conversely, Tran Van Thoi District experienced severe losses of 22.4%,
contracting from 1,136 to 882 hectares over the four-year period. This decline
is attributed primarily to intensified coastal erosion along the western coastline,
where sediment deficits and altered wave dynamics have undermined forest
stability. Similarly, U Minh District lost 19.2% of its mangrove coverage,
declining from 468 to 378 hectares. These districts face the dual challenges of
erosion pressure and conversion pressure for aquaculture expansion, requiring
integrated management approaches that address both natural and
anthropogenic drivers.
[Link] Species Composition and Floristic Assemblages
Vietnamese mangrove ecosystems support diverse floristic assemblages
exhibiting pronounced latitudinal differentiation. The southern Mekong Delta
region harbors the highest species richness, with dominant assemblages
including Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguiera cylindrica,
Bruguiera parviflora, Avicennia alba, Avicennia officinalis, and Sonneratia alba.
These species are largely restricted to southern latitudes, benefiting from year-
round warm temperatures and reduced seasonal variation.
Northern mangrove assemblages exhibit distinct floristic composition reflecting
lower minimum temperatures and more pronounced seasonality. Characteristic
species include Myoporum bontioides and Scaevola hainanensis, which are
adapted to the subtropical climate regime of the Gulf of Tonkin. The transitional
Central Coast zone exhibits intermediate species composition with reduced
overall diversity attributable to narrower coastal plains and higher wave energy
exposure.
Restoration programs in the Red River Delta have historically emphasized
Rhizophora stylosa, Kandelia candel, and Sonneratia caseolaris, species

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selected for their tolerance to the more challenging environmental conditions of
northern Vietnam including occasional frost exposure and higher turbidity
regimes. In contrast, southern restoration efforts predominantly utilize
Rhizophora apiculata due to its rapid growth rates, high survival under ambient
conditions, and substantial timber value.
[Link] Drivers of Mangrove Change
Analysis of land-use transition matrices reveals that aquaculture expansion
constitutes the dominant driver of mangrove conversion nationally, accounting
for 43.4% of observed losses. This driver exhibits substantial regional variation,
with the Red River Delta zone recording 54.6% of conversions attributable to
aquaculture, while the Central Coast zone recorded 42.3% and the Southwest
zone 45.4%.
Table 3: Proportional Contribution of Land-Use Transition Drivers by Zone
(%)
Driver NE RD CC SE SW Nation
Aquaculture 47.6 54.6 42.3 37.4 45.4 43.4
Agriculture 14.6 12.6 14.1 29.1 24.7 24.8
Infrastructure 15.0 15.8 21.2 11.6 6.3 9.4
Coastal 5.5 7.9 5.6 12.3 21.2 16.3
erosion
Bare land 14.7 5.9 12.7 6.7 1.5 4.1
Other 2.6 3.2 4.1 2.9 0.9 2.0
Source: Pham Hong Tinh et al. (2022). NE=Northeast, RD=Red River Delta,
CC=Central Coast, SE=Southeast, SW=Southwest
Agricultural conversion represents the second-largest driver at 24.8%
nationally, with particularly high proportional contribution in the Southeast
(29.1%) and Southwest (24.7%) zones where rice cultivation and mixed farming
systems compete directly with mangrove habitat. Infrastructure development
accounts for 9.4% of conversions nationally but reaches 21.2% in the Central
Coast zone, reflecting intensive port, industrial, and urban development along
this narrow coastal corridor.
Coastal erosion and inundation (transition to water body) emerges as an
increasingly significant driver, particularly in the Southwest zone where it
accounts for 21.2% of observed losses. This pattern reflects the intensification
of extreme weather events, sea-level rise impacts, and altered sediment
dynamics resulting from upstream dam construction and channel modifications
throughout the Mekong basin.
[Link] Blue Carbon Stocks and Climate Mitigation Potential
Vietnamese mangrove ecosystems harbor substantial carbon stocks with
significant climate change mitigation potential. Ecosystem carbon density
estimates range from 844 to 889 Mg C per hectare when accounting for above-
ground biomass, below-ground root biomass, and soil organic carbon pools to

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depths of one meter. Above-ground biomass stocks range from 70 to 150
tonnes per hectare depending on forest age, species composition, and site
conditions.
Under Vietnam's Nationally Determined Contribution framework and associated
policy instruments, the national climate mitigation potential from mangrove
restoration is estimated at 4.41 million tonnes CO2 equivalent for the 2021-2030
planning period. Decision 770/QD-TTg established adjusted targets of 21,600
hectares for new mangrove plantation during 2021-2025, building upon
previous commitments under Decision 120/QD-TTg which aimed to protect
310,695 hectares, rehabilitate 9,602 hectares, and plant 46,058 hectares by
2020.
The substantial carbon values underscore the economic justification for
mangrove conservation within both national and international climate finance
frameworks. However, realizing this potential requires addressing persistent
monitoring gaps, including the absence of systematic survival rate tracking for
restoration projects and limited verification of carbon accumulation rates under
varying site conditions.
4.2.2 Seagrass Ecosystems
[Link] Introduction and Global Context
Seagrasses are marine angiosperms that recolonized the marine habitat
approximately 100 million years ago during at least three independent
evolutionary events. These foundation species are found along thousands of
kilometers of sedimentary shorelines ranging from tropical to temperate
regions, occurring in diverse aquatic conditions including hypersaline, marine,
or brackish water at estuarine, nearshore, subtidal, and intertidal environments.
Seagrasses provide essential ecosystem services including oxygen production,
habitat provision for marine fauna, nutrient recycling, and carbon sequestration,
representing one of the most significant natural carbon sinks on Earth.
Globally, seagrass populations are suffering alarming decline driven by
pressures linked directly to human activities including ocean warming, coastal
modification, and water quality degradation. Seagrasses are disappearing at a
rate of approximately 110 km² per year, with 29% of the total world seagrass
population lost between 1980 and 2006. In the Southeast Asian region, recent
analyses indicate that more than 60% of seagrass meadows have declined at
an average rate of 10.9% per year, while only 20% of beds increased at an
average rate of 8.1% per year, yielding an overall average decline of 4.7% per
year across the region.
Vietnam is located in the central part of Southeast Asia, recognized as the
evolutionary origin center of seagrasses. The country encompasses three
seagrass ecoregions including the Gulf of Tonkin (N020112), Gulf of Thailand
(N020115), and southern Vietnam (N020116). Vietnam's exceptionally long
latitudinal coastline of 3,260 kilometers, spanning from Mong Cai (21°31'N) in
the north to Ha Tien (10°22'N) in the south, covers cool to warm water

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environments, resulting in high seagrass species diversity and substantial
intraspecific plasticity.
[Link] National Extent and Temporal Dynamics
The total seagrass area in Vietnam was estimated to cover approximately
29,162 hectares in 1990. Contemporary assessments indicate a current
distribution of approximately 15,613 hectares across 28 coastal provinces,
representing a catastrophic decline of 46.5% or loss of 13,549 hectares over
approximately three decades. This decline has occurred across almost all
regions of Vietnam, with increases observed only in a few protected and
difficult-to-reach areas where reduced anthropogenic pressure has enabled
natural recovery or where active protection measures have been implemented.
The Vietnamese coastline is divided into four biogeographic regions for
seagrass assessment: Region 1 (Northeast, Gulf of Tonkin), Region 2 (North
Central), Region 3 (South Central), and Region 4 (Southern Vietnam including
Mekong Delta and islands). Each region exhibits distinctive seagrass
assemblages reflecting underlying gradients in temperature, salinity, substrate
characteristics, and anthropogenic pressure intensity.
Table 4: Seagrass Distribution and Species Diversity by Region
Region Provinces Area (ha) Species Composition
1. Northeast 5 2,240 Halophila beccarii, H. ovalis, Ruppia
maritima
2. North 6 2,655 H. beccarii, Halodule uninervis, R.
Central maritima, Zostera japonica
3. South 8 3,109 H. beccarii, H. decipiens, H. ovalis,
Central H. major, H. minor, Halophila sp.,
Enhalus acoroides, Thalassia
hemprichii, Thalassodendron
ciliatum, Cymodocea rotundata, C.
serrulata, H. uninervis, Halodule
pinifolia, Syringodium isoetifolium,
R. maritima
4. Southern 9 7,609 H. beccarii, H. decipiens, H. ovalis,
H. major, H. minor, Halophila sp., E.
acoroides, T. hemprichii, C.
rotundata, C. serrulata, H.
uninervis, H. pinifolia, S. isoetifolium

National 28 15,613 15 species including putative

Total Halophila hybrids
Source: Nguyen et al. (2022), Frontiers in Plant Science; compiled from Cao
et al. (2014, 2019, 2020), Nguyen et al. (2021)

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While Table 4 outlines the statistics by region, Figure 2 visualizes the scattered
locations of these seagrass meadows, highlighting key habitats in both
nearshore waters and offshore island groups.

FIGURE 2 SEAGRASS
The map depicts known seagrass locations (teal).
Region 1 (Northeast) encompasses 12 seagrass meadows distributed across 5
provinces with a total area of 2,240 hectares. This region supports only three
seagrass species (Halophila beccarii, H. ovalis, and Ruppia maritima) reflecting
the subtropical climate and cooler winter temperatures of the Gulf of Tonkin.
Region 2 (North Central) contains two major seagrass formations localized at
the Tam Giang-Cau Hai lagoon system (2,037 ha) and a nearby area (618 ha),
totaling 2,655 hectares across 6 provinces. Four species occur in this region

148
including Zostera japonica, which reaches its southernmost distribution in
central Vietnam around 13.8°N latitude.
Region 3 (South Central) represents the most well-studied region with
numerous geographically suitable habitats including lagoons, bays, islands,
islets, atolls, and reefs providing diverse seagrass habitats. The total area of
3,109 hectares supports the highest species diversity with 15 species recorded,
including the full complement of tropical Indo-Pacific seagrass flora.
Region 4 (Southern Vietnam) harbors the largest seagrass extent at 7,609
hectares across 9 provinces, dominated by the extensive Phu Quoc Island
meadows. Recent surveys documented 7,579 hectares at Phu Quoc Island
alone, representing the largest seagrass bed in Vietnam. An additional 30-
hectare bed was recently documented at the Hai Tac archipelago. This region
supports 13 species including the dominant canopy-forming species Enhalus
acoroides, which occurs from 16°N southward, benefiting from the consistently
warm sea water temperatures of 21.6-31.0°C throughout the year.
[Link] Species Diversity and Taxonomic Considerations
The Vietnamese seagrass flora comprises 15 documented species including
putative hybrids, representing exceptional diversity within the broader Indo-
Pacific seagrass bioregion. Species composition exhibits pronounced latitudinal
zonation reflecting sea water temperature gradients. In Regions 1 and 2, sea
water temperatures range from 15.7°C to 30.7°C (averaging 24.1°C in winter
and 28.5°C in summer), while Regions 3 and 4 experience consistently warmer
conditions of 21.6°C to 31.0°C (averaging 27.5°C in winter and 28.9°C in
summer).
The genus Halophila presents particular taxonomic challenges due to
overlapping leaf morphological traits among species. Recent molecular
analyses have clarified several taxonomic issues: (1) specimens previously
identified as Halophila johnsonii are now recognized as narrow-leaf
morphotypes of H. ovalis; (2) Halophila major was confirmed as a distinct
species in Vietnamese waters based on leaf morphology and ITS genetic
analysis; (3) putative hybridization between H. ovalis and H. major has been
documented at Nha Trang Bay, similar to reports from Sri Lankan waters. The
occurrence of H. minor in Vietnamese waters remains questionable, with
specimens previously labeled as this species requiring reclassification as H.
ovalis based on morphological and genetic analysis.
Environmental partitioning between morphologically similar Halophila species
is observed: H. ovalis typically grows in lagoons experiencing large salinity
fluctuations, low water velocity, and weak wave action, whereas H. major
occurs predominantly at offshore islands with more stable marine conditions.
Halophila beccarii, listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, has been locally
extirpated from the Philippines but persists in brackish lagoon habitats in
Vietnam. Halophila decipiens occupies deeper subtidal zones at 5-15 meters
depth around offshore islands.

149
[Link] Documented Decline and Change Detection
Detailed change detection analyses at specific sites reveal alarming rates of
seagrass loss. At Van Phong Bay, satellite Landsat TM/OLI image analysis
documented loss of 186.2 hectares representing 35.8% of the original seagrass
beds over three decades. Typhoons were identified as the main driver for
seagrass loss at open-sea sites, while human-induced stressors including
aquaculture activities, excavation, and terrigenous obliteration drove losses in
protected sites.
In Cam Ranh Bay, analysis of Landsat TM/ETM+/OLI imagery from 1996 to
2015 revealed that the total seagrass area declined by approximately 25% (66
hectares), primarily due to coastal development and infrastructure construction.
For the broader Khanh Hoa coastal area, analysis using Sentinel-2, Landsat-8,
and VNREDSat-1 data showed that submerged aquatic vegetation including
seagrass was reduced by 74.2%, with gains in new areas compensating for less
than half of these losses.
The Tam Giang-Cau Hai lagoon system exemplifies the severity of seagrass
decline. Historical surveys in 1999 recorded approximately 2,450 hectares of
seagrass meadows. Contemporary assessments indicate current extent of
approximately 1,000-2,037 hectares, representing a loss of up to 60% over two
decades. Salinity fluctuations and sediment composition (silt versus sand) were
identified as the two main factors governing seagrass distribution and
abundance in the lagoon, with increased sedimentation and eutrophication from
watershed land-use changes driving the decline.
[Link] Biodiversity Associated with Seagrass Beds
Seagrass beds in Vietnam support substantially higher biodiversity than
adjacent unvegetated sediments, functioning as critical nursery habitat for
commercially important species and supporting complex food webs. The
density of fish larvae and juveniles within seagrass beds at Cat Ba Island
(Region 1) was 180 times higher than in bare sediment (327 versus 1.79
individuals per m²), though species diversity was limited to six taxa. For
crustaceans, common groups include juveniles of Penaeidae, Alpheidae,
Palaemonidae, Aryidae, Squillidae, Sergestidae, and Pandalidae families.
Table 5: Marine Fauna Diversity in Seagrass Beds by Habitat Type
Parameter Tam Lap An Cua Dai Phu Phu
Giang- (lagoon) (estuary) Quy Quoc
Cau Hai (island) (island)
(lagoon)
Fish larvae/juveniles 47 15 12 19 20
- Families
Fish larvae/juveniles 87 15 15 24 30
- Species
Crustacean larvae - 6 8 2 3 8
Families

150
 Crustacean larvae - 20 12 8 12 20
Species
Adult fish - Families n.a. 50 32 14 34
Adult fish - Species n.a. 151 55 25 86
Source: Nguyen (2013); Nguyen et al. (2022), Frontiers in Plant Science
The Tam Giang-Cau Hai lagoon supports the highest larval fish diversity with
87 taxa representing 47 families, including high-value commercial species such
as Epinephelus sexfasciatus, Lutjanus russelii, Lethrinus spp., and Siganus sp.
A positive correlation exists between above-ground seagrass biomass and
diversity of fish larvae and juveniles. Adult fish diversity is highest at Lap An
lagoon with 151 species in 50 families.
At Thuy Trieu lagoon (Region 3), the density of Penaeidae larvae and juveniles
in seagrass beds (78 individuals per m³) was eight times higher than in bare
sediment (17.12 individuals per m³). Fish composition within seagrass beds
included 87 species belonging to 12 orders and 47 families, with order
Perciformes showing the highest family representation (30 families). In Phu
Quoc Island seagrass beds, 33 species of larvae and juvenile fish were
recorded, with crustacean larvae density reaching 350 individuals per m² and
adult fish comprising 86 species with family Apogonidae showing highest
diversity (18 species).
Table 6: Zoobenthos Diversity in Seagrass Beds by Region
Taxonomic Group Northern Regions Southern
(1 & 2) Regions (3 & 4)
Annelida - Families/Species 18 / 40 13 / 21
Gastropoda - Families/Species 15 / 31 24 / 105
Bivalvia - Families/Species 15 / 38 24 / 114
Asteroidea - Families/Species n.d. 4/8
Echinoidea - Families/Species n.d. 5 / 10
Holothuroidea - Families/Species 1/1 3 / 12
Arthropoda - Families/Species 13 / 22 10 / 20
Total Species/Families 63 / 134 85 / 292
Source: Nguyen (2013); Nguyen et al. (2022), Frontiers in Plant Science. n.d.
= not determined
Zoobenthos diversity in seagrass beds exhibits a pronounced north-south
gradient, with southern regions (3 and 4) supporting 292 species across 85
families compared to 134 species in 63 families in northern regions (1 and 2).
Gastropoda and Bivalvia show substantially higher diversity in the south (105
and 114 species respectively versus 31 and 38 species in the north), while
Annelida and Arthropoda show relatively similar or higher diversity in northern
regions. This pattern reflects the warmer temperatures and higher habitat
complexity of southern seagrass ecosystems.

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[Link] Blue Carbon Storage Capacity
Seagrass beds function as efficient natural carbon sinks, capturing carbon
dioxide through photosynthesis and storing organic carbon in biomass and
sediments over long timescales. The total organic carbon content (in both
sediment and living biomass) in Vietnamese seagrass beds was estimated at
133.16 ± 36.97 Mg C per hectare. This value is higher than recorded in Malaysia
and Myanmar but lower than in the Philippines and Indonesia.
The average total blue carbon stock in Vietnamese seagrass ecosystems was
estimated at 2.06-2.95 million tons, with annual accumulation rates of 25.18-
29.28 thousand tons organic carbon per year. Compared to neighboring
countries, the total organic carbon stock from Vietnamese seagrass beds is
substantially lower than in the Philippines (259.17-425.21 million tons) and
Indonesia (62.08-107.50 million tons) but higher than Malaysia (0.005-0.25
million tons) and Myanmar (0.02-0.04 million tons). This difference reflects the
smaller total seagrass area in Vietnam compared to the Philippines (44 times
larger) and Indonesia (139 times larger) rather than lower per-hectare carbon
density.
Local and regional organic carbon variation among seagrass beds is controlled
by multiple factors including seagrass community complexity, fine sediment
fraction, seawater depth, sediment run-off, and primary production rates. In the
Thi Nai lagoon, the total organic carbon and carbon dioxide fixed by seagrass
beds was estimated at 136.7 and 501 tonnes per hectare respectively. The Tam
Giang-Cau Hai lagoon ecosystem was estimated to produce 25.71 tonnes C
per day during the rainy season and 28.93 tonnes C per day in the dry season,
though this estimate was based on Halodule pinifolia which is not a dominant
species in the lagoon.
[Link] Threats and Degradation Processes
Vietnamese seagrass ecosystems face a constellation of interacting
anthropogenic and natural stressors that have driven the documented 46.5%
decline since 1990. Primary threats include:
• Aquaculture expansion: Conversion of coastal habitats for shrimp and
fish farming, with associated water quality degradation from effluent
discharge and nutrient loading
• Coastal development: Infrastructure construction, port development, and
urban expansion causing direct habitat destruction and increased
sedimentation
• Sedimentation: Increased suspended sediment loads from watershed
deforestation, agricultural intensification, and dredging operations
reducing light penetration essential for photosynthesis
• Eutrophication: Agricultural fertilizer runoff and inadequately treated
domestic effluent promoting epiphytic algae growth and macroalgal
blooms

152
 • Destructive fishing: Push nets, beam trawls, and bottom dredging
physically uprooting seagrass and destroying sediment structure
essential for rhizome development
• Typhoon impacts: Extreme weather events causing physical destruction
of seagrass beds, particularly at exposed open-sea sites (e.g., the local
extirpation of Thalassodendron ciliatum from Con Dao following the 1997
typhoon)
• Heavy metal contamination: Accumulation of Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cd in
seagrass tissues, particularly near shipyards where Cu concentrations in
Enhalus acoroides rhizomes reached 140 µg/mg DW compared to <20
µg/mg DW at other locations
Climate change impacts including ocean warming and acidification pose
emerging long-term threats. The difference in sea water temperatures between
northern and southern Vietnam may shift species distributions as warming
progresses, with tropical-affinity species potentially expanding northward while
temperate species like Zostera japonica face thermal stress. Studies on heavy
metal accumulation reveal that seagrasses can play roles in phytoremediation
processes in polluted areas, but high concentrations of heavy metals cause
growth inhibition and mortality, contributing to overall decline in contaminated
localities.
4.2.3 Coral Reef Systems
[Link] Geographic Distribution and Species Diversity
Vietnamese coral reef systems span a latitudinal gradient of approximately 15
degrees from the Gulf of Tonkin in the north to the Gulf of Thailand and offshore
Spratly Islands in the south. The national coral fauna exhibits exceptional
diversity, with more than 340 Scleractinia (hard coral) species documented
representing approximately 80% of the Indo-Pacific species pool. This high
diversity reflects Vietnam's position within the Coral Triangle, the global
epicenter of marine biodiversity.
Coral reefs are distributed across three principal biogeographic regions: the
Gulf of Tonkin including Ha Long Bay, Cat Ba, Co To, and Bach Long Vi islands;
the Central and South-Central coast including Cu Lao Cham, Nha Trang Bay,
Van Phong Bay, and Hon Mun; and the southern islands including Phu Quoc,
Con Dao, and the Spratly archipelago. Each region exhibits distinctive reef
morphologies, species assemblages, and exposure to environmental stressors.
The geographic extent of these coral reef systems, spanning from the Gulf of
Tonkin to the southern offshore archipelagos, is depicted in Figure 3.

153
FIGURE 3 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEF SYSTEMS IN VIETNAM.
The locations of the coral reefs (in purple) are shown stretching along the
continental shelf and around several islands.
[Link] Reef Condition Assessment
Comprehensive condition assessments reveal substantial degradation of
Vietnamese coral reef systems. Analysis of 142 transect surveys conducted
across seven priority sites prior to the 1998 mass bleaching event indicates that
only 1.4% of reefs exhibited excellent condition (greater than 75% live coral

154
cover), while 37.3% were classified in good condition (51-75% cover), 43.0% in
fair condition (26-50% cover), and 28.2% in poor condition (less than 25%
cover). These baseline conditions have subsequently declined further following
repeated thermal stress events and continued anthropogenic pressures.
Table 5: Coral Reef Condition by Site (Pre-1998 Baseline)
Site Transects Excellent Good Fair Poor
Con Dao 23 0 17 5 1
Ha Long Bay 24 0 3 9 11
Cu Lao Cham 20 0 5 10 5
Cat Ba 14 0 2 6 6
Nha Trang 13 0 0 9 4
Hon Me 7 0 0 0 7
Source: Vo Si Tuan (1998), Institute of Oceanography. Cover categories:
Excellent >75%, Good 51-75%, Fair 26-50%, Poor <25%
Con Dao Islands exhibited the highest proportion of reefs in good condition, with
17 of 23 transects recording 51-75% coral cover and only one transect in poor
condition. This relatively favorable status reflects Con Dao's isolation from
mainland sediment and pollution sources, limited coastal development, and the
protective influence of the Con Dao National Park. Ha Long Bay, conversely,
showed pronounced degradation with 11 of 24 transects in poor condition,
attributable to high turbidity from sediment resuspension, pollution from
intensive tourism vessel traffic, and coastal urban development.
Regional Coral Reef Characteristics
The Gulf of Tonkin coral communities represent the northernmost reef
development in Vietnamese waters, characterized by reduced species diversity
and coral cover relative to southern regions. Water temperatures drop below
20°C during winter months, approaching the lower thermal tolerance limits for
many coral species. Turbidity is elevated due to river discharge from the Red
River system and resuspension of fine sediments. Despite these constraints,
approximately 107 scleractinian species have been documented in the Ha Long
Bay-Cat Ba area, with Porites and Goniopora genera dominating the coral
assemblages due to their tolerance of turbid, variable temperature conditions.
The Central Coast region, extending from Da Nang to Binh Thuan Province,
supports more diverse reef communities with over 200 coral species
documented at sites including Cu Lao Cham, Hon Mun, and the Nha Trang Bay
complex. Reef development is constrained by narrow continental shelf widths
and episodic high-energy wave exposure during typhoon events. The Cu Lao
Cham Marine Protected Area, designated as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve,
supports 188 reef fish species and provides important biodiversity conservation
functions despite ongoing fishing pressure.
Southern reef systems at Con Dao, Phu Quoc, and the offshore Spratly
archipelago exhibit the highest species diversity, benefiting from stable warm

155
temperatures, clear oceanic water, and reduced terrestrial influence. Con Dao
supports approximately 342 Scleractinia species representing near-complete
Indo-Pacific reef fauna. The Spratly Islands, while politically contested, harbor
globally significant coral reef ecosystems that remain inadequately documented
due to access constraints.
[Link] Reef Fish Communities
Coral reef fish assemblages exhibit strong spatial gradients in density and
diversity reflecting underlying reef condition and environmental parameters.
Quantitative surveys document substantial variation across sites.
Table 6: Reef Fish Community Parameters by Site
Site Density Range Species
(ind./500m²) Richness
Con Dao 2,017 71-5,143 202
Phu Quoc 748 438-1,412 135
Van Phong 676 223-1,814 100
Cu Lao Cham 540 148-1,446 188
Nha Trang 226 109-486 256
Co To (Gulf of Tonkin) 45 - 30-60
Source: Vo Si Tuan (1998), Institute of Oceanography
Con Dao Islands support the highest reef fish densities with mean values of
2,017 individuals per 500 square meters and exceptional range from 71 to 5,143
individuals, alongside 202 documented species. This abundance reflects
healthy coral habitat structure, effective protection within the National Park, and
relatively limited fishing pressure. Nha Trang Bay paradoxically exhibits the
highest species richness at 256 species despite substantially lower densities of
226 individuals per 500 square meters, reflecting both high habitat
heterogeneity and severe depletion of fish stocks from intensive fishing
pressure.
The Gulf of Tonkin sites exhibit markedly reduced fish assemblage parameters,
with Co To Islands recording merely 45 individuals per 500 square meters and
30-60 species. This impoverishment reflects the marginal coral reef
development in the cooler, more turbid waters of the northern Gulf, combined
with intensive fishing exploitation.
[Link] Case Study: Nha Trang Bay Degradation Gradient
Nha Trang Bay, despite formal Marine Protected Area designation since 2002
under the Hon Mun MPA, exemplifies the extreme spatial heterogeneity of reef
conditions in Vietnamese waters. Detailed surveys conducted between 2013
and 2014 documented a pronounced onshore-offshore gradient in reef
condition driven by differential exposure to terrestrial stressors.
Remote offshore reef sites in Nha Trang Bay maintain relatively healthy
conditions with approximately 75% live coral cover, supporting 63 documented
species and Shannon diversity indices of 3.0. These sites harbor mature

156
Acropora colonies exceeding 350 centimeters in diameter, estimated at more
than 30 years of age, indicating sustained coral growth under favorable
conditions. The offshore location provides natural protection from river-borne
sediment and pollutant inputs, maintaining water clarity essential for coral
photosynthesis.
Nearshore sites adjacent to the Cai River mouth and areas impacted by
dredging operations present catastrophic degradation. Surveys recorded coral
cover as low as 0.6% with merely 6 species present and Shannon diversity
indices of 0.5. The substrate at these degraded sites was dominated by
macroalgae at 56% cover and unconsolidated rubble at 20.3%, indicating
complete functional loss of reef ecosystem structure.
Crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) populations have increased
dramatically from zero recorded individuals per 100 square meters in 1998 to
1.7 individuals per 100 square meters by 2014, exceeding the active outbreak
threshold. This corallivore outbreak compounds thermal and sedimentation
stresses, accelerating coral decline particularly for preferred prey species
including tabular and branching Acropora.
Notably, the Hon Mun site benefits from seasonal upwelling that reduces sea
surface temperatures by 3-5 degrees Celsius during the May-August southwest
monsoon period. This thermal refuge has prevented bleaching threshold
exceedance since the 1997 event, suggesting potential climate resilience for
sites with similar oceanographic characteristics.
[Link] Threats to Coral Reef Systems
Vietnamese coral reefs face a constellation of interacting threats including
destructive fishing practices, sedimentation, eutrophication, thermal stress, and
crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks. Destructive fishing documented in 21 of 29
coastal provinces includes dynamite fishing, cyanide application for live fish
capture, and bottom trawling in reef habitats. Illegal cyanide fishing for the live
grouper trade is particularly prevalent in northern and central waters, with no
systematic catch statistics available to assess stock impacts.
Sedimentation from watershed land-use change, coastal construction, and
dredging operations represents a chronic stressor, reducing light penetration,
smothering coral tissue, and impairing recruitment success. The Nha Trang Bay
gradient demonstrates how even relatively short distances from sediment
sources can determine reef viability.
Climate change impacts including ocean warming and acidification pose
existential long-term threats. The 1998 mass bleaching event caused
substantial mortality throughout Vietnamese waters, with recovery trajectories
highly variable depending on local conditions and continued anthropogenic
pressures. Projected increases in bleaching frequency under climate change
scenarios may exceed coral recovery capacity, driving phase shifts to algal-
dominated states.

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4.3. Biodiversity Hotspots and Sensitive Areas
4.3.1 Priority Conservation Sites
Analysis of ecological significance indicators including species diversity,
endemism, habitat condition, and ecosystem connectivity identifies several
priority sites requiring enhanced conservation attention.
[Link] Con Dao Islands
The Con Dao archipelago, located approximately 185 kilometers offshore from
the Mekong Delta, represents arguably the most ecologically significant marine
site in Vietnamese waters. The islands support 200 hectares of seagrass
meadows with 8 species, coral reefs exhibiting the highest proportion of sites in
good condition nationally, and reef fish densities of 2,017 individuals per 500
square meters exceeding all other surveyed localities. The archipelago provides
critical nesting habitat for endangered green turtles (Chelonia mydas) and
hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata), with beaches supporting the largest
remaining nesting populations in Vietnam. Con Dao National Park provides
formal protection, yet enforcement challenges persist.
[Link] Phu Quoc Island
Phu Quoc Island in Kien Giang Province harbors the largest seagrass formation
in Vietnamese waters at 10,063 hectares, providing critical foraging habitat for
endangered dugong (Dugong dugon). The island's sheltered eastern coast
maintains multi-species seagrass meadows dominated by Enhalus acoroides
and Thalassia hemprichii extending to depths of 10 meters. Adjacent coral reef
systems support 135 fish species with densities of 748 individuals per 500
square meters. Phu Quoc Marine Protected Area was established to protect
these ecosystems, yet rapid tourism and infrastructure development pose
escalating threats.
[Link] Can Gio Mangrove Biosphere Reserve
The Can Gio Mangrove Biosphere Reserve, designated by UNESCO in 2000,
represents the largest contiguous mangrove formation proximate to a major
urban center in Southeast Asia. Located in Ho Chi Minh City, the reserve
encompasses approximately 75,740 hectares including a core mangrove zone
of approximately 32,404 hectares. The reserve provides essential nursery
habitat for commercially important fish and shrimp species, coastal protection
for Ho Chi Minh City's southern districts, and substantial carbon storage. The
site demonstrates successful mangrove rehabilitation following extensive
defoliation during the Vietnam War, with most current forest originating from
replanting efforts in the 1980s.
[Link] Ca Mau Cape
Ca Mau Province at the southern tip of the Mekong Delta harbors approximately
55,743 hectares of mangrove forest, representing the largest provincial
mangrove estate in Vietnam. The Ca Mau Cape area exhibits active deltaic
progradation with new mangrove colonization on accreting mudflats, presenting

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opportunities for natural expansion of the forest estate. Ngoc Hien District alone
contains approximately 34,093 hectares, with recent gains of 6.4% attributable
to successful restoration initiatives. The area provides critical nursery functions
for the shrimp fishery that constitutes the primary livelihood for coastal
communities.
4.3.2 Ecological Continuum: Mangrove-Seagrass-Coral Connectivity
Vietnamese coastal ecosystems exhibit functional connectivity reflecting the
ecological continuum concept wherein mangroves, seagrass meadows, and
coral reefs form an integrated seascape. This connectivity manifests through
several mechanisms including ontogenetic habitat shifts, nutrient cycling,
sediment dynamics, and larval dispersal.
Many commercially and ecologically important fish species utilize multiple
habitat types during their life cycles. Juvenile fish often recruit to mangrove prop
root systems where complex structure provides refuge from predators,
subsequently migrating to seagrass meadows and finally to coral reefs as
adults. Studies in similar Indo-Pacific systems demonstrate that coral reef fish
assemblages adjacent to mangroves and seagrass exhibit substantially higher
biomass and diversity than isolated reefs.
Mangrove systems trap sediments and filter nutrients, reducing loads that would
otherwise degrade adjacent seagrass and coral habitats. Conversely, seagrass
meadows attenuate wave energy and stabilize sediments, reducing turbidity
stress on coral communities. Disruption of any component of this seascape
continuum propagates impacts across the connected system.
Con Dao and Phu Quoc islands exemplify sites where all three ecosystem types
co-occur, enabling assessment of connectivity functions. Conservation
planning for these sites should explicitly incorporate seascape connectivity,
protecting not only individual habitat patches but the corridors and hydrological
connections that link them.
4.3.3 Functional Connectivity Mechanisms
Ontogenetic habitat shifts represent a primary connectivity mechanism, wherein
fish species utilize different habitats during successive life stages. Juvenile
snappers (Lutjanidae), grunts (Haemulidae), and parrotfish (Scaridae)
commonly recruit to mangrove prop root habitats where structural complexity
provides refuge from predators. As individuals grow, they migrate first to
seagrass meadows for intermediate growth phases, then to coral reefs as
adults where they contribute to reef fish biomass and ecological functions
including herbivory and predation.
Nutrient and carbon fluxes connect mangrove, seagrass, and coral reef
ecosystems through both dissolved and particulate organic matter transport.
Mangrove leaf litter decomposition releases nutrients that enhance productivity
in adjacent seagrass meadows. Seagrass detritus in turn provides carbon
subsidies to coral reef food webs. Stable isotope analyses in similar Indo-Pacific
systems demonstrate that 30-50% of carbon in coral reef fish tissues originates

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from mangrove and seagrass sources, underscoring the nutritional importance
of these connections.
Sediment dynamics represent another critical connectivity pathway. Mangrove
forests trap suspended sediments, reducing turbidity and sedimentation stress
on downstream seagrass and coral communities. Where mangroves have been
removed, increased sediment loads reach adjacent habitats, smothering
seagrass blades and coral polyps while reducing light penetration essential for
photosynthesis. The Nha Trang Bay degradation gradient illustrates how
proximity to sediment sources determines reef viability even within relatively
short distances.
Larval dispersal connects geographically separated populations through
oceanographic transport. Coral, fish, and invertebrate larvae may disperse for
days to weeks in the plankton before settling on suitable substrate. Marine
Protected Area networks should be designed with connectivity in mind, ensuring
that protected source populations can supply larvae to downstream sink
populations and that stepping-stone habitats enable dispersal across longer
distances.
4.4 Threatened and Endemic Species
4.4.1 Marine Megafauna
Vietnamese coastal and marine ecosystems support populations of several
threatened marine megafauna species requiring targeted conservation
attention.
[Link] Dugong (Dugong dugon) - IUCN Vulnerable
The dugong, listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, represents one of the
most endangered marine mammals in Vietnamese waters. Historical
populations have contracted dramatically due to habitat loss, entanglement in
fishing gear, and direct hunting. Current populations persist primarily in
association with the extensive seagrass meadows of Phu Quoc Island and Con
Dao, where Enhalus acoroides and Thalassia hemprichii provide primary forage
resources. No systematic population assessment has been conducted,
precluding quantitative trend analysis. Protection of remaining seagrass
habitats is essential for dugong persistence in Vietnamese waters.
[Link] Marine Turtles
Green turtles (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata)
are both listed as Endangered and Critically Endangered respectively on the
IUCN Red List. Both species face intensive exploitation pressure in Vietnamese
waters, with trade centers documented in Nha Trang, Vung Tau, and Ha Tien
where turtle products are processed for souvenirs and traditional medicine. Con
Dao Islands support the most significant remaining nesting populations in
Vietnam, with protection efforts focused on beach monitoring and nest
relocation. However, at-sea mortality from fishing gear entanglement and
intentional capture remains inadequately addressed.

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4.4.2 Commercially Exploited Species Under Pressure
Several commercially targeted species exhibit stock depletion requiring
management intervention. The absence of systematic stock assessments for
most species precludes quantitative evaluation of exploitation status, yet
multiple indicators suggest overfishing across diverse taxa.
[Link] Live Reef Fish
The live reef fish trade, particularly for groupers (Epinephelus spp.,
Plectropomus spp.) and Napoleon wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) destined for
Hong Kong and Chinese restaurant markets, drives intensive fishing pressure
on coral reef systems. Illegal cyanide fishing to capture fish alive is practiced
throughout northern and central Vietnamese waters. The cyanide solution stuns
fish, facilitating capture, but causes delayed mortality and damages coral tissue,
creating compounding ecosystem impacts.
No systematic catch statistics are compiled for the live reef fish trade, precluding
stock assessment. Anecdotal reports from fishers indicate declining catch rates
requiring longer fishing trips and exploitation of increasingly remote reef areas.
Napoleon wrasse, listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, has become
extremely rare in Vietnamese waters due to targeted fishing pressure. Large
grouper species similarly show evidence of stock depletion, with average sizes
declining over time as larger individuals are progressively removed.
[Link] Sea Cucumbers
Sea cucumber harvesting supports an export industry of 150,000 to 180,000
tonnes per year, primarily destined for China, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan,
and Japan. This extraction level likely exceeds sustainable yields given the low
reproductive rates and sedentary nature of holothurian species, yet no stock
assessments or management measures are implemented. Sea cucumbers
provide essential bioturbation services, and their depletion may compromise
nutrient cycling and sediment health in coastal ecosystems.
[Link] Corals
Direct coral harvesting for the ornamental trade and construction materials
poses localized threats, particularly for branching Acropora species prized in
aquariums. Official records indicate that Binh Thuan Province permitted
extraction of 15,000 kilograms of coral skeleton in 2000 alone. Staghorn
Acropora species have become increasingly rare in accessible nearshore
areas, indicating overharvesting relative to recovery capacity.
4.4.3 Endemic and Range-Restricted Species
Vietnamese coastal ecosystems support several species with restricted
geographic ranges requiring conservation attention.
Seven mangrove species are restricted to the southern Mekong Delta region,
reflecting the thermal preferences of tropical mangrove flora. These species,
including Avicennia alba, Avicennia officinalis, Rhizophora mucronata,
Bruguiera cylindrica, and Bruguiera parviflora, reach their northern distributional

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limits in central Vietnam. Conversely, Myoporum bontioides and Scaevola
hainanensis are restricted to northern Vietnam, adapted to the subtropical
climate of the Gulf of Tonkin.
The seagrass species Thalassodendron ciliatum was documented at Con Dao
prior to the 1997 typhoon but has not been subsequently recorded, representing
an apparent local extirpation. This species reaches its northern distributional
limit in southern Vietnam, and its loss from Con Dao may indicate vulnerability
to extreme weather events that may intensify under climate change.
4.5. Governance, Management, and Economic Analysis
4.5.1 Institutional Framework
Management authority for Vietnamese coastal and marine ecosystems is
distributed across multiple agencies with overlapping and sometimes conflicting
mandates.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD), through its
Vietnam Administration of Forestry (VNFOREST), holds primary responsibility
for mangrove forests classified as protection or special-use forests under the
2017 Forestry Law. MARD also manages fisheries resources through the
Directorate of Fisheries, though coordination between forestry and fisheries
divisions is often limited.
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) holds
responsibility for marine environmental protection, biodiversity conservation
outside forest areas, and coastal zone management. The Vietnam
Administration of Seas and Islands (VASI) under MONRE coordinates marine
spatial planning and Marine Protected Area designation.
Provincial People's Committees exercise substantial authority over land-use
planning, aquaculture licensing, and enforcement within their jurisdictions. This
decentralized structure creates coordination challenges, as provincial economic
priorities often conflict with national conservation objectives. District-level
capacity for enforcement is frequently inadequate, contributing to widespread
non-compliance with fisheries and forest protection regulations.
4.5.2 Policy Framework
Several policy instruments govern coastal ecosystem management, though
implementation effectiveness varies substantially.
Decision 120/QD-TTg of 2015 established ambitious targets to protect 310,695
hectares, rehabilitate 9,602 hectares, and plant 46,058 hectares of mangroves
by 2020. Subsequent Decision 770/QD-TTg of 2019 adjusted targets to 21,600
hectares of new plantation for the 2021-2025 period, acknowledging
implementation constraints encountered during the first phase.
The 2017 Forestry Law provides the legal framework for forest classification
into special-use, protection, and production categories, with corresponding
management requirements. Mangroves may be classified under any category
depending on ecological significance and land-use history. Decision 419/QD-

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TTg establishes the framework for REDD+ implementation, recognizing the
carbon values of mangrove ecosystems within international climate finance
mechanisms.
Vietnam's Nationally Determined Contribution under the Paris Agreement
commits to 30,000 hectares of mangrove restoration, with estimated mitigation
potential of 4.41 million tonnes CO2 equivalent for 2021-2030. Achieving this
commitment requires sustained investment in restoration, monitoring, and
enforcement substantially exceeding current allocations.
4.5.3 Marine Protected Area System
Vietnam's Marine Protected Area system currently encompasses twenty
designated sites with proposals to expand to thirty, increasing coral reef
protection from 1,528 hectares to 3,118 hectares under the proposed network.
However, MPA effectiveness is severely constrained by implementation
challenges.
The Hon Mun MPA in Nha Trang Bay, established in 2002 as a flagship site
with international support, exemplifies these challenges. Despite formal
protection status, fishing, shipping, and aquaculture activities continue within
MPA boundaries. International funding for enforcement and community
outreach ended in 2005, after which illegal activities resurged.
Con Dao National Park demonstrates more effective implementation, benefiting
from geographic isolation that naturally limits access and a sustained
commitment to enforcement. Yet even here, illegal fishing incursions occur, and
surrounding waters lack formal protection despite ecological connectivity with
park habitats.
4.5.4 Economic Valuation of Ecosystem Services
Comprehensive economic valuation of Vietnamese coastal ecosystem services
remains limited, yet available estimates indicate substantial values.
The average value per hectare of the ecosystems is presented in Table ,
expressed in billion VND at 2010 prices. These values can be applied to recent
years because the underlying studies were conducted over multiple years. The
values were then applied to the total area (ha) of these ecosystem complexes
in 2021 (see Table 8) to calculate the total value. Of the total value, almost all
(94%) is attributable to mangrove ecosystems, while coral reefs account for 2%,
coastal ecosystems about 1%, and ocean ecosystems nearly 3%. Overall,
ecosystem services contribute on average about 0.60% of the total GVA of the
entire economy over the period from 2010 to 2020.
TABLE 8. VALUE OF VIETNAM COASTAL ECOSYSTEM, MANGROVE AND CORAL
(SOURCE: PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF VIETNAM’S MARINE
ECONOMY - RESEARCH ON PUBLIC INVESTMENT AND EXPENDITURE, WB 2025)

163
 Marine Area Average value Average Total % of
ecosystem (ha) (international value value GVA
$/ha/year) (thousand (billion
VND, 2010 VND,
prices) 2010
prices)
Coastal 471,122 21.5 399.5 188.2 0.01%
ecosystem
(excluding
mangroves)
Mangroves 302,359 2,432.2 45,270.8 13,688.0 0.56%
Coral reefs 11,475 1,322.5 24,615.8 282.5 0.01%
Open sea 169,617 1,950.3 36,300.0 416.5 0.02%
ecosystem
Total 784,956 14,575.2 0.60%
Marine ecosystems are being exploited and managed unsustainably. In the
World Bank’s Country Environmental Analysis (WB, 2022a), a substantial
portion of protective mangrove forests was destroyed between 1950 and 1990,
shrinking from more than 250,000 ha to 71,000 ha—an astonishing loss of 72%.
This decline was driven mainly by the use of toxic chemicals in earlier years
and, more recently, by shrimp farming activities, as well as the reduction of
special-use forests and coastal protection forests due to climate change
impacts, landslides, and riverbank and coastal erosion.
Although losses have slowed over the past two decades thanks to replanting
measures implemented from 1999 to 2015, the net loss still amounts to 13,500
ha of protective mangroves. The World Bank’s Country Environmental Analysis
(WB, 2022) 2 estimates that the annual damage from the loss of mangrove
ecosystem service values in the Mekong Delta region over the 20-year period
1997–2017 was USD 20.3 million per year, equivalent to 0.01% of GDP (Table
9), with the largest losses occurring in ecosystem services related to soil and
coastal protection, aquaculture, and carbon sequestration.
Mangrove ecosystem services including fisheries support, coastal protection,
carbon sequestration, and tourism values are estimated at a mean of USD
4,185 per hectare per year, though methodological variation produces wide
confidence intervals with a median estimate of USD 239 per hectare per year.
Applying even conservative valuations to the national mangrove estate of
168,538 hectares yields annual ecosystem service values in the tens of millions
of dollars.
Fisheries production dependent on mangrove and seagrass nursery habitats
supports approximately 23% of coastal households, with total coastal fisheries
production contributing substantially to national food security and export

2
World Bank. 2022. Accelerating Clean, Green, and Climate-Resilient Growth in Viet Nam: A Country
Environmental Analysis. Washington, DC: World Bank.
[Link]

164
revenues. The shrimp aquaculture industry, valued at hundreds of millions of
dollars annually, depends on water quality and juvenile shrimp production
mediated by coastal wetland ecosystems.
Carbon values under international climate finance mechanisms provide
emerging revenue opportunities. At carbon prices of USD 5-10 per tonne CO2
equivalent, the national mitigation potential of 4.41 million tonnes CO2
equivalent for 2021-2030 represents potential revenues of USD 22-44 million
over the decade, providing an economic justification for restoration investment.
Tourism and Recreation Values
Coastal and marine tourism represents a rapidly growing sector of the
Vietnamese economy, with reef diving, island visits, and coastal recreation
generating substantial revenues. Nha Trang Bay alone receives over 2 million
tourists annually, with dive operators and boat tours generating tens of millions
of dollars in direct revenue. However, unmanaged tourism growth poses threats
to the ecosystems that underpin the industry, creating potential for resource
degradation that undermines long-term tourism sustainability.
Mangrove ecotourism has emerged as a niche sector, particularly in Can Gio
Biosphere Reserve where boat tours and forest walks attract domestic and
international visitors seeking nature-based experiences proximate to Ho Chi
Minh City. Expansion of ecotourism offers potential to generate conservation
revenues while providing economic alternatives to extractive resource use.
Coastal Protection Values
The coastal protection services provided by mangrove ecosystems deliver
substantial economic value that is often underappreciated in development
planning. Analysis of Typhoon Damrey impacts in 2005 demonstrated that the
Da Loc commune in Thanh Hoa Province, protected by 1.6 kilometers of
mangrove forest buffer, experienced markedly lower damage than adjacent
unprotected areas. Property losses in protected areas were reduced by an
estimated 70-90% relative to exposed coastlines.
The cost-effectiveness of mangrove-based coastal protection relative to
engineered seawalls makes nature-based solutions increasingly attractive for
climate adaptation investment. Mangrove planting costs approximately USD
200-500 per hectare while providing self-maintaining protection that improves
over time as forests mature. Concrete seawalls, by contrast, cost USD 1,000-
10,000 per linear meter with ongoing maintenance requirements and no co-
benefits for fisheries, carbon, or biodiversity.
4.5.5 Management Gaps and Challenges
Despite progress in policy development, substantial gaps persist between
policy intent and implementation outcomes.
Enforcement deficits represent the most critical constraint, with destructive
fishing practices documented in 21 of 29 coastal provinces despite legal
prohibitions. Provincial enforcement agencies lack vessels, personnel, and

165
political support to effectively patrol vast coastal areas. Corruption and political
interference further compromise enforcement effectiveness.
Fragmented institutional mandates create coordination failures, with MARD,
MONRE, and provincial authorities often pursuing conflicting objectives without
effective mechanisms for harmonization. The absence of integrated coastal
zone management frameworks at operational scales perpetuates these
coordination failures.
Monitoring systems remain inadequate for adaptive management. No
systematic tracking of mangrove restoration survival rates is conducted,
precluding evaluation of program effectiveness. Carbon monitoring and
verification systems required for international climate finance participation are
in early developmental stages. Coral reef monitoring relies on periodic research
surveys rather than sustained observation networks.
Economic conflicts between conservation and development remain unresolved.
Aquaculture, while providing livelihoods for millions, continues to drive
mangrove conversion despite policy restrictions. The opportunity cost of
mangrove protection relative to aquaculture income creates powerful incentives
for illegal conversion that enforcement alone cannot address.
4.6. Priority Actions and Regional Cooperation
4.6.1 Priority Actions
[Link] Nature-Based Solutions
Nature-based solutions offer cost-effective approaches to address multiple
environmental challenges while delivering biodiversity and livelihood co-
benefits.
[Link] Mangrove Restoration and Rehabilitation
Priority restoration should focus on degraded sites with favorable hydrological
conditions for natural regeneration, reducing reliance on costly planting
programs with variable survival rates. The Ecological Mangrove Rehabilitation
approach emphasizes restoration of hydrological connectivity to enable natural
colonization, achieving higher survival and better ecological outcomes than
plantation forestry approaches.
Silvo-fishery systems integrating mangrove rehabilitation with extensive
aquaculture offer potential to reconcile conservation and livelihood objectives.
Under appropriate designs, these systems maintain mangrove cover while
generating aquaculture income, addressing the economic opportunity cost that
drives illegal conversion.
[Link] Coral Reef Restoration
Reef restoration efforts should prioritize protection of surviving healthy reef
areas, particularly those benefiting from thermal refugia such as upwelling
zones. Active restoration techniques including coral gardening and substrate
stabilization may accelerate recovery at degraded sites, but cannot substitute

166
for addressing underlying stressors including sedimentation, pollution, and
destructive fishing.
Marine spatial planning should identify and protect reef areas with natural
resilience characteristics, establishing connectivity corridors that enable larval
dispersal and population recovery. Integration of reef protection with watershed
management is essential to reduce sediment and nutrient loads reaching reef
systems.
[Link] Seagrass Conservation
Seagrass conservation priorities should focus on reducing sedimentation and
eutrophication from watershed sources, combined with elimination of
destructive fishing practices within seagrass meadows. The dramatic declines
observed in Tam Giang-Cau Hai Lagoon demonstrate that protection of
seagrass beds alone is insufficient without watershed-scale intervention.
Designation of seagrass areas as critical habitat for endangered dugong
provides a flagship species approach to mobilize conservation attention and
resources. Integration of seagrass protection with Marine Protected Area
planning should ensure that connectivity with adjacent mangrove and coral
habitats is maintained.
[Link] Strategic Policy Recommendations
Effective coastal ecosystem conservation requires policy reforms addressing
underlying governance and economic constraints.
1. Strengthen enforcement capacity: Increase budget allocations for patrol
vessels, personnel, and prosecution of violations. Establish inter-agency
enforcement task forces combining MARD, MONRE, and provincial
resources.
2. Integrate coastal zone management: Develop operational integrated
coastal zone management frameworks at provincial and district scales,
harmonizing sectoral plans for fisheries, aquaculture, tourism, and
infrastructure within ecological carrying capacity constraints.
3. Develop payment for ecosystem services: Implement carbon payment
mechanisms for verified mangrove restoration, providing economic
incentives that align private interests with conservation objectives. Pilot
coastal protection payment schemes where mangroves reduce
infrastructure and life safety risks.
4. Expand Marine Protected Area network: Advance proposals to expand
from 20 to 30 MPAs, prioritizing sites with high ecological connectivity
and demonstrated management capacity. Allocate sustained funding for
enforcement rather than time-limited project support.
5. Establish monitoring systems: Develop national coastal ecosystem
monitoring networks integrating remote sensing, in-situ surveys, and
community-based observation. Track restoration survival rates, carbon

167
 accumulation, and biodiversity indicators to enable adaptive
management.
4.6.2 Regional Cooperation Requirements
Vietnamese coastal ecosystems share connectivity with neighboring countries
through larval dispersal, migratory species movements, and transboundary
pollution transport, requiring regional cooperation for effective management.
[Link] Mekong Basin Coordination
Mangrove and coastal ecosystem health in the Mekong Delta depends critically
on upstream water and sediment inputs. Dam construction throughout the
Mekong basin has altered sediment transport, contributing to coastal erosion
and saline intrusion that stress mangrove systems. Participation in Mekong
River Commission processes is essential to advocate for environmental flows
and sediment management that maintain deltaic ecosystem functions.
[Link] South China Sea Cooperation
The UNEP/GEF South China Sea Project established regional frameworks for
coordination on seagrass and coral reef conservation that should be sustained
and expanded. Shared monitoring protocols, data exchange mechanisms, and
coordinated management of migratory species require continued regional
investment.
Transboundary Marine Protected Area networks linking Vietnamese, Chinese,
and Philippine sites would enhance connectivity and resilience of marine
ecosystems throughout the South China Sea, though geopolitical tensions
complicate such cooperation.
[Link] Regional Knowledge Networks
Establishment of regional data hubs compiling standardized monitoring data for
mangroves, seagrass, and coral reefs would enable comparative analysis of
ecosystem trajectories and management effectiveness. The Coral Triangle
Initiative provides models for regional coordination that could be adapted for the
South China Sea context.
Capacity building for coastal ecosystem management should be coordinated
regionally, sharing expertise in restoration techniques, monitoring technologies,
and enforcement approaches. South-South learning exchanges between
Vietnamese managers and counterparts in Thailand, Indonesia, and the
Philippines would accelerate adoption of proven practices.
[Link] Climate Change Adaptation Coordination
Climate change impacts on coastal ecosystems transcend national boundaries,
requiring coordinated regional adaptation responses. Sea level rise projections
for the South China Sea indicate 20-40 centimeters of rise by 2050 under
moderate emissions scenarios, with implications for mangrove zonation,
seagrass depth limits, and coral bleaching thresholds throughout the region.

168
Regional climate vulnerability assessments should identify ecosystem refugia
where natural resilience characteristics may enable persistence under changing
conditions. Upwelling zones, deep-water thermal refugia, and areas with
naturally variable conditions that pre-adapt species to climate variability
represent priority sites for enhanced protection. Coordinated identification of
climate resilient reefs across the South China Sea would enable strategic
allocation of limited conservation resources.
Assisted migration and translocation of climate-adapted genotypes represents
an emerging adaptation strategy that may require regional coordination. Moving
heat-tolerant coral genotypes to recipient reefs, or establishing mangrove
species at higher latitudes as temperature envelopes shift, could enhance
regional ecosystem resilience but requires scientific protocols and regulatory
frameworks that transcend national boundaries.
[Link] Financing Mechanisms for Regional Conservation
Sustainable financing for coastal ecosystem conservation requires
diversification beyond traditional government budget allocations and time-
limited project support. Regional approaches to conservation finance offer
potential scale and efficiency benefits.
Blue carbon credit markets provide opportunities for Vietnam and neighboring
countries to monetize mangrove and seagrass carbon sequestration services.
Coordinated regional standards for carbon measurement, reporting, and
verification would reduce transaction costs and enhance market credibility. The
ASEAN Center for Biodiversity could coordinate development of regional blue
carbon protocols building upon existing national REDD+ frameworks.
Payment for ecosystem services schemes could be structured at regional
scales to capture transboundary benefits. Fisheries in downstream countries
benefit from nursery habitat provision in upstream mangroves and seagrass
meadows. Regional mechanisms to compensate countries providing these
services would align economic incentives with conservation outcomes while
addressing equity concerns regarding the distribution of conservation costs and
benefits.
4.7 Conclusion
Vietnam's coastal and marine ecosystems represent nationally significant
natural assets providing essential ecological services for millions of people
while contributing to global biodiversity and climate objectives. The mangrove,
seagrass, and coral reef systems documented in this assessment face severe
pressures from coastal development, destructive fishing, pollution, and climate
change, yet retain substantial resilience and recovery potential when
appropriate management interventions are implemented.
Realizing conservation and sustainable development objectives requires
sustained political commitment, adequate resource allocation, effective
enforcement, and integration across sectoral and jurisdictional boundaries. The
economic case for ecosystem conservation is compelling, with ecosystem

169
service values substantially exceeding the costs of protection and restoration.
International climate finance mechanisms offer emerging opportunities to
mobilize resources for blue carbon ecosystem conservation.
Regional cooperation is essential given the transboundary connectivity of
marine ecosystems and shared management challenges throughout the South
China Sea. Vietnam can leverage its relatively strong institutional capacity and
growing economy to demonstrate leadership in regional coastal ecosystem
conservation, generating benefits for both national development and global
environmental sustainability. Priority actions include strengthening enforcement
capacity, developing integrated coastal zone management frameworks,
implementing payment for ecosystem services mechanisms, expanding the
Marine Protected Area network, and establishing comprehensive monitoring
systems to enable adaptive management.

170
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Tuan, V.S., Long, N.V., Tuyen, H.T., Hoa, N.X., De Carlo, T.M. (2015). Status
of coral reef ecosystems in Vietnam. In: Status of Coral Reefs of the World:
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the South China Sea. UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No. 12.
Vo Si Tuan (1998). Coral reefs of Vietnam: Status, threats and management
recommendations. Proceedings of the International Coral Reef Symposium,
Panama.
Vo Si Tuan, Yet, N.H., Alino, P.M. (2004). Status of coral reefs in Southeast
Asia. In: Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2004. Australian Institute of Marine
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(2014). Assessment of coral reef fish communities in Vietnamese waters.
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Olyarnik, S., et al. (2009). Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe
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Washington DC.

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CHAPTER 5. FISHERIES (TO BE UPDATED)
CHAPTER 6. GOVERNANCE
Executive summary
Viet Nam has a 3,260 km coastline and an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of
roughly one million square kilometers. These assets underpin a rapidly growing
“blue economy” that is estimated to account for 47–60 percent of national GDP
when ocean-related activities are included. Fisheries and aquaculture
contribute around 4–5 percent of GDP, employ millions across value chains,
and provide essential food for domestic consumers, particularly in coastal and
rural areas. At the same time, key coastal and marine ecosystems—coral reefs,
mangroves, and seagrass beds—are being degraded by overfishing, coastal
development, pollution, and climate change. Saline intrusion, sea-level rise, and
more frequent extreme weather events are also increasing risks in vulnerable
regions.
Against this backdrop, Viet Nam has adopted ambitious marine-related targets,
including expanding marine protected areas to around 6 percent of national sea
area by 2030, advancing a sustainable marine economy strategy, and
contributing to SDG 14 (Life Below Water) and the Kunming–Montreal Global
Biodiversity Framework. This report assesses whether current governance
arrangements—including laws, institutions, coordination mechanisms,
stakeholder roles, and financing—are adequate to deliver these outcomes in a
transboundary context, where dynamics in the South China Sea (SCS) and the
Gulf of Thailand (GoT) significantly shape national risks and opportunities.
Using the TWAP Level 1 governance architecture methodology, this report
assesses Viet Nam’s coastal and marine governance across three core
dimensions—completeness, integration, and engagement.
• Completeness (50–60 percent; medium–low): Viet Nam has a relatively
strong legal and policy base, including UNCLOS ratification, the Fisheries
Law (2017), ICZM-related policies, and advancing climate and
biodiversity strategies. Implementation is supported by monitoring tools
such as vessel monitoring systems (VMS) and electronic catch
documentation. However, enforcement capacity, feedback loops from
monitoring to adaptive management, and consistent implementation
across provinces remain constrained. Several instruments—such as fully
operational marine spatial planning and comprehensive climate
legislation—are still in development.
• Integration (0.25–0.35 on a 0–1 scale; weak): Fragmentation across
fisheries, conservation, ports, energy, aquaculture, and tourism—
combined with uneven provincial capacity and incomplete land–sea and
transboundary linkages—represents the most significant governance
constraint. Existing bilateral and ASEAN mechanisms address elements
of shared stocks, pollution, and marine debris, but there is no coherent
LME-scale governance framework for the South China Sea.
Arrangements remain partial in the Gulf of Tonkin and the Gulf of
Thailand.
 • Engagement (55–65 percent; medium): Community-based fisheries and
mangrove co-management models, including examples such as the Tam
Giang Lagoon, indicate that locally grounded governance can improve
ecological and livelihood outcomes. Civil society and private-sector
actors in seafood value chains provide relevant expertise and operational
platforms. However, participation is often project-dependent; formal
consultation mechanisms are inconsistently applied; and small-scale
fishers, women, and youth remain under-represented in decision-making
and benefit-sharing.
Overall, Viet Nam’s coastal and marine governance faces moderate-to-high
residual risk. Foundational laws and institutions are in place, pilot models
demonstrate feasibility, and political commitment to a sustainable blue economy
is evident. Nevertheless, persistent implementation and coordination gaps
could undermine progress toward fisheries sustainability, biodiversity targets,
SDG 14, and climate-resilience objectives by 2030.
6.1 Key findings
6.1.1 Legally comprehensive, institutionally fragmented governance, with
persistent implementation gaps
Viet Nam’s coastal and marine governance rests on a comparatively strong
legal and strategic framework aligned with international commitments and
domestic priorities. However, institutional fragmentation continues to weaken
implementation: enforcement capacity, routine feedback from monitoring to
management, and consistent application across provinces remain uneven.
Fragmentation across fisheries, conservation, ports/shipping, energy,
aquaculture, and tourism—together with large disparities in provincial capacity
and financing—is the single most critical constraint to effective ecosystem-
based and transboundary governance. This is reflected in TWAP-related
scores: medium–low completeness, weak integration, and limited but gradually
strengthening engagement, particularly through community and civil society
participation.
6.1.2 MSP is a central integration instrument, but institutionalisation is
incomplete.
National MSP is increasingly used to reconcile competing uses (ports/shipping,
fisheries, conservation, tourism, energy) through spatial rules. Scenario-based
planning suggests potential economic and social gains under “blue” pathways,
but benefits depend on legal embedding, enforceable cross-sector procedures,
and stronger provincial capacity for implementation, permitting, and
compliance.
6.1.3 MPAs face structural financing and enforcement constraints, with
coverage and effectiveness shortfalls
MPA coverage remains below stated ambitions, including the 2030 target. Many
sites have constrained operating budgets, uneven enforcement presence, and
gaps in management planning and monitoring. Overlapping pressures from

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fishing, tourism development, and land-based pollution can reduce ecological
effectiveness even where MPAs are formally designated.
6.1.4 IUU fishing remains a persistent governance stressor despite
compliance gains
Viet Nam has strengthened administrative sanctions and reduced some vessel-
monitoring violations, including under EU “yellow card” scrutiny, but IUU risks
remain material. Drivers include limited patrol and inspection coverage,
procedural and evidentiary challenges in case handling, livelihood-related
incentives among parts of the small-scale fleet, and operational complexity in
disputed or sensitive South China Sea waters.
6.1.5 Conservation responsibilities are centralized, but the strongest
pressures are controlled by provinces—especially after deeper
decentralization following sector mergers
In Viet Nam, assessing ecosystem status and initiating conservation responses
sits mainly with the natural resources and environment sector, while the main
drivers of marine ecosystems decline come from development sectors
(transport, construction, industry and trade, tourism, and fisheries) that
provinces steer through planning, licensing, and field management. Weak
provincial cross-sector coordination—together with overlapping mandates and
inconsistent legal objectives—reduces effectiveness and often makes policy
responses slower than rising pressures. This challenge is sharper under
strengthened decentralization after sector consolidation, making provincial
leadership more visible and decisive. In this context, the Chair of the Provincial
People’s Committee is a key institutional “decision point”, shaping whether
conservation is prioritized or traded off in coastal growth. Without clear
accountability and performance assessment, short-term growth incentives can
continue to dominate long-term ecosystem protection.
6.1.6 Transboundary cooperation exists, but operational coverage and
utilization remain limited
Bilateral and regional frameworks (China–Viet Nam fisheries arrangement in
the Gulf of Tonkin; ASEAN initiatives on marine debris and SDG 14; East Asian
Seas platforms) provide partial scaffolding. Gaps persist in science-based
shared-stock management, routine information exchange and joint
enforcement, and coordinated pollution control and climate-risk governance
across shared systems.
6.1.7 Co-management models show promise but need durable
institutional anchoring
Experience in Tam Giang Lagoon, Ham Thuan Nam, and other pilots indicates
co-management and ecosystem-based approaches can improve ecological
outcomes and livelihood compatibility when backed by clear rights, monitoring,
and credible enforcement linkages. However, many models remain project-
dependent and can weaken when external funding or facilitation ends,

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underscoring the need for integration into provincial planning, budgets, and
accountability systems.
6.1.8 Blue economy strategy and SDG 14 commitments create a reform
window—conditional on tools and finance
Strategies, SDG 14 monitoring, and blue economy scenario analysis point to
economic and social gains from more integrated, climate-smart, and equitable
governance. Achieving these gains requires implementation-ready instruments
(operational rules, data systems, enforcement pathways) and scalable
financing (e.g., conservation trust funds, blue bonds, PES), supported by
credible monitoring and benefit-sharing arrangements.
Strategic implications
The assessment concludes that Vietnam’s marine governance challenge is not
a lack of policies or institutions, but rather a need to:
• Strengthen implementation and enforcement, particularly on IUU fishing
and MPA regulations.
• Institutionalize integration through binding MSP, inter-ministerial
coordination, and robust provincial ICZM mechanisms.
• Scale and sustain participatory models, making co-management and
community-based conservation a routine part of state governance rather
than a project exception.
• Secure sustainable financing, shifting from short-term donor projects to
domestic and blended instruments that can reliably fund enforcement,
conservation, and adaptation.
• Deepen transboundary cooperation in the South China Sea and Gulf of
Thailand through science-based shared-stock management, joint
monitoring, and pollution and climate-risk coordination.
Taken together, these reforms can convert Vietnam’s strong legal and strategic
commitments into tangible improvements in fisheries sustainability, ecosystem
health, climate resilience, and social equity by 2030, and position the country
as a regional leader in blue economy governance in Southeast Asia.
6.2. Economic arrangements
6.2.1 Political and economic drivers
Over the past decade, Viet Nam has demonstrated significant economic
convergence within the ASEAN-6 group of major marine economies (Indonesia,
Thailand, Malaysia, Viet Nam, Philippines, Cambodia). World Bank data reveals
a trajectory of rapid structural transformation: Viet Nam has surpassed Malaysia
and the Philippines in total economic size (Nominal GDP) and is effectively
narrowing the gap with Thailand.
While Viet Nam remains a lower-middle-income economy in terms of GDP per
capita, its external position is exceptionally strong. The economy is
characterized by substantial current account surpluses driven by a
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manufacturing export boom, a pattern that contrasts with the deficits often
observed in peer economies like the Philippines and Indonesia. At current
growth rates, Viet Nam is on a trajectory to challenge Thailand for the second-
largest economic position in ASEAN (behind Indonesia) within the next decade.
For a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA), this macroeconomic
performance is a direct driver of marine pressure: the export-led growth model
relies heavily on maritime transport, coastal logistics, and industrial inputs,
thereby linking national economic success directly to the intensity of coastal
land use and shipping traffic in the South China Sea.

GDP Per Capita (Nominal, US$)

14,000

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024

Vietnam Thailand Indonesia Malaysia Cambodia Philippines

Figure 1. GDP per Capita (Current US$): Vietnam and Selected Southeast
Asian Economies, 2011–2024 (World Bank, 2025)

Current Account Balance (US$B)

50
40
30
20
10
0
Vietnam Thailand Indonesia Malaysia Cambodia Philippines
-10
-20
-30
-40

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024

Figure 2. Current Account Balance (US$ billions): Vietnam and Selected

Southeast Asian Economies, 2011–2024 (World Bank, 2025)

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Vietnam is a fast-growing economy progressing toward middle-income status,
supported by stronger inflation control. After 2020, growth became more
volatile, but the economy showed strong recovery capacity. Inflation rose
slightly in 2024 but stayed moderate, which underscores the importance of
improving productivity and managing macro-financial risks while sustaining high
growth.
From 2011 to 2024, Vietnam’s economy expanded substantially. Nominal GDP
(current US$) increased from US$173 billion (2011) to US$476 billion (2024),
reflecting a large rise in economic scale. Before COVID-19, real GDP growth
was high and relatively stable, mostly 5.3–7.5% during 2011–2019 (about 6.6%
on average). The pandemic led to a sharp slowdown, with growth falling to
2.87% (2020) and 2.55% (2021). Despite this, nominal GDP continued to
increase, from US$347 billion (2020) to US$366 billion (2021). Growth then
rebounded to 8.54% (2022), moderated to 5.07% (2023), and strengthened
again to 7.09% (2024). Overall, the long-term pattern is rapid growth, with short-
term changes mainly linked to external shocks (Figure 1.1.3).
GDP per capita (current US$) also rose steadily, from US$1,951 (2011) to
US$4,717 (2024), more than double. The pace after 2021 was particularly clear:
per-capita GDP increased from US$3,704 (2021) to US$4,148 (2022) and
continued rising through 2024. Inflation outcomes improved markedly. Inflation
was very high in 2011 (18.7%), declined to single digits by 2012–2014, and
reached a low of 0.6% (2015). From 2016 onward, inflation remained mostly
within a ~2–4% range, including 3.2% (2022), 3.3% (2023), and 3.6% (2024).
This indicates a transition from earlier instability toward a more stable
macroeconomic environment, with strong growth occurring alongside moderate
inflation (Figure 4).
600 9.0
8.54
8.0
500 7.47 7.36 476
6.99 6.94 434 7.09
7.0
6.69 413
6.41 6.42
400 366 6.0
5.5 5.55 334 347
310 5.07 5.0
300 281
257
233 239 4.0
214
196
200 173 2.87 3.0
2.55
2.0
100
1.0

0 0.0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024

GDP (Nominal, US$ bn) GDP Growth (%)

Figure 3 Vietnam: Nominal GDP and Real GDP Growth, 2011–2024 (World
Bank, 2025)

179
 5,000 4,717 20
18.7 4,323
4,500 4,148 18
4,000 3,704 16
3,441 3,534
3,500 3,222 14
2,956
3,000 2,546 2,578 2,735 12
2,360
2,500 2,185 10
1,951 9.1
2,000 8
1,500 6.6 6
1,000 4.1 3.5 3.5 3.64
2.7 2.8 3.2 3.2 3.3
500 1.8 2
0 0.6 0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
Year

GDP Per Capita (US$) Inflation (%)

Figure 4. Vietnam: GDP per Capita and Inflation, 2011–2024 (World Bank,
2025)
Macroeconomic conditions directly influence the state’s ability to fund
environmental and marine priorities. Recent public sources indicate that the
current account surplus reached 6.6% of GDP in 2024 (IMF Article IV), reflecting
strong external earnings but also exposure to trade shocks. The National
Assembly-approved state budget deficit estimate for 2024 was 3.6% of GDP,
while Ministry of Finance public reporting indicates an estimated 2024 deficit
around 3.1% of realized GDP (MOF budget transparency portal). This public
debt as below the National Assembly ceiling, and this fiscal space is relevant to
infrastructure-led growth strategies.
The Blue Economy Strategy National political direction explicitly prioritizes sea-
based economic development while increasingly recognizing environmental
risks. Resolution No. 36-NQ/TW regarding the Strategy for Sustainable
Development of Viet Nam’s Sea-Based Economy (to 2030, vision to 2045)
frames the marine economy as a primary national development driver.
Crucially, the Resolution acknowledges that marine pollution (including plastic
waste), ecosystem degradation, and weak cross-sector linkages act as binding
constraints on long-term growth. This strategic framing creates a "design signal"
prioritizing large-scale coastal investments (ports, industry, energy). However,
it simultaneously creates an urgent requirement for integrated coastal
management (ICM) and enforcement capacity to mitigate the environmental
externalities of such rapid development.
The growth model of Viet Nam concentrates economic activity and
infrastructure in coastal zones. Key drivers include:
• Export-Oriented Manufacturing: Coastal industrialization is clustered
near deep-water ports and logistics corridors. This drives demand for
coastal land conversion, dredging, and industrial zone expansion,
increasing risks associated with wastewater discharge and hazardous
waste management.

180
 • Maritime Transport: The expansion of port capacity increases
operational and accidental pollution risks (oil spills, ship-generated
waste, invasive species via ballast water etc.). These risks are inherently
transboundary, as shipping lanes connect Viet Nam’s waters to regional
seas and neighboring states.
• Fisheries and Aquaculture: The sheer economic weight of this sector
creates powerful incentives for fleet expansion and aquaculture
intensification, which can lead to stock depletion and habitat conversion
unless constrained by effective management.
• Coastal Tourism and Urbanization: Rapid urban growth, particularly in
provinces with major beach destinations, increases seasonal loads of
municipal wastewater and solid waste, while raising demand for shoreline
protection against erosion.
• Energy and Infrastructure: The expansion of nearshore and offshore
energy development introduces cumulative impacts, including marine
space competition and potential habitat disturbance.
However, the economic drivers vary by marine/coastal subregion, with
governance implications for spatially uneven implementation.
• South China Sea – Gulf of Tonkin: Strong concentration of port–
industrial activity and FDI-attractive localities (Hai Phong and Quang
Ninh), increasing risks from industrial effluents, port development, and
land-based marine pollution.
• South China Sea – Central Coast and South-Central Coast: Mixed
tourism–port–fisheries economies. Where rapid urban tourism growth
outpaces sanitation investment, coastal water quality risks rise.
• South China Sea – Southeast Coast: Major port and industrial cluster
dynamics (including large logistics nodes in Ho Chi Minh), with high
exposure to shipping-related pollution and coastal industrial discharges.
• Gulf of Thailand (Southwest Coast): Strong dependence on fisheries,
aquaculture, and mangrove-linked livelihoods, with governance
sensitivity to small-scale fisheries access, aquaculture effluent control,
and shoreline ecosystem condition.
To link drivers to governance needs, Table 1 summarizes typical pathways.
Table 1. Economic drivers and governance-relevant pressure pathways

Economic Typical Main pressure Governance/

driver concentration pathways relevant financing
(by coastal to NTDA implications
subregion)

Port/logistics Gulf of Tonkin; Dredging impacts; Higher needs for

expansion Southeast Coast accidental spills; ship port reception

181
 waste; coastal habitat facilities, spill
conversion preparedness,
and compliance
monitoring (often
multi-agency;
costly)

Coastal Gulf of Tonkin; Wastewater/nutrients; Requires

industrial Southeast hazardous waste; sustained
zones Coast; selected thermal pollution; budgets for
Central/South- shoreline modification inspections,
Central nodes monitoring, and
treatment
infrastructure;
enforcement
resourcing
becomes critical

Fisheries and All subregions; Stock depletion; Requires

aquaculture aquaculture bycatch; habitat financing for
particularly conversion; management
strong in Mekong nutrient/chemical measures (data,
Delta coasts loads from ponds monitoring,
(SCS and GoT) compliance) and
pollution control
in production
landscapes

Tourism/urban Central Coast; Municipal Strong demand

growth South-Central wastewater; solid for sanitation
Coast; selected waste; coastal investment, solid
islands/coastal erosion from waste systems,
cities shoreline hardening and coastal risk
reduction finance

While Resolution 36-NQ/TW establishes the high-level intent to balance growth

with protection, the effectiveness of this strategy depends on whether public
investment, regulation, and enforcement budgets can keep pace with the
localized pressures generated by these powerful economic drivers.
6.2.2. National budgetary allocations
[Link]. Budgetary structure
Viet Nam uses fiscal policy instruments to generate revenue and influence
environmental behavior, but the link between revenue and coastal outcomes
depends on budget allocation decisions. The Environmental Protection Tax as
a fiscal instrument intended to help address environmental issues, including by
generating revenues associated with environmentally harmful products

182
(ESCAP, 2017). The legal basis is the Law on Environmental Protection Tax
No. 57/2010/QH12). In governance terms, the tax is a design feature; whether
it improves marine outcomes depends on how revenues contribute to waste
management, wastewater treatment, and enforcement capacity.
The budget system follows the Law on the State Budget. Spending is planned
and reported across central and local budgets and across major categories
(development investment, recurrent spending, contingencies, etc.). Most
coastal and marine management is delivered at the local level. This includes
inspection, waste services, small ports and fisheries landing sites, coastal
pollution control, fisheries enforcement, and protected area operations. In
contrast, the central budget mainly funds national standards, national
programmes, and specialised forces.
In practice, spending that affects coastal and marine outcomes is spread across
many sector budget lines ( environment and climate, construction and urban
infrastructure, agriculture and fisheries, transport and ports, disaster risk
management) and across both central and provincial budgets. This makes it
difficult to track and coordinate funding for specific coastal outcomes.
Budget constraints are stronger in provinces that depend on transfers. Only 9
of 28 coastal provinces are fiscally self-balancing, while 19 rely on central
budget transfers (World Bank, 2025). Provincial budgets must also prioritise
“non-deferrable” recurrent costs ( salaries and social security), which can
reduce flexible funding for marine management.
[Link]. Public spending on environment and climate
UNICEF (2021) estimates that in 2020, public spending on environment and
climate action was 1.5% of total general government spending (about VND 25.6
trillion). Most of this spending focused on:
• Solid waste management, averaging about VND 10 trillion per year
(2018–2020).
• Wastewater management, whose share increased from 21.9% (2018) to
27.5% (2020) of environmental spending.
These areas are relevant for reducing land-based pollution. However, broad
budget categories (including “other environmental protection”) limit assessment
of how much spending directly benefits coastal waters versus inland priorities.
[Link]. Public investment priorities in the marine economy
Analysis of public investment classified under “marine economy” groups
suggests a strong focus on infrastructure rather than ecosystem management.
Infrastructure dominates: Coastal infrastructure and construction represented
74% of marine economy public investment in 2016–2019, rising to 87% in
2020–2022 (World Bank, 2025). This spending is mainly for “hard” assets such
as expressways, coastal arterial roads, irrigation works, and sea dikes.

183
Fisheries investment declined: The share for fisheries and aquaculture fell from
8% (2016–2019) to 3% (2020–2022).
100%
10
18 3
Percentage of marine 80% 8
investment
60%

40% 87
74

20%

0%
Others2026-2019 2020-2022
Fisheries and Aquaculture

Figure 5. Comparative bar chart showing the divergence between

Infrastructure and Fisheries investment shares over time (sources: World
Bank, 2025)
The funding structure for the marine economy is overwhelmingly public.
Between 2016 and 2022, 97.53% of investment was financed by the state
budget (90.57% domestic public capital; 6.96% ODA). Official Development
Assistance (ODA), while secondary, has been preferentially used for capital-
intensive projects such as dyke systems (World Bank, 2025).
Allocations for Biodiversity and Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) Public budgets
are the dominant source for biodiversity conservation, accounting for 77% of
total expenditures in the 2011–2015 period (Tran, 2023; UNDP, 2018).
However, operating budgets for Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) remain limited:
• Marine/Coastal PA Management Boards: 0.7–2.0 billion VND/year.
• National Park Management Boards: 10–30 billion VND/year.
The Financial Needs Assessment (FNA) estimates that maintaining the existing
marine and coastal protected area system requires 242.7 billion VND in 2024,
rising to 307.4 billion VND by 2030 (Tran, 2023). However, meeting the new
area targets for MPAs will require a substantial increase in capital and recurrent
financing. Total annual needs are estimated to rise sharply to 2,906.1 billion
VND by 2026 and 6,347.5 billion VND by 2030, driven by establishment and
infrastructure costs.
This allocation pattern supports economic connectivity and physical coastal
resilience but may not automatically secure funding for the "soft" infrastructure
of governance, such as monitoring, enforcement, and ecosystem-based
management (World Bank, 2025).
Table 2 compiles core macro indicators commonly used in national governance
TDAs. IMF values for 2024–2025 should be treated as estimates/projections as
of July 2024 (IMF, 2024), while the GSO value is an official statistic for 2024
(GSO, 2025).

184
Table 2. Core macro-fiscal indicators relevant to governance diagnostics

Indicator Indicator Name Value / Status Source / Year

Category

Macro-Fiscal Real GDP Growth 7.09% (2024) General

Projection 8.02% (2025) Statistics Office
of Viet Nam,
2025.

Public Debt (% of GDP) 33.8% (2024) IMF, 2024

State Budget Net -2.6% (2024) IMF, 2024

Borrowing (% of GDP)

Unemployment rate 2.24% (working- General

age Statistics Office
unemployment of Viet Nam,
rate, Q4 2024) 2025

Public Environment Spending 1.5% (approx. UNICEF, 2021

Spending (% of Gen. Govt. Exp.) 25.6T VND)

Wastewater Share of 27.5% UNICEF, 2021

Env. Spending

Marine Infrastructure Share 87% World Bank,

Investment (M8) of Marine 2025
Investment

Fisheries Share (M4) of 3% World Bank,

Marine Investment 2025

Biodiversity MPA Maintenance 242.7 Billion VND UNDP/Tran,

Finance Need (2024) 2023

MPA Expansion Target 6,347.5 Billion UNDP/Tran,

Need (2030) VND 2023

6.2.3 Investments (national and international) (DDI/FDI/ODA by relevant

coastal sectors)
[Link] Scale and Composition of Investment in Coastal Zones
Investment flows are a major driver of environmental change in Viet Nam’s
land–sea system. They influence where economic activity expands, what types
of infrastructure are built, and how much financing is available for environmental
management. Between 2011 and 2022, total realised social investment in Viet

185
Nam’s 28 coastal provinces and cities reached VND 14,158.9 trillion, equal to
51.2% of the national total (GSO, 2023).
The investment structure in coastal provinces has shifted toward domestic
private capital. The state-sector share fell from 27.18% (2016) to 22.61%
(2022). Over the same period, the non-state (domestic private) share increased
from 56.58% to 63.81%, while the FDI share declined slightly from 16.24% to
13.59% (World Bank, 2025). This pattern suggests that transboundary
environmental management cannot rely only on public budgets. It also
increases the importance of regulatory tools that shape private investment
decisions, such as enforceable environmental compliance requirements in
supply chains and extended producer responsibility (EPR).
[Link]. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
Although its share declined slightly, FDI remains an important channel for
industrial development, with clear concentration in major logistics and industrial
hubs. In 2024, FDI inflows were strongly clustered in provinces and cities, Hai
Phong—a major port city in the Gulf of Tonkin—was among the top destinations
with about USD 4.94 billion in registered capital. Quang Ninh (Gulf of Tonkin)
and Ho Chi Minh City (Southeast Coast) were also reported among leading
destinations (Ministry of Planning and Investment, 2025).
Evidence also indicates a gap between investment in industrial platforms and
investment in environmental infrastructure. In several coastal provinces,
including Quang Binh and Thai Binh, the number of compliant wastewater
treatment plants remains lower than the number of industrial parks and export-
processing zones (World Bank, 2025). This creates a direct risk of land-based
pollution reaching shared marine waters.
[Link]. Public Investment
Public investment in the “ocean/marine economy” increased from VND
10,144.5 billion (2016) to VND 32,729.2 billion (2022) (World Bank, 2025).
Financing for this portfolio is mainly domestic-public: 97.53% comes from the
state budget, while 6.96% is reported as Official Development Assistance
(ODA). Although ODA is small in aggregate terms, it can be strategically
important in selected “new ocean economy” sectors and ecosystem restoration.
• Renewable energy: For the renewable energy sector, ODA accounted for
57.22% of identified financing, compared with 37.10% from domestic
state budgets (World Bank, 2025).
• Ecosystem restoration: ODA has been important for mangrove planting
and restoration. Examples from 2016–2019 include projects in Kien
Giang (VND 306 billion), Ca Mau (VND 179 billion), Thai Binh (VND 159
billion), Bac Lieu (VND 90 billion) (World Bank, 2025). These locations
align with key transboundary links. Thai Binh connects the Red River
Delta to the Gulf of Tonkin, while Kien Giang, Bac Lieu and Ca Mau
connect the Mekong Delta to the Southwest Coast. The condition of

186
 mangrove systems in these areas influences sediment movement,
nursery habitats, and plastic retention in shared marine waters.
ODA and development finance remain significant for sanitation and
environmental infrastructure in coastal cities. The World Bank’s Viet Nam
Coastal Cities Sustainable Environment Project (P156143) is a concrete
example. The project objective was to increase access to sanitation services
and improve the operational performance of sanitation utilities, implemented
through provincial project management units in Quang Binh, Binh Dinh, Ninh
Thuan, and Khanh Hoa (World Bank, 2024a). These provinces/cities align with
South China Sea coastal subregions (Central Coast and South-Central Coast).

Others

ODA

State budget

Overall

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Marine & coastal infrastructure Marine regional development

Renewable energy & emerging industries Coastal industry
Fisheries & aquaculture Oil & gas + other resources
Maritime economy Coastal tourism & marine services

Figure 6. Investment structure (by investment decision), total 2016–2022

(source: World Bank, 2025)
[Link] Emerging Sustainable Finance Instruments
Investments in sustainable finance instruments are emerging but remain
unevenly linked to coastal outcomes. For instance, BIDV developed a Green
Bond Framework (2023) and a Sustainability Bond Framework (2024) with
World Bank technical assistance (World Bank, 2024b). While these instruments
have the potential to support wastewater and climate adaptation investments,
their impact on coastal integrity depends on rigorous project selection,
verification, and transparency regarding the use of proceeds.
6.2.4 Provincial Investment Profile and Socio-Economic Drivers
Coastal provinces play a structural role in Viet Nam’s economy. Overall, they
tend to show higher socio-economic development than inland provinces,
reflected in a larger economic scale, higher growth, and higher urbanisation.
Figure 1.4.1 indicates that in several years, GDP growth in coastal provinces
exceeded the national average. In 2018 and 2019, for example, coastal
provinces grew about 1 percentage point faster than provinces without a
coastline. During the post–COVID-19 recovery, coastal provinces also recorded
stronger growth than non-coastal provinces. Urbanisation is also higher in

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coastal areas: in 2016, the average urbanisation rate across the 28 coastal
provinces was 37.6%, compared with 30.11% in non-coastal provinces. The
gap has narrowed to around 6.1 percentage points, as inland provinces have
urbanised rapidly.
From 2018 to 2022, the combined Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP)
of the 28 coastal provinces remained close to half of national GDP, ranging from
49.8% to 50.9%. In 2022, coastal GRDP was estimated at VND 4,786 trillion,
equal to 49.8% of national GDP (MONRE, 2024). Coastal growth is also a major
driver of national performance: during 2011–2022, coastal provinces
contributed about 47.6% of national GDP growth (GSO, 2023).
9
8
7
GDP growth rates (%)

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Inland provinces Coastal provinces Overall

Figure 7. GDP growth rates (%) of the coastal provinces, non-coastal

provinces, and national average
The marine economy is closely linked to livelihoods and urbanisation. In 2022,
coastal provinces had 48.6 million people (48.9% of the national population)
and a labour force of 25.2 million (48.7% of the national total). Higher
urbanisation in coastal provinces supports structural change toward industry,
port logistics, and services (World Bank, 2024).
The economic weight of the coastal zone is supported by large capital
formation. Total realised social investment in coastal provinces during 2011–
2022 reached VND 14,158.9 trillion, equal to 51.2% of total investment across
all 63 provinces (GSO, 2023). However, investment is uneven and concentrated
in a small number of “growth poles” that function as port–industrial hubs. Major
concentrations include Ho Chi Minh City (VND 3,801.2 trillion), Thanh Hoa
(VND 1,185.6 trillion), Hai Phong (VND 1,054.2 trillion), and Quang Ninh (VND
739.4 trillion). In provinces such as Hai Phong and Quang Ninh—key nodes in
the Gulf of Tonkin—investment-to-GDP ratios have exceeded 50% in recent
years (World Bank, 2024).

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 49

47

Investment/GDP (%)
45

43

41

39

37

35
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Inland provinces Coastal provinces

Figure 8. Comparative Investment Intensity (Investment/GDP) in Coastal and

Inland Provinces (2011–2022)
This pattern reinforces the “gateway” role of coastal provinces. Seaports and
related infrastructure support trade connectivity and participation in global value
chains. At the same time, the World Bank (2024) notes that logistics
competitiveness still requires continued infrastructure upgrades and
governance reforms.
Table 3. Indicative coastal province typology for governance diagnostics

Typology Typical Likely Implications for

(investment/sector subregion dominant governance
profile) examples marine capacity needs
pressures

Port–industrial / high Gulf of Industrial Higher monitoring

FDI coastal nodes Tonkin (Hai effluents; port frequency,
Phong); pollution; spill enforcement
Southeast risks; dredging staffing, port waste
Coast (Ho impacts systems, spill
Chi Minh readiness; stronger
City) inter-agency
coordination

Mixed tourism–urban Central Municipal Strong sanitation

growth nodes Coast; wastewater; capex/opex needs;
South- solid waste service performance
Central leakage; monitoring; tourism-
Coast shoreline sector compliance
modification systems

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 Aquaculture–fisheries Gulf of Nutrient High need for local
livelihood provinces Thailand; loading; compliance
parts of habitat systems, community
Mekong conversion; engagement costs,
Delta coasts fishing effort and pollution
and gear controls integrated
conflict with livelihoods

Lower-investment / Present Often Risk of

capacity-constrained across all cumulative implementation
coastal provinces subregions small sources; gaps despite
weaker waste national policies;
systems; needs targeted
informal transfers, technical
coastal uses assistance, shared
services/data
systems

Investment concentration creates both opportunities and risks for governance.

Provinces with high investment levels may have higher own-source revenues
and stronger administrative capacity. This can help them co-finance
environmental infrastructure and strengthen monitoring systems. However,
high investment also increases the scale and complexity of environmental
pressures. In many cases, development can move faster than wastewater
treatment, solid waste services, and enforcement, especially where several
sectors expand at the same time (industry, ports, and tourism).
Provinces with major ports and industrial zones are connected to transboundary
risks through shipping corridors, including accidental spills and ship-generated
waste. These areas can also contribute to marine litter that can be transported
across shared waters. Provinces with high fishing effort are linked to shared
and migratory fish stocks. This increases the need for coordination beyond
provincial borders and, in some cases, across national boundaries.
6.2.5 Sustainable financing initiatives and mechanisms
Sustainable financing initiatives provide the necessary mechanisms for
predictable, long-term funding beyond short-term projects or annual budget
cycles. For the National Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA), this is
critical because priority actions—such as mangrove restoration, fisheries
enforcement, and pollution monitoring—require recurrent finance. However, a
structural gap remains. The national biodiversity finance assessment estimates
that meeting a subset of national biodiversity targets requires 114,718.3 billion
VND for the 2024–2030 period. Conversely, mobilized and expected resources
are insufficient, resulting in a projected shortfall of approximately 27,984.4
billion VND (UNDP Viet Nam, 2024). This gap stems from limited public budgets
and transaction costs in fund mobilization, creating a strong policy rationale for
expanding the toolkit of sustainable financing instruments.

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Viet Nam utilizes fiscal instruments to simultaneously generate revenue and
influence environmental performance.
• Environmental Protection Tax: The Law on Environmental Protection
Tax No. 57/2010/QH12 provides the legal basis for taxing goods with
negative environmental impacts (Government of Viet Nam, 2010). While
this instrument generates stable revenue streams, its effectiveness for
the marine sector is constrained by the lack of direct earmarking;
revenues are not automatically allocated to coastal waste systems or
enforcement (ESCAP, 2017).
• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): The Law on Environmental
Protection (2020) and Decree No. 08/2022/ND-CP establish EPR
mechanisms for packaging and products. By shifting waste management
costs from local budgets to producers, EPR has the potential to
strengthen recycling systems. However, in coastal tourism hubs where
leakage risks are high, success depends on rigorous verification and the
integrity of local collection chains.
A potential domestic revenue source is the capture of resource rents from the
use of marine space (sea-area allocation fees and related payments). By 2024,
24 of 28 coastal provinces had issued decisions to allocate sea areas to
organisations for exploitation and use (Viet Nam Administration of Seas and
Islands, 2024).
Examples show the scale of this revenue stream:
• Tra Vinh Province: As of 30 August 2024, sea-area use revenues
included more than VND 500 billion paid to the central budget and VND
214.4 billion to the local budget. Cumulative revenues linked to allocation
decisions since 2016 were nearly VND 1,500 billion.
• Ca Mau Province: Reported sea-area use revenues above VND 100
billion, largely linked to sea-area allocations for offshore wind power.
National authorities are also considering auctions of sea-area use rights to
increase state revenues. If these mechanisms include strong environmental
safeguards, the revenues could support cumulative impact management and
environmental monitoring in high-pressure regions such as the Gulf of Tonkin
and the Southeast Coast.
PPPs and green bonds provide a legal pathway to mobilize private capital for
infrastructure relevant to marine outcomes (wastewater, solid waste, climate
resilience). Private capital is increasingly used to finance infrastructure that
affects marine outcomes, including wastewater treatment and climate
resilience.
• Public–Private Partnerships (PPPs): The Law on PPP Investment No.
64/2020/QH14 provides a legal framework for large investments in
sanitation and waste management. A key constraint is financial viability.
PPP projects need stable and predictable revenue, which is often difficult
in municipal waste services without tariff reforms.

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 • Green and sustainability bonds: These instruments are emerging to
complement public finance. For example, BIDV developed green and
sustainability bond frameworks with technical support from the World
Bank (World Bank, 2024b). Their effectiveness depends on (i) a clear
pipeline of “bankable” coastal projects ( climate adaptation infrastructure)
and (ii) transparent monitoring and reporting.
Ecosystem markets and community finance
• Payments for ecosystem services (PES): PES has been effective in
the forestry sector, but applying it to coastal and marine ecosystems
remains difficult. The Sustainable Ocean Economy analysis highlights
challenges in identifying payers and beneficiaries for “direct payment”
schemes linked to coastal aquaculture and tourism (World Bank, 2025).
• Community-based finance: In nearshore fisheries, 78% of co-
management models report having a community fund. However,
contributions are often small ( VND 5,000 per household per year).
These funds can support local participation, but they are not large enough
for wider ecosystem management without state co-financing (World
Bank, 2025).
6.3. Institutional Setting And Governance Architecture
Viet Nam’s coastal and marine governance is implemented through a multi-
level, multi-sector administrative system. Structurally, it combines (i) central
policy and regulatory functions, (ii) decentralized implementation by coastal
provincial governments, and (iii) specialized maritime enforcement forces
operating in offshore zones.
Significantly, the governance landscape has undergone a fundamental
restructuring following the issuance of Decree No. 35/2025/ND-CP
(Government of Viet Nam, 2025). Effective March 2025, the former Ministry of
Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) and the former Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment (MONRE) were merged to form the Ministry of
Agriculture and Environment (MAE). This consolidation aims to streamline the
state apparatus and integrate the management of land, water, and biological
resources.
For this NTDA governance profile, the institutional setting is assessed as
governance design (formal mandates, roles, organisational arrangements) and
governance effectiveness (coordination, implementation capacity, monitoring
and enforcement performance, and evidence of results where available). The
transboundary relevance of institutions is highlighted where mandates relate to
cross-border environmental pollution, shared fisheries risks (including IUU
fishing), shipping corridors, and incident response.

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6.3.1 Institutions, regulatory agencies, and administrative arrangements
[Link] Institutional architecture and mandates
Viet Nam’s institutional system for coastal and marine governance is based on
national laws and national plans, but implementation relies strongly on
provincial authorities. Core functions include marine spatial planning and
coastal resource planning; environmental management and pollution control;
fisheries management and compliance; maritime transport and port
administration; and maritime law enforcement and security.
The creation of the Ministry of Agriculture and Environment (MAE) represents
an important institutional change. By merging the functions of the former
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) and the former Ministry
of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), the 2025 reorganisation is
designed to bring most land–sea interface functions under one lead ministry. In
principle, this consolidation covers:
• Integrated marine management: marine spatial planning and coastal
zone management (previously under MONRE).
• Sectoral resource management: fisheries, aquaculture, and
conservation (previously under MARD).
• Pollution control: regulation of waste and wastewater (previously under
MONRE).
However, several critical functions remain outside MAE and are managed by
other ministries. These include national defense, maritime security, transport
and logistics, foreign affairs and diplomacy.
Key National and Sub-national Institutions Table 4 summarizes the primary
institutions whose mandates shape marine governance outcomes in the South
China Sea and Gulf of Thailand.
Table 4. Core institutions and mandates relevant to coastal and marine
governance

Institution / Core mandate Illustrative Main

level relevant to legal/mandate operational
governance basis interface

(1) National Approves national National Marine National

Assembly & plans and Spatial Planning planning
Government adopts/implements Resolution No. decisions;
legal frameworks for 139/2024/QH15 Treaty
marine space, ratification.
environment, fisheries,
and enforcement.

(2) Ministry of State management Decree No. National

Agriculture across agriculture, 35/2025/ND-CP programs;

193
and fisheries, and Technical
Environment environment; hosts standards; Data
(MAE) agencies responsible systems; Sector
for sea–island oversight.
governance and
fisheries management
after 2025
reorganisation.

(3) Viet Nam Dedicated body for sea Law on Marine ICZM; Coastal
Sea and and islands and Island planning;
Islands administration; Resources and Marine
Administratio supports integrated Environment No. monitoring data;
n/Department management of marine 82/2015/QH13 Cross-sector
(VASI) under resources and coordination.
MAE environment.
Responsible for marine
spatial planning,
coastal corridor
management, and
marine plastics policy.

(4) Fisheries Manages fisheries Fisheries Law Port state

Directorate & allocation, aquaculture No. measures;
Surveillance standards, and 18/2017/QH14; Traceability;
(under MAE) combats IUU fishing. VMS
Operates the Vessel operations; At-
Monitoring System sea inspection.
(VMS).

(5) Nature Leads nature Law on Biological Protected area

and conservation and Diversity (2008 policy and
Biodiversity biodiversity and 2018) guidance;
Conservation management; biodiversity
Agency policy/technical data/monitoring
(under MAE) oversight for protected linkages;
areas and biodiversity coordination
conservation with provinces
instruments (including and site-level
marine/coastal management
ecosystems as boards.
relevant).

(6) Leads national climate Law on National

Department change governance Environmental adaptation
of Climate relevant to Protection No. planning

194
Change coastal/marine 72/2020/QH14; guidance and
(DCC) (under planning (adaptation, Decree No. M&E; national
MAE) climate-risk 06/2022/NĐ-CP GHG inventory
management/sea-level (GHG mitigation and MRV
rise considerations), & ozone layer) implementation;
and mitigation allocation/mana
instruments (GHG gement of
management and emissions
carbon market) that quotas;
affect marine/coastal domestic
sectors. carbon market
policy and
operation;
ozone-layer
protection
measures;
coordination for
international
reporting/imple
mentation under
relevant treaties
(Paris
Agreement
UNFCCC and
Montreal
Protocol-related
obligations).

(7) Provincial Decentralised Law on Local Licensing/permi

People’s implementation of Government ts as
Committees marine-related Organization No. decentralised;
(coastal responsibilities; coastal 77/2015/QH13; monitoring;
provinces) planning Law on inspections;
implementation; local Environmental local
environmental Protection No. enforcement
monitoring 72/2020/QH14 coordination;
programmes; local coastal
reporting to central Law on Marine protection
level. and Island corridors and
Resources and marine
Environment environmental
82/2015/QH13 incidents

(8) Viet Nam Patrol, inspection, Viet Nam Coast Maritime zones;
Coast Guard control and law Guard Law No. incident
(Ministry of enforcement in 33/2018/QH14 response

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National maritime zones; may coordination;
Defence - conduct international cross-border
MoD) cooperation relevant to engagement.
maritime law
enforcement.

(9) Border Coastal/border law Viet Nam Border Ports, coastal

Guard enforcement; defined Defence Law No. waters, border
(Ministry of sanctioning powers for 66/2020/QH14. areas.
National fisheries administrative Decree
Defence - violations. 38/2024/ND-CP
MoD) on administrative
penalties in the
fisheries sector.

(10) Enforcement functions Environmental Environmental

Environment including sanctioning Police Ordinance crime/violations;
al Police powers for fisheries No. coordination
(Ministry of violations 10/2014/UBTVQ with provinces.
Public (administrative) and H13
Security - broader environmental
MPS) compliance roles
through national
enforcement system.

(11) Ministry Port and maritime Viet Nam Major ports and
of administration roles; Maritime Code shipping
Construction responsibilities No. corridors
(MoC) – connected to flag/port- 95/2015/QH13; affecting
Vietnam state functions and port Circular pollution risk
Maritime and governance. 18/2025/TT-BXD and
Waterway on compliance.
Administratio organisation/oper
n and port ation of maritime
authorities and inland
waterway port
authorities.

(12) Ministry Coordinates Law on Marine Regional and

of Foreign international and Island bilateral
Affairs cooperation for Resources and cooperation;
(MOFA) transnational marine Environment No. incident
pollution response with 82/2015/QH13 response
MAE (formerly diplomacy.
MONRE).

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(13) Ministry Manages public Law on Budgeting and
of Finance finance levers that Environmental finance for
(MoF) enable coastal/marine Protection No. programmes/pr
governance: state 72/2020/QH14 ojects;
budget allocation, (cross-sector environmental
fiscal instruments compliance finance tools;
(fees/charges), and interface);
oversight of public Decree
spending supporting 14/2023/ND-CP
marine protection, on MoF functions,
monitoring, and tasks, powers,
enforcement; and
organisational
structure

(14) Ministry Leads national science Law on Science Marine R&D

of Science & technology policy, and Technology programmes;
and research programmes, 29/2013/QH13; standards/techn
Technology standards and quality ical regulation
(MOST) infrastructure that support;
support marine technology
governance. transfer;
innovation for
monitoring and
environmental
solutions.

(15) Ministry Sector governance for Law on Industrial &

of Industry energy, industry and Environmental energy policy;
and Trade trade (offshore energy Protection No. coordination on
(MOIT) supply chains, coastal 72/2020/QH14 coastal/offshore
industrial zones, (cross-sector projects;
petroleum/energy- compliance compliance
related risks), interface). interfaces with
supporting cross- environment/po
sector coordination rts
with environment and
maritime regulators.

(16) Ministry State management of Decree No. PPCs and

of Culture, tourism and cultural 43/2025/ND-CP provincial
Sports and heritage; in UNESCO- on functions, DoCST;
Tourism linked contexts (World tasks, powers, destination/site
(MCST) Heritage/heritage sites and management
and associated organisational boards; tourism
destinations; structure of licensing/standa

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 Biosphere Reserves MCST. Law on rds;
where tourism Tourism No. coordination
pressure/financing is 09/2017/QH14. with MAE
material), provides the Law on Cultural (ecosystem
sector basis for visitor- Heritage No. protection) and
use management and 28/2001/QH10 MOFA/UNESC
tourism business (and O processes
regulation—requiring amendments). where relevant.
alignment with
conservation and PPC
decisions.

In addition to formal mandates, Viet Nam uses multi-agency steering

arrangements for priority issues that require rapid inter-ministerial coordination.
A prominent example is national-level steering for IUU fishing compliance,
involves leadership from the Central Government, Ministry of Agriculture and
Environment, Ministry of National Defense, and Coastal Provinces. It bypasses
standard bureaucratic hierarchies to ensure rapid response to the European
Commission’s "Yellow Card" requirements.
While the central level is integrated, the system remains heavily reliant on
Provincial People’s Committees for execution. This creates a "double
accountability" challenge where local departments must answer to both the
Ministry (for policy) and the Provincial Chairman (for budget).
[Link] Vertical coordination and decentralised implementation
Viet Nam’s marine governance operates on a "Unitary but Decentralized"
model, characterized by a clear division of labor between normative oversight
and executive implementation.
• Central Level (MAE and other Ministries): Responsible for "State
Management". This entails setting legal standards, formulating national
master plans, issuing technical guidance, and organizing national-scale
monitoring and database systems.
• Provincial Level (People’s Committees and Departments): Responsible
for "Implementation". Coastal provinces execute local monitoring
programs, supervise compliance, license investment projects, and report
on environmental quality.
• Specialized Forces: In maritime zones beyond provincial jurisdiction,
specialized forces (Fisheries Surveillance, Coast Guard, Border Guard)
enforce specific legal regimes and provide support to provinces where
local enforcement capacity is insufficient.
This pattern is explicitly reflected in the Law on Marine and Island Resources
and Environment (2015), which assigns the MAE (formerly MONRE) roles to
organise and examine implementation of coastal resource master planning, to
develop marine databases, and to receive annual reports from ministries and
coastal provinces.
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In addition, the Law on Marine and Island Resources and Environment requires
annual reporting by: (i) MAE (formerly MONRE) to the Government, and (ii)
ministries and coastal provincial People’s Committees to MAE on baseline
surveys, exploitation and use of marine resources, and marine environmental
protection within their management scope.
Similarly, the Law on Environmental Protection (2020) establishes a multi-level
monitoring network. MAE directs national monitoring programs (including cross-
border sea areas), while provincial PPCs organize local monitoring networks
and report results upward. This design relies heavily on the technical
interoperability of provincial data with central systems.
Since mid-2025, the governance landscape has shifted toward greater
devolution. Decree No. 136/2025/ND-CP regarding decentralization in
agriculture and environment fields introduces provisions that delegate authority
for allocating, recognizing, and withdrawing sea area use rights to the provincial
level.
In practice, vertical effectiveness differs across coastal subregions because
policy problems and administrative burdens differ:
• Gulf of Tonkin and Southeast Coast (SCS): higher density of
ports/industrial activities increases demand for monitoring, permitting,
and enforcement coordination with transport and port authorities.
• South-Central Coast and Central Coast (SCS): strong exposure to
tourism/coastal development pressures raises demands on coastal
corridor implementation and local spatial planning compliance.
• Gulf of Thailand (Southwest Coast): higher salience of cross-border
fishing and IUU risks increases coordination needs among fisheries
agencies, border forces, and ports.
These are institutional workload differences; publicly comparable province-by-
province capacity metrics (staffing, patrol days, inspection frequency) are not
consistently available in one national dataset and are therefore treated as a
data gap for effectiveness assessment.
Table 5. Vertical coordination demands by marine region

Marine Primary Primary Vertical Key Agencies

Region Economic Coordination Challenge Involved
Driver

Gulf of Port–Industrial Industrial Permitting: MAE, Ministry of

Tonkin Complexes Coordinating central Transport
(Hai Phong, transport/environment (VINAMARINE),
Quang Ninh) mandates with local Provincial DORE
zoning.

199
 Central Urban Tourism Spatial Zoning: Enforcing MAE (Sea &
Coast & Coastal coastal setbacks against Islands), Provincial
Infrastructure tourism development Construction Dept,
pressure. Provincial PPC

Southwest Fisheries & Cross-Border MAE (Fisheries

Coast Mangrove Enforcement: Surveillance),
Ecosystems Coordinating IUU patrols Border Guard,
and VMS response in Coast Guard,
border waters. Provincial PPC

[Link] Horizontal coordination

Effective marine governance in Viet Nam requires robust horizontal
coordination because the primary drivers of degradation operate across
sectoral boundaries. Land-based pollution impacts marine water quality; port
expansion alters coastal hydrology; and conservation measures directly affect
fisheries livelihoods and tourism development. Consequently, governance
cannot be siloed: it requires structural alignment between the Ministry of
Agriculture and Environment (MAE) and external partners, particularly the
transport authorities, security forces, and provincial administrations.
The Law on Marine and Island Resources and Environment (2015) establishes
the formal basis for horizontal coordination, mandating specific inter-agency
processes:
• Joint Planning Oversight: MAE (formerly MONRE) is responsible for
coordinating with line ministries and coastal provincial authorities to
organize and inspect the implementation of coastal resource master
planning.
• Consultation Requirements: The law mandates the public posting of
coastal master planning documents and defines consultation periods to
ensure sectoral inputs are captured.
• Data Integration: It establishes a duty for ministries and provinces to
integrate sectoral data into a centralized National Marine and Island
Database, led by MAE.
National Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) serves as the primary institutional
framework for horizontal alignment. The National Assembly’s recent resolution
approving the national MSP defines a comprehensive scope covering coastal
land, islands, and marine waters across 28 coastal provinces (Resolution No.
139/2024/QH15). Following the Government’s implementation plan (Resolution
No. 37/NQ-CP/2025), the MSP framework acts as a binding mechanism that
forces inter-sectoral alignment. It requires that marine economic sectors
(energy, transport, fisheries) align their spatial footprints with environmental
protection objectives, theoretically resolving conflicts before they manifest as
operational disputes.

200
While MSP addresses planning, the control of Illegal, Unreported, and
Unregulated (IUU) fishing illustrates horizontal coordination in enforcement.
Official reporting describes a sophisticated national coordination mechanism
linking central and local levels and multiple agencies, including engagement of
defence-related forces and digital service providers for monitoring. This is
relevant for transboundary fisheries governance because preventing illegal
fishing in foreign waters and ensuring traceability require coordination among
fisheries management, enforcement forces, ports, and legal oversight bodies.
The MAE merger may reduce internal fragmentation between environment and
fisheries functions. However, horizontal coordination remains necessary with:
(i) the Ministry of National Defence (coast guard/border guard), (ii) the Ministry
of Transport (ports/shipping), and (iii) the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
(transboundary incidents and cooperation). MAE has described the merger’s
policy intent as an opportunity to restructure and increase efficiency, but
operational effectiveness will depend on implementing rules, shared data
systems, and incentives that sustain collaboration across agencies.
6.3.2 Monitoring, compliance, and enforcement arrangements
a. Environmental Monitoring:
The Law on Environmental Protection (2020) establishes the legal basis for a
comprehensive monitoring system comprising both national and provincial
components. Crucially for the TDA, the law explicitly lists seawater as an
environmental component subject to monitoring and assigns the Ministry of
Agriculture and Environment (MAE, formerly MONRE) the responsibility to
organize national programs, including those serving inter-regional and cross-
border areas. Provincial People’s Committees are concurrently required to
organize local monitoring and report results upward to the central ministry.
In practice, an official reporting process is operational. The National State of
Sea and Islands Environment Report (2016–2020) serves as the first
consolidated output following the Law on Marine and Island Natural Resources
and Environment. It utilizes data from national monitoring programs and
dedicated analysis stations, with coverage extending across a subset of coastal
provinces. However, official assessments highlight significant constraints in
evidence generation. Comprehensive assessments of pollution loadings
discharged directly into the marine environment remain limited. Available
studies often focus on specific sectors or isolated activities due to persistent
data limitations (MONRE, 2021).
b. Fisheries monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS) and IUU compliance:
For capture fisheries, monitoring and compliance rely on a combination of
specialised enforcement forces and digital monitoring tools.
Fishery control force mandate: Decree No. 102/2012/ND-CP defines the
Fishery Control Force as a specialized state force under the fisheries
administration. Its functions include patrol, inspection, detection, and the
handling of fisheries violations within Viet Nam’s sea areas

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Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) operational monitoring: The Directorate of
Fisheries operates a 24/7 VMS monitoring system at the central level. This
system is designed to detect and follow up on high-risk behaviors, such as VMS
disconnections or boundary crossings. Implementation involves ongoing
coordination and training on electronic traceability software across localities,
the Border Guard, fishing port management boards, and seafood businesses.
Reported compliance trends: Official communications from the Directorate of
Fisheries report a positive trend, noting that the number of vessels violating
IUU-related requirements—such as encroaching on foreign waters or losing
VMS connectivity—has decreased compared to the same period in 2024. While
this serves as a positive directional indicator, it does not replace the need for
consistent, public statistical reporting of violation counts, sanction outcomes,
and deterrence measures by province.
c. Administrative enforcement powers and sanctioning jurisdiction
Enforcement at sea involves several forces with defined sanctioning powers.
• Fisheries sanctions: Decree No. 38/2024/ND-CP, effective from May 20,
2024, establishes strict administrative sanctions for violations in the
fisheries sector, replacing Decree No. 42/2019/ND-CP to combat Illegal,
Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing. It clearly defines the
sanctioning jurisdiction for a wide range of authorities, including
Chairpersons of People’s Committees, Police, Border Guard, Fisheries
Inspection Forces & Inspectors, Forestry Rangers and Coast Guard,
aiming to enhance the effectiveness of law enforcement, particularly
regarding vessel monitoring and compliance with maritime regulations.
• Coast guard operational powers and cooperation: The Law on Viet Nam
Coast Guard (No 33/2018/QH14) provides broad powers to patrol,
inspect, and control activities within Viet Nam’s maritime zones. It also
includes specific provisions enabling international cooperation in
accordance with treaties, which is vital for transboundary incident
response.
• Environmental sanctions: Decree No. 45/2022/ND-CP applies
administrative penalties for environmental violations occurring within Viet
Nam’s contiguous zone, territorial sea, exclusive economic zone (EEZ),
and continental shelf. It also applies to Vietnamese-flagged seagoing
ships globally, unless otherwise provided by international treaty
d. Overlap and coordination implications
The existence of multiple authorities (Coast Guard, Border Guard, Police,
Fisheries Surveillance, Local Governments) with overlapping sanctioning
jurisdiction creates a critical requirement. Effective governance requires clear
operational protocols for: (i) Ensuring seamless transfer of violations detected
by one force to the agency with the appropriate sanctioning power, (ii)
Maintaining chain-of-custody for evidence used in administrative or criminal
proceedings, (iii) Ensuring that sanctions applied by different agencies are

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consolidated into national databases. Without such protocols, overlaps can
weaken deterrence and reduce transparency about enforcement outcomes,
particularly for transboundary-relevant issues (IUU fishing in foreign waters;
pollution incidents affecting neighbouring states). This is an institutional
effectiveness risk rather than a design gap.
6.3.3 Institutional capacity and resourcing
Viet Nam’s marine governance framework has undergone significant structural
reform to address fragmentation and improve resource efficiency. However, the
system faces persistent challenges regarding human resource quantity and
quality, financial dependence on state budgets, and limitations in technical
infrastructure.
A major administrative restructuring occurred in 2025 with the merger of the
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) and the Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) to form the Ministry of
Agriculture and Environment (MAE), This consolidation aims to resolve long-
standing "sectoral silos" and overlapping mandates between resource
exploitation and conservation agencies.
Within the MAE, key specialized units include:
• Viet Nam Administration of Seas and Islands (VASI): Tasked with
integrated marine management, marine spatial planning, and
international cooperation.
• Directorate of Fisheries and Fisheries Surveillance: Responsible for
fisheries management, combating illegal fishing (IUU), and managing
marine protected areas (MPAs).
• Department of Nature Conservation and Biodiversity: Oversees the
implementation of the National Biodiversity Strategy.
The MAE merger may create opportunities to align environment–fisheries
planning and monitoring functions within one ministry. However, it can also
create short-term transition burdens: reassigning responsibilities, integrating
data systems, harmonising internal procedures, and clarifying provincial
reporting lines. An MAE communication frames the merger as an administrative
reform step aiming for a streamlined and effective apparatus. Whether these
intended benefits translate into coastal/marine outcomes depends on
implementation details and resourcing decisions at both central and provincial
levels.
Marine governance at the local level is decentralized to the 28 coastal provinces
(reorganized into 21 provinces following administrative mergers). The Provincial
People’s Committee (PPC) serves as the primary decision-making body for
marine spatial planning and resource allocation within 6 nautical miles of the
coast. Specialized advice is provided by the Department of Agriculture and
Environment, formed by merging local agricultural and environmental agencies.
Human resource shortages are acute at the local level:

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Staffing Density: Many provincial agencies allocate only 3 to 5 staff members
to manage fisheries protection and development, which is insufficient for the
scope of duties. At the district and commune levels, staff often work on a part-
time or concurrent basis (kiêm nhiệm) without specialized training in marine
governance.
Quality and Expertise: There is a shortage of personnel with deep expertise in
marine biology, oceanography, and international law. Recruitment is difficult as
universities struggle to attract students to fisheries and marine mechanics
majors.
Aging Workforce: A significant portion of the current workforce is approaching
retirement age, creating a potential leadership vacuum in the period leading up
to 2030.
Effective coastal and marine outcomes in Viet Nam depend on how well the
institutional design translates into implementation. Where vertical reporting,
monitoring networks, and enforcement powers operate coherently, the system
can reduce pollution pressures (through monitoring, permitting, and sanctions),
improve fisheries sustainability (through VMS, port controls, and deterrence of
IUU behaviors), and strengthen resilience to marine incidents (through incident
response coordination and cross-agency mobilisation). However, where
provincial capacity is limited, where inter-agency data exchange is slow, or
where overlapping mandates are not operationally coordinated, enforcement
consistency and monitoring coverage can weaken. This can allow continued
land-based and marine-source pressures to accumulate, with transboundary
implications including shared stock impacts, cross-border IUU risks, and marine
pollution transport across the SCS and GoT systems.
6.4 Legal and Policy Setting
6.4.1 International legal/policy frameworks
[Link] United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
Viet Nam ratified UNCLOS on 25 July 1994, establishing the fundamental legal
framework for its maritime zones and activities. UNCLOS serves as the basis
for national legislation, including the 2012 Law of the Sea of Viet Nam. Viet Nam
is also a party to the two implementing agreements under UNCLOS:
• Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations
Convention on the law of the sea (Part XI Agreement): Viet Nam acceded
to the Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of UNCLOS
(regarding deep seabed mining) on 27 April 2006.
• UN Fish Stocks Agreement (UNFSA): Viet Nam acceded to the United
Nations Fish Stocks Agreement (UNFSA) on 18 December 2018,
committing to the long-term conservation and sustainable use of
straddling and highly migratory fish stocks.
• BBNJ Agreement (Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction): Viet Nam
was among the first countries to sign the Agreement under UNCLOS on

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 the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of
areas beyond national jurisdiction (BBNJ) in 2023, aimed at protecting
biodiversity in the high seas.
• UN Fish Stocks Agreement (UNFSA): Viet Nam acceded on 18
December 2018 (Entry into force: 17 January 2019). This instrument
provides the legal basis for cooperation on straddling and highly
migratory fish stocks, directly relevant to the South China Sea fisheries.
• FAO Port State Measures Agreement (PSMA): As a Party, Viet Nam is
obligated to implement port-based compliance measures, denying entry
or services to foreign vessels engaged in IUU fishing. This links Viet
Nam’s major ports to the global fight against illegal fishing.
• WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies: On 15 September 2025, Viet
Nam deposited its instrument of acceptance. This binding agreement
disciplines harmful subsidies that contribute to IUU fishing and the fishing
of overfished stocks, necessitating reforms in domestic subsidy
programs.
[Link] Maritime Safety and Security (IMO Conventions)
As a member of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) since 1984, Viet
Nam is a party to major safety and security conventions:
• COLREG 72: International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea
(joined 1990).
• SOLAS 74: International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (joined
1990).
• STCW 78: International Convention on Standards of Training,
Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (joined 1990).
• SAR 79: International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue
(joined 2007).
• SUA 88: Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the
Safety of Maritime Navigation (joined 2002).
[Link] Pollution control and waste management
Pollution governance is shaped by a suite of treaties addressing chemicals,
waste, and ship-source pollution.
• Basel Convention: Regulates the transboundary movement of hazardous
wastes, critical for managing imported plastic waste streams that pose
leakage risks in coastal zones.
• Stockholm Convention (POPs): Addresses Persistent Organic Pollutants,
which accumulate in marine sediments and food webs through long-
range transport and riverine discharge.

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 • Minamata Convention: Viet Nam’s participation (Entry into force: 2017)
addresses mercury risks, relevant to seafood safety and industrial
pollution control.
• Ballast Water Management (BWM) Convention: In June 2024, the Prime
Minister approved the National Implementation Plan (Decision No.
515/QD-TTg) for the BWM Convention. This is a key preventive measure
against invasive alien species introduced via international shipping traffic
in major ports like Hai Phong and Ho Chi Minh City.
[Link] Biodiversity and climate frameworks
• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Participation in the CBD
underpins Viet Nam’s national biodiversity strategies, requiring the
protection of marine habitats and reporting on conservation targets. It
establishes expectations for cooperation on migratory species.
• Climate Change Integration: While governed by separate climate treaties
(UNFCCC/Paris Agreement), climate resilience is explicitly integrated
into marine policy via Resolution No. 36-NQ/TW (2018). This resolution
frames sea-level rise and coastal erosion as critical governance
challenges, particularly for the low-lying deltas (Mekong and Red River)
that interface with the sea.
6.4.2 Regional legal/policy frameworks and forums
Viet Nam actively participates in a tiered system of regional governance,
ranging from broad multilateral cooperation platforms to specific bilateral legal
instruments.
[Link] Regional Cooperation Platforms (Multilateral)
These frameworks provide the mechanisms for policy coordination, technical
standardization, and joint actions on marine environmental issues across the
East Asian Seas.
• Coordinating Body on the Seas of East Asia (COBSEA): COBSEA is one
of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Regional Seas
Programmes. Established in 1981, it oversees the implementation of the
Action Plan for the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Seas
of East Asia. Viet Nam joined COBSEA in 1993. This body coordinates
activities related to marine ecosystem assessment, coral reef protection,
and marine pollution prevention. Current cooperation includes projects to
reverse environmental degradation trends in the South China Sea and
the Gulf of Thailand.
• Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia
(PEMSEA) PEMSEA acts as an intergovernmental organization fostering
healthy and resilient coasts and oceans through Integrated Coastal
Management (ICM). Viet Nam has been a member since 2003. PEMSEA
supports the scaling up of ICM in coastal provinces and facilitates
partnerships for the sustainable development of the blue economy.

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• ASEAN Cooperation on Coastal and Marine Environment (AWGCME):
Cooperation is operationalized through mechanisms such as the ASEAN
Working Group on Coastal and Marine Environment. ASEAN platforms
facilitate high-level dialogue and shared problem framing ( regarding
marine debris and biodiversity conservation). They enable coordination
on regional work programs that align national policies with regional
priorities.
• Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC):
Established to manage highly migratory fish stocks (primarily tuna) in the
Western and Central Pacific Ocean, the WCPFC implements
conservation measures consistent with the United Nations Convention on
the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Viet Nam holds the status of a
Cooperating Non-Member, allowing it to participate in fisheries
management dialogues and technical compliance mechanisms.
• Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC): SEAFDEC
is an autonomous intergovernmental body that promotes sustainable
fisheries development. It collaborates with ASEAN to establish regional
plans of action, particularly concerning the prevention of Illegal,
Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing.
• Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed
Robbery against Ships in Asia (ReCAAP) Viet Nam joined ReCAAP in
2006. This is the first regional government-to-government agreement to
promote and enhance cooperation against piracy and armed robbery
against ships in Asia. The agreement mandates information sharing,
capacity building, and cooperative arrangements for law enforcement. An
Information Sharing Centre (ISC) facilitates these activities.
• Regional Plan of Action to Promote Responsible Fishing Practices
(RPOA-IUU): Viet Nam participates in this voluntary instrument,
established in 2007, to manage fishing capacity and combat IUU fishing
in the South China Sea, Sulu-Sulawesi Seas, and Arafura-Timor Seas.
• Strategic Action Programmes: Through mechanisms like the GEF/UNDP
projects, Viet Nam engages in the implementation of Strategic Action
Programmes for the South China Sea and the Gulf of Thailand to address
transboundary environmental challenges.
• Marine Pollution and Plastic Waste: Viet Nam cooperates internationally
on marine plastic debris through ASEAN and global mechanisms. The
country is active in negotiations for a global treaty on plastic pollution and
implements regional action plans to reduce marine debris.
• Disaster Risk and Search and Rescue: Viet Nam is a party to the ASEAN
Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency Response
(AADMER) and participates in regional search and rescue (SAR)
coordination. The legal framework includes specific regulations for

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 coordinating SAR activities at sea, facilitating cooperation with
neighboring states during maritime incidents.
[Link]. Sub-regional and bilateral legal arrangements
Viet Nam has established a legal framework for maritime governance through
specific boundary agreements with neighboring countries, which facilitate joint
management and resource exploitation:
• Gulf of Tonkin: Agreement on the Delimitation of the Territorial Seas,
Exclusive Economic Zones, and Continental Shelves with China (2000).
• Gulf of Thailand: Agreement on the Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary
with Thailand (1997) and Agreement on Historic Waters with Cambodia
(1982).
• Continental Shelf: Agreement concerning the Delimitation of the
Continental Shelf Boundary with Indonesia (2003).
• Joint Development: Memorandum of Understanding on Defining Areas of
Joint Oil and Gas Exploration and Exploitation with Malaysia (1992).
6.4.3 National legislation and policies
Viet Nam’s governance framework for marine and coastal areas is established
through a hierarchy of legal instruments, ranging from strategic Party
resolutions to specific technical circulars. Recent administrative reforms,
particularly those noted in 2024 and 2025 sources, indicate a shift toward
integrated management and decentralization.
[Link] Strategic Policy Framework
The overarching orientation for marine governance is defined by the Communist
Party and concretized by the Government.
• Resolution No. 36-NQ/TW (2018): This resolution on the "Strategy for
Sustainable Development of Viet Nam's Marine Economy to 2030, with a
Vision to 2045" serves as the primary strategic guideline. It shifts focus
from resource extraction to a "Blue Economy" model, targeting
sustainable development across six priority marine economic sectors.
• Resolution No. 26/NQ-CP (2020): This government resolution
establishes the master plan and five-year action plan to implement
Resolution No. 36, identifying specific programs and projects for marine
infrastructure, tourism, and renewable energy.
• Strategy for Sustainable Exploitation (2023): Approved by Resolution No.
48/NQ-CP, this strategy outlines the sustainable use of marine resources
and environmental protection through 2030, serving as a critical tool for
state management.
[Link] Key national legislation
The legislative framework is anchored by several fundamental laws that
regulate sovereignty, resource use, and environmental protection.

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 • Law of the Sea of Viet Nam (2012): This law asserts Viet Nam’s
sovereignty, sovereign rights, and jurisdiction over maritime zones
(internal waters, territorial sea, contiguous zone, EEZ, and continental
shelf) in accordance with UNCLOS 1982. It provides the legal basis for
maritime economic development and defense.
• Law on Marine Resources and Environment of Seas and Islands (2015):
This is the central legal instrument for "integrated coastal zone
management" (ICZM). It mandates: (1) Integrated Management:
Managing marine resources based on an ecosystem approach rather
than sectoral administrative boundaries; (2) Coastal Protection Corridors:
Establishing setbacks along the coast to protect ecosystems and ensure
public access to the sea; (3) Pollution Control: Regulating Ocean
dumping, oil spill responses, and pollution from land-based sources.
• Law on Fisheries (2017): This law provides the national legal basis for
fisheries activities and state management. It regulates aquaculture and
capture fisheries with a focus on sustainability and combating Illegal,
Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing. Key provisions include: (1)
Co-management: Legalizing the sharing of management rights and
responsibilities between the State and community organizations for
fishery resource protection; (2) Marine Protected Areas (MPAs):
Establishing the legal basis for MPAs to protect spawning grounds and
aquatic habitats.
• Law on Marine and Island Resources and Environment (2015): This law
establishes an integrated management orientation for marine and island
resources and protection of the marine and island environment. Its design
relevance is cross-sectoral because it frames marine
resources/environment governance beyond single sectors.
• Law on Environmental Protection (2020): This law provides a
comprehensive framework for environmental protection activities and
responsibilities, including planning and assessment tools, such as:
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Payments for Ecosystem
Services (PES), Marine Plastic Debris. For coastal and marine outcomes,
it is relevant to land-based sources of marine pollution (waste,
wastewater, industrial discharge) and the environmental assessment
requirements shaping coastal development.
• Law on Planning (2017): This law reorganized the national planning
system, mandating the creation of the National Marine Spatial Plan
(MSP) to resolve conflicts between economic sectors.
[Link]. Sub-law instruments and regulations
Decrees and circulars provide detailed guidance for implementing the primary
laws.
• Marine Spatial Planning (MSP): The National Assembly Resolution No.
139/2024/QH15 approves National marine spatial planning for 2021–

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 2030, vision to 2050, and defines scope including coastal land,
islands/archipelagos, and waters. This is a cornerstone planning
instrument intended to guide sectoral allocation and reduce conflicts
among uses (shipping/ports, fisheries, conservation, tourism, energy,
and other marine uses).
• Pollution Control and Permits: Decree No. 08/2022/NĐ-CP also regulates
the management of waste and plastic debris, centralize control through
Environmental Permits. This permit-based approach applies to land-
based discharges reaching the sea, including sediments, nutrients, and
chemicals.
• Circular No. 02/2022/TT-BTNMT provides detailed regulations on
environmental protection measures, including waste management from
marine economic activities.
• Sea area allocation: Decree No. 11/2021/NĐ-CP regulates the
assignment of sea areas to organizations and individuals for exploitation.
It decentralizes authority, empowering Provincial People’s Committees
(PPCs) to allocate areas within 6 nautical miles of the coast, while the
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (or the merged Ministry
of Agriculture and Environment) manages areas beyond this limit.
• Marine resource exploitation: Decree No. 65/2025/ND-CP of March 12,
2025, amending and supplementing a number of articles of the
Government’s Decree No. 40/2016/ND-CP of May 15, 2016, detailing a
number of articles of the Law on Marine and Island Resources and
Environment, and the Government’s Decree No. 11/2021/ND-CP of
February 10, 2021, providing the assignment of certain sea areas to
organizations and individuals for marine resource exploitation and
utilization.
• Marine Protected Areas Management Regulations: Decree No.
309/2025/ND-CP dated November 29, 2025 of the Government
amending and supplementing a number of articles of the Government’s
Decree No. 26/2019/ND-CP of March 08, 2019, detailing a number of
articles of, and measures to implement, the Law on Fisheries, amended
and supplemented under the Government’s Decree No. 37/2024/ND-CP
of April 04, 2024.
• Wetland Conservation: Decree No. 66/2019/NĐ-CP on the conservation
and sustainable use of wetlands. Circular No. 07/2020/TT-BTNMT
provides detailed guidance on implementing this decree.
• Sanctions and enforcement: Decree 38/2024/ND-CP and Decree
301/2025/ND-CP (amending and supplementing several articles of
Decree 38/2024/ND-CP), sets penalties for fisheries violations, including
heavy fines for IUU fishing. Decree No. 37/2022/NĐ-CP stipulates
penalties for violations in integrated marine management, such as illegal
dumping or encroachment on coastal corridors.

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 • Decentralization: Decree No. 136/2025/NĐ-CP outlines the
decentralization of state management in agriculture and environment,
granting specific powers to local authorities for establishing MPAs and
managing biodiversity. Circular No. 11/2025/TT-BNNMT regulates the
decentralization of state management in nature conservation and
biodiversity. Circular No. 10/2025/TT-BNNMT defines the decentralized
authorities for fisheries and fisheries surveillance, clarifying which agency
manages specific marine resources. Circular No. 19/2025/TT-BNNMT
guides the functions and powers of local specialized agencies
(Departments of Agriculture and Environment) in managing MPAs and
marine ecosystems.
[Link]. Subnational Implementation (Provincial Level)
The 28 coastal provinces (consolidated to 21 in late 2025) are the primary
units for on-the-ground implementation.
• Provincial Mandates: Provincial People’s Committees (PPCs) are
responsible for managing coastal waters up to 6 nautical miles from the
shoreline. This includes allocating sea areas for aquaculture, issuing
local environmental permits, and managing nearshore fisheries.
• Coastal Protection Corridors: By mid-2024, 27 out of 28 coastal provinces
had approved the list of areas requiring coastal protection corridors to
prevent erosion and maintain ecosystem services.
• Local Regulations: Provinces issue local decisions to manage specific
resources. For example, Ca Mau and Kien Giang have specific
regulations for mangrove forests and wetland conservation.
6.4.4 Current development plans and policies
Viet Nam’s marine governance is guided by a complex architecture of national
strategies and spatial plans. Structurally, this operates as a four-tier planning
system: (i) the National Master Plan and National Marine Spatial Plan; (ii)
National Sectoral Plans; (iii) Regional Plans; and (iv) Provincial Plans. Lower-
level plans are legally required to conform to higher-level plans, creating a
"consistency mandate" for the 28 coastal provinces bordering the South China
Sea and Gulf of Thailand.
[Link] The Cross-Cutting National Plans
Three national-level instruments form the core spatial framework for managing
cumulative pressures from fisheries, shipping, and coastal development.
• National Marine Spatial Plan (MSP) (2021–2030, vision 2050): Adopted
by the National Assembly (Resolution No. 139/2024/QH15), this is the
cornerstone instrument. It divides marine space into functional zones for
protection, conservation, and economic development. In governance
terms, the MSP is the primary mechanism for resolving conflicts between
shipping corridors, offshore energy, and fisheries in the South China Sea.

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 • Master plan for the sustainable exploitation and use of coastal resources
for 2021-2023, with a vision toward 2050 (Decree 1117/QĐ-TTg 2024):
Focusing on the coastal zones, this plan explicitly links land-use planning
to ecosystem protection and incident response. It is critical for managing
the land-sea interface where industrial discharges and pressure of
urbanization are most acute.
• Resolution No. 36-NQ/TW (2018) on the "Strategy for Sustainable
Development of Viet Nam's Marine Economy to 2030, with a Vision to
2045". This resolution sets the goal for Viet Nam to become a "strong
maritime nation," aiming for the marine economy to contribute
approximately 10% to the national GDP. It prioritizes green growth and
the conservation of marine ecosystems. Serving as the overarching
political directive, this resolution sets the strategic trajectory for the "Blue
Economy." It mandates a shift from purely exploitation-based growth to
sustainable development, though it acknowledges that policy coherence
remains a constraint. This strategy is operationalized by Resolution No.
26/NQ-CP (2020), which establishes a master plan and five-year action
plan, identifying specific marine economic sectors for development, such
as tourism, maritime transport, and renewable energy
[Link] Sectoral Strategies and Action Plans
Beyond spatial zoning, specific national strategies drive investment and
compliance behavior in key sectors.
• Fisheries Development: Decision No. 339/QĐ-TTg (2021) approves the
Strategy for Development of Viet Nam’s Fisheries. It frames the transition
toward responsible fisheries and aquaculture modernization. The
Directorate of Fisheries also issued an action plan for implementation of
Decision 339/QD-TTg, indicating the intended translation of strategy into
operational tasks.
• Marine Plastic Debris: Decision No. 1746/QD-TTg (2019) promulgates
the National Action Plan on Marine Plastic Debris Management through
2030. This is a targeted instrument relevant to transboundary litter
transport across the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand circulation
systems and to domestic coastal tourism and fisheries interactions with
debris. It requires provinces to implement waste collection systems and
port reception facilities, directly addressing the "leakage" problem.
• Environmental Protection: Decision No. 450/QD-TTg (2022) provides the
National Environmental Protection Strategy. It reinforces the mandate for
pollution prevention in coastal industrial zones and establishes the
framework for waste management investment.
• Ballast Water Management: Decision No. 515/QD-TTg (2024) approves
the implementation plan for the BWM Convention, addressing biosecurity
risks from international shipping.

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 • Environmental Protection Strategy: Decision No. 450/QD-TTg (2022)
approves the National Environmental Protection Strategy until 2030,
vision to 2050. This strategy provides an overarching framework that
should influence marine pollution control through stronger prevention,
control, and planning measures, including for coastal industrial
development and waste management.
6.5 Civil society, stakeholders, and participation
Civil society and stakeholder participation determine how coastal and marine
regulations are interpreted, accepted, and enforced on the ground. In Viet Nam,
this participation is structured by a unique combination of state-led governance
structures, legal requirements for environmental consultation, and emerging
mechanisms for community-based co-management.
6.5.1 Key NGOs and special interest groups
[Link] Civil Society and Community Organizations
The legal framework for stakeholder engagement is anchored in the Law on
Environmental Protection (2020) and Law on Fisheries (2017). The laws
explicitly assigns roles to:
• Mass Organizations: Organizations such as the Viet Nam Fatherland
Front, the Women’s Union, and the Youth Union participate in raising
awareness, social supervision, and community-based environmental
protection initiatives, oversight and social criticism regarding
environmental policies.
• Socio-Political and Professional Organizations: Granting them rights to
access environmental information, consult on projects, and propose
remedies for violations.
• Co-management Organizations: Community organizations are granted
legal rights to co-manage aquatic resources. These groups participate in
protecting coral reefs and fishery resources, often supported by
international projects.
This design creates a formal channel for "organized" civil society to interact with
the state, primarily focused on compliance monitoring and policy feedback.
[Link] Scientific and Technical Organizations
• Viet Nam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST): Conducts
marine scientific research and baseline surveys. The Institute of
Oceanography under VAST plays a key role in marine biodiversity
assessment.
• Research Institutes: Various institutes support the government with data
for planning, such as the Research Institute for Marine Fisheries (RIMF)
and the Institute of Strategy and Policy on Natural Resources and
Environment (ISPONRE).

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[Link] Private Sector and Industry Associations
• Viet Nam Association of Seafood Exporters and Producers (VASEP): A
key stakeholder in the fisheries sector, VASEP coordinates with
government agencies to ensure compliance with international standards,
such as IUU fishing regulations, and promotes sustainable trade.
• Tourism and Energy Enterprises: Private enterprises are increasingly
involved in marine economic development, particularly in high-end
tourism and offshore renewable energy. However, coordination between
these sectors and conservation goals remains a challenge.
[Link] Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and International
Organizations (IOs):
WWF, IUCN, SNV, GIZ, TRAFFIC, HSI, MCD, ENV etc. provide technical
assistance, capacity building, and financial support for marine conservation,
plastic waste reduction, and livelihood development projects.
[Link] International Partners
Viet Nam cooperates with numerous international organizations to enhance
ocean governance capacity. Key partners include:
• UN Agencies: UNDP, UNEP, GEF-SGP, and FAO support projects on
blue economy, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable fisheries.
• Regional Bodies: PEMSEA (Partnerships in Environmental Management
for the Seas of East Asia) and COBSEA (Coordinating Body on the Seas
of East Asia) support integrated coastal management and marine
pollution control.
• Financial Institutions: The World Bank and Asian Development Bank
(ADB) provide funding and technical advice for marine infrastructure and
sustainable development strategies.
6.5.2 Trade associations and business groups
Trade and professional associations are not created by the environmental
consultation rules alone. However, the environmental law explicitly recognizes
roles for socio-professional organizations to (i) access or request environmental
information, (ii) provide advice on relevant investment projects, (iii) conduct
“consultancy and criticism,” and (iv) propose competent agencies to handle
violations, with an obligation on state environmental authorities to create
conditions for these organizations to exercise their rights.
Several business and professional group functions are directly relevant to
marine governance effectiveness, especially for fisheries sustainability, IUU
compliance, and pollution control at ports/landing sites.
• The Viet Nam Association of Seafood Exporters and Producers (VASEP)
publicly position itself as providing advocacy and training, and maintains
dedicated content and structures linked to combatting IUU fishing
(including a visible “IUU Steering Committee” section and related

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 materials on its portal). These functions matter for governance because
export-oriented supply chains often transmit compliance requirements
(traceability, legal sourcing) back to vessels, ports, and processors.
• Viet Nam Fisheries Society (VINAFIS) operates an information portal and
indicates membership structures that can include corporate, provincial,
and institute/university members.
• Vietnam Seaculture Association (VSA) is a voluntary, non-governmental
organization of enterprises and R-D institutions, as well as organizations
and individuals engaged in operations of the mariculture value chains
(seed production, farming, preserving, processing and transporting
marine species, such as marine fishes, seaweeds, molluscs,
crustaceans, ornamental creatures and other marine species) and
associated productions, business and services activities with
development of seaculture industry of Vietnam.
• Commodity- or fishery-specific associations and industry platforms: such
as Viet Nam Tuna Association (VinaTuna), Vietnam Shrimp Association
etc.
• Provincial Fisheries Associations: Located throughout the 28 coastal
provinces, play a key role in connecting government policies with local
fishing communities, promoting sustainable practices, and supporting the
"yellow card" combat against IUU fishing.
6.5.3 Co-management, traditional systems, and customary rights
Viet Nam’s legal framework defines a specific formal mechanism for community
participation in resource protection. Article 10 of the Law on Fisheries (2017)
establishes the legal basis for co-management, effectively creating an
institutional bridge between state enforcement and local social control.
Key design features include:
• Recognition and Rights Allocation: A community organization can be
granted management rights if it comprises local households benefiting
from the resource, registers a defined spatial area, and adopts a
protection plan.
• Delegated Authority: Competent authorities (District or Provincial
People’s Committees) have the power to recognize these organizations
and grant rights. Notably, the law creates a mechanism for negotiation
when a co-management area spans administrative boundaries.
• Operational Powers: Once recognized, communities are empowered to:
1. Patrol and inspect activities within their granted area.
2. Propose that competent agencies handle violations.
3. Establish a community fund for sustainable financing.

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 • State Oversight: The delegation is conditional; state agencies retain the
authority to inspect community organizations and revoke decisions if
management fails.
It is important to note that Viet Nam’s legal framework does not recognize
"customary marine tenure" in the sense of unconditional indigenous property
rights. However, the co-management mechanism serves as the statutory
vehicle to operationalize locally rooted practices. By granting legal recognition
to community organizations and their internal regulations (Quy ước), the state
validates traditional norms regarding access and resource protection, aligning
statutory law with the cultural practices of fishing communities (UNDP, 2023).
Evidence from international agencies and NGOs indicates that co-management
is transitioning from isolated pilots to a recognized policy approach, though
implementation remains spatially uneven.
(a) South-Central and Southeast Coast: This sub-region serves as the primary
laboratory for co-management models.
• Binh Thuan Province: The Ham Thuan Nam model is cited as an example
of effective post-2017 implementation, attributed to its combination of
formal recognition, clear exploitation strategies, and the establishment of
revolving livelihood funds (UNDP, 2023).
• Binh Dinh Province: FAO (2020) highlights the integration of ecosystem-
based approaches in small-scale fisheries, linking governance directly to
local livelihood realities.
• Khanh Hoa Province (Nha Trang Bay): Documented dialogues focus on
scaling models from resource protection to broader governance issues,
such as the management of fish landing sites (UNDP, 2023).
(b) Gulf of Thailand
• Ca Mau Province: Recent technical support reports indicate the
development of provincial co-management plans through 2030 (MCD,
2025). This suggests that the model is expanding to the complex
mangrove-fishery systems of the Mekong Delta, utilizing defined
coordination mechanisms approved by provincial authorities.
6.5.4 Decentralised and coastal governance mechanisms
Viet Nam’s governance framework provides specific, legally defined entry
points for consultation, oversight, and grievance redress. These mechanisms
are anchored primarily in the Law on Environmental Protection (2020).
(a) Consultation in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) The law mandates
consultation as a prerequisite for project approval, establishing a formal
dialogue between investors and affected parties.
• Who: Consultation must include resident communities and individuals
directly impacted by the project, as well as relevant agencies and
organizations.

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 • Scope: Consultation covers the project location, environmental impacts,
mitigation measures, and incident response plans.
• Accountability: Opinions must be reflected "fully and honestly." If the
project owner rejects recommendations, the EIA report must provide a
specific written explanation.
• Transparency: To enable informed participation, the law requires the
public disclosure of EIA reports and approval decisions on government
portals (Government of Viet Nam, 2020, Article 33).
(b) The Role of Mass and Socio-Political Organizations The governance design
assigns a unique oversight role to the Viet Nam Fatherland Front and
associated socio-political organizations.
• Political Oversight: The Fatherland Front is empowered to conduct "social
criticism" and oversee the implementation of environmental policies
(Article 157).
• Technical Advisory: Socio-professional organizations have the right to
provide independent advice on investment projects and propose
enforcement actions against violations (Article 158).
(c) Resident Community Rights and Grievance Channels The 2020 Law
significantly strengthens the rights of local communities. Representatives are
empowered to:
1. Request information from project owners regarding actual environmental
protection activities.
2. Participate in assessing environmental outcomes.
3. Access online systems to submit reports and recommendations (Article
159). Furthermore, formal Grievance and Denunciation channels allow
individuals to file environmental complaints or denounce violations to
competent agencies (Article 163).
Governance Effectiveness: Evidence from Practice While the legal channels
are robust, operational effectiveness varies based on the mechanism and
sector.
(a) Structured Multi-Stakeholder Convening Effectiveness is highest where the
state actively convenes stakeholders for sector-wide review. UNDP (2025a)
reports that the 2025 National Conference on Fisheries Environmental
Protection included provincial departments, port authorities, MPA boards,
enterprises, and NGOs ( WWF, IUCN, MCD). This indicates that participation
is evolving beyond reactive EIA consultation into proactive policy learning.
(b) Capacity Development for Decentralization To operationalize decentralized
governance, technical capacity is being strengthened. UNDP (2025b) highlights
the development of training materials for Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) and
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) in collaboration with the Viet Nam

217
Administration of Seas and Islands (VASI). This confirms recognition that
effective local participation requires technical literacy, not just legal rights.
(c) Implementation Constraints and Financing Gaps Despite policy signals
promoting Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) and co-management, significant
implementation gaps persist.
• Port Management: UNDP (2023) identifies the absence of effective PPP
mechanisms in fishing port management. Without financial incentives to
involve wholesalers and private enterprises, pollution control at landing
sites remains weak.
• ICZM Sustainability: Peer-reviewed synthesis (Cong et al., 2020) notes
that while the legal basis for ICZM exists, implementation is not yet self-
reliant and frequently struggles with sustainable financial resources.
Implications for Coastal and Marine Outcomes
• Governance Design: Viet Nam possesses a comprehensive design with
multiple feedback loops: EIA consultation, Fatherland Front oversight,
and direct community monitoring rights.
• Governance Effectiveness: Participation is most effective where
structured incentives exist—specifically in fisheries co-management
(South-Central Coast) and export traceability (VASEP).
• The Outcome Gap: However, uneven implementation in "brown" sectors
(port waste management, wastewater) creates governance risks. Where
stakeholder roles are not financed (through PPPs), compliance at the
local level weakens, directly contributing to marine litter leakage and
near-shore pollution hotspots.
• Transboundary Relevance: Effective participation mechanisms are
essential for meeting international expectations regarding IUU fishing
(traceability) and Marine Litter (gear loss prevention), connecting local
governance actions to regional South China Sea obligations.
Viet Nam’s governance design provides multiple entry points for participation:
(i) legally required EIA consultation and disclosure, (ii) defined oversight roles
for mass/socio-professional organizations, (iii) resident community rights to
information and feedback, and (iv) formal fisheries co-management with
delegated local monitoring and protection functions. Governance effectiveness
is demonstrated most clearly where participation is linked to structured
mechanisms and incentives—especially fisheries co-management
(documented examples in South-Central and Southeast Coast settings) and
export-facing fishery improvement/traceability initiatives. However, available
public sources also suggest that participation can remain uneven and
constrained by financing and operational arrangements (port/landing site
management and waste control), which matters directly for marine plastic
leakage, nearshore pollution hotspots, and compliance with fisheries controls.
Finally, transboundary relevance is direct for (i) shared and migratory fish
stocks (tuna governance linkages and regional dialogues referenced in the tuna

218
FIP context), and (ii) marine litter and gear loss where sector initiatives and
national discussions connect to wider regional/global processes.
6.6. TWAP GOVERNANCE ARCHITECTURE RISK ASSESSMENT
6.6.1 Assessment method and scoring
The TWAP methodology evaluates the structure of formal transboundary
governance arrangements addressing key LME issue groups—notably
fisheries, pollution, and biodiversity—using a policy-cycle logic. This approach
allows for comparative assessment across different Large Marine Ecosystems
globally (UNEP, 2011; Fanning et al., 2015).
Table 6. The assessment utilizes three core indicators, defined and
applied

Dimension Definition Assessment Focus

Completeness Extent to which Presence of legal frameworks;

governance structures, institutional mandates; policy
laws, and policy cycles instruments (marine protected
cover all identified areas, fisheries regulations);
transboundary issues completeness of policy cycle
(planning → implementation →
enforcement → monitoring →
adaptive review)

Integration Degree of coordination Cross-sectoral coordination;

and linkage among vertical governance integration;
arrangements across alignment among institutions;
levels (national- land-sea linkages;
provincial-local), sectors transboundary cooperation;
(fisheries, conservation, data and decision integration
tourism), and
organizations

Engagement Level of stakeholder Participation of communities,

participation, civil society, and private sector;
accountability, and equity transparency and
in governance processes accountability; equity in benefit-
sharing; evidence of behavioral
change and compliance

These three dimensions are evaluated against five outcome categories: (1)
stakeholder engagement and compliance, (2) reduced stresses on ecosystems,
(3) improved ecosystem condition, (4) socially just solutions, and (5) improved
human well-being.
6.6.2. Vietnam's Governance Completeness Assessment
Completeness Score: 50–60% (Medium-Low)

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Vietnam demonstrates a comprehensive foundation of coastal and marine
governance instruments but faces persistent implementation gaps and
incomplete policy cycles across governance levels.
Strengths in Governance Completeness
Legal and Policy Framework
Vietnam has established an extensive legal basis for marine governance,
including international commitments (UNCLOS 1994; Fish Stocks Agreement
2018; BBNJ ratification 2024), foundational sectoral laws (Fisheries Law 2017;
Environmental Protection Law), and emerging policy frameworks. National
strategies such as the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs 1.0–3.0) and
the fisheries sector strategy align with international sustainability commitments.
Marine protected area designations have been established, with a national
network of MPAs and fishery resource conservation zones, and the government
has set a target to increase marine protected area coverage from 0.24 percent
to 6 percent of sea area by 2030, aligned with the CBD 30×30 target.
Institutional Mandates
Institutional structures for coastal governance exist at multiple levels. National
agencies (now organized under the Ministry of Agriculture and Environment,
MAE; formerly DARD and MONRE), provincial Departments of Fisheries and
Environment, and local administrative bodies carry explicit mandates for marine
resource management, environmental protection, and fisheries regulation.
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) committees have been
established in several provinces, providing platforms for inter-agency
coordination.
Monitoring and Data Systems
Vietnam has invested in multiple monitoring systems to support evidence-based
governance. Electronic Catch Documentation (eCDT) systems are being
implemented to track seafood origin and legality, supporting port state control
measures. Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS) are mandated on commercial
fishing vessels, providing real-time location data for fisheries surveillance.
Smart patrols in protected areas generate consistent enforcement records. The
Directorate of Fisheries collaborates with FAO on catch statistics and stock
assessments. These systems provide the technical foundation for adaptive
management, though linkage to policy decisions remains inconsistent.
Gaps Limiting Completeness
Incomplete Policy Cycles
While planning and implementation mechanisms exist, the feedback loop from
monitoring to adaptive policy revision remains weak. Protected area monitoring
occurs through METT (Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool) assessments
in some sites, but results are not systematically used to modify management
rules, zoning, or enforcement strategies. Fisheries monitoring generates data

220
on catch, effort, and species composition, but adaptive harvest controls and
stock rebuilding measures are limited.
Enforcement and Compliance Constraints
Laws establishing fishing restrictions, pollution limits, and protected area
boundaries exist, but compliance monitoring and sanction mechanisms are
underdeveloped. IUU (Illegal, Unreported, Unregulated) fishing persists despite
legal prohibitions, reflecting limited patrol capacity, incomplete vessel
monitoring, and weak prosecution capacity. Pollution from land-based sources
(industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, urban wastewater) exceeds legal
standards in many coastal zones, indicating weak enforcement of
environmental protection laws.
Uneven Provincial Implementation
Decentralization of governance to provincial and district levels has created
variation in implementation effectiveness. Provinces with stronger fiscal
capacity (high-GDP coastal provinces like Ho Chi Minh City, Da Nang, Hai
Phong, Quang Ninh) implement laws more comprehensively, while low-capacity
provinces (inland-dependent or remote coastal areas) lack resources for
effective enforcement and monitoring. This capacity heterogeneity undermines
national policy coherence.
Pending Core Instruments
Several foundational governance instruments remain incomplete. Marine
Spatial Planning (MSP), while emerging as a national framework priority, is not
yet operational at scale to guide development, conservation, and resource-use
decisions across the marine space. The Climate Change Act, expected to
strengthen institutional coordination on climate adaptation for coastal zones,
remains pending parliamentary enactment. These instruments, once finalized,
will enhance completeness but their absence currently limits comprehensive
policy cycles.
6.6.3. Vietnam's Governance Integration Assessment
Integration Score: 0.25–0.35 (Weak)
Vietnam's governance system comprises many individual components, but
coordination among them—across sectors, government levels, and with
transboundary partners—remains fragmented.
Cross-Sectoral Coordination Weaknesses
Sectoral Mandates Without Coherence
Fisheries (now under MAE), marine conservation (coordinated through
MONRE/MAE), coastal development (Ministry of Construction, provincial
authorities), aquaculture (MAE), and tourism (Ministry of Culture, Sports and
Tourism) operate under separate legislative frameworks and institutional
structures. National committees (Fisheries Committee, Environmental Board)
provide some coordination, but inter-agency cooperation at provincial and local

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levels remains weak. Development pressures from aquaculture expansion,
coastal industrialization, and port development often proceed without adequate
integration with conservation objectives, resulting in habitat loss and ecological
degradation despite parallel conservation targets.
Provincial Implementation Fragmentation
ICZM committees exist in only five provinces; many coastal provinces lack
formal inter-agency coordination mechanisms. Even where committees exist,
they meet irregularly and lack dedicated secretariat support or enforcement
authority. As a result, coordination on conflicts between fishing zones and
marine protected areas, or between tourism and conservation, depends on ad-
hoc negotiations rather than systematic procedures.
Data Integration Gaps
Multiple agencies collect marine data (fisheries, environmental, coastal
development), but these datasets are not standardized or integrated into unified
decision-support systems. Fisheries catch data, environmental monitoring,
habitat assessments, and socioeconomic information remain in separate
databases, limiting holistic understanding of cumulative pressures on marine
systems. Data from community-based management (SMART patrols,
community catch monitoring) are inconsistently ingested into official statistics
and policy reviews.
Transboundary Coordination Limitations
Regional Cooperation Mechanisms
Vietnam participates in ASEAN fisheries cooperation, bilateral agreements with
Cambodia and Thailand on shared fish stocks, and global organizations
(WCPFC for tuna, COBSEA for pollution, PEMSEA for integrated coastal
management). However, transboundary coordination remains limited by
competing national interests, incomplete data sharing, and weak enforcement
of regional agreements. Shared fish stocks ( in the Gulf of Tonkin and Gulf of
Thailand) lack consistent regional management arrangements with neighboring
countries.
Incomplete Transboundary Risk Governance
Transboundary risks such as shared pollution (nutrient loading from the Mekong
River affecting Vietnamese coastal zones), climate impacts (sea-level rise
affecting all Mekong Delta nations), and migratory species (sea turtles nesting
in Vietnamese coastal habitats but foraging in waters of multiple countries)
require coordinated, multi-country governance but often operate through
separate national frameworks. Regional platforms exist (Mekong River
Commission for inland waters; ASEAN for maritime issues), but integration with
coastal/marine governance in Vietnam remains limited.
Vertical Integration Constraints
National-Provincial-Local Alignment

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National policies and mandates are not consistently implemented at provincial
and local levels, both because provincial capacity varies and because local
governance operates with considerable discretion. Provincial People's
Committees may prioritize economic development (port expansion,
aquaculture) over conservation targets if national enforcement and oversight
are weak. Fisheries regulations set nationally may be interpreted or enforced
differently across provinces depending on local enforcement capacity and
political priorities.
Decentralization Without Adequate Support
Governance decentralization grants provinces and districts management
authority, but insufficient technical support and financing limit their capacity.
Low-capacity provinces lack expertise in marine spatial planning, habitat
monitoring, or modern fisheries management techniques. Central government
incentives for provincial compliance with national targets ( marine protected
area coverage expansion) are weak, relying on normative appeals rather than
financial or institutional support.
6.6.4 Vietnam's Governance Engagement Assessment
Engagement Score: 55–65% (Medium)
Vietnam demonstrates a growing foundation of stakeholder participation
mechanisms, with emerging community-based management and civil society
presence, but participation remains uneven, project-dependent, and limited by
institutional barriers.
Strengths in Stakeholder Engagement
Community-Based Management Expansion
Co-management arrangements have been established in seven provinces (Ha
Tinh, Quang Nam, Binh Dinh, Phu Yen, Khanh Hoa, Binh Thuan, Tuyen
Quang), with 19 recognized community-based organizations. The Tam Giang
Lagoon model (Thua Thien-Hue Province) represents Vietnam's most
successful systematic co-management structure, with 22 Fisheries Sub-
associations implementing participatory rules on fishing access, gear
restrictions, no-take zones, and benefit-sharing. Evidence from these sites
shows that community-based governance improves patrol consistency,
reduces destructive practices (poison, explosives), and generates community
commitment to resource protection.
Civil Society Engagement
International (IUCN, WWF, CARE) and national NGOs (MCD, ENV, Vietnam
Fisheries Society) contribute technical expertise, community facilitation
capacity, and advocacy voice that government alone cannot provide. NGO
facilitation of co-management has been essential to success in sites like Tam
Giang Lagoon and mangrove management areas.
Formal Consultation Structures

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Provincial people's committees, provincial environmental and fisheries
departments, and Vietnam Fatherland Front provide formal channels for civil
society and community input, though consultation mechanisms are not always
binding or effective in practice.
Engagement Limitations
Small-Scale Fisher Marginalization
While fishing associations and cooperatives provide formal structures for fisher
participation, these organizations are often dominated by larger-scale operators
or government representatives. Small-scale and artisanal fishers—who depend
most directly on coastal resources—have limited voice in policy-making on
fisheries licensing, aquaculture zoning, marine protected area designation, and
market access. Informal dispute resolution (van chai systems, community
mediation) exists but is not formally recognized in policy, limiting its institutional
durability.
Gender and Social Equity Gaps
Women are substantially engaged in coastal livelihoods (fish processing,
trading, crew support) but under-represented in formal governance structures
such as fishing associations, co-management committees, and provincial
coordination bodies. Youth engagement is mostly limited to awareness-raising
campaigns rather than sustained participation in decision-making. Vulnerable
groups (poorest fishers, ethnic minorities in coastal areas) often lack
mechanisms to ensure their voices are heard in governance processes.
Project-Dependent Participation
Community-based management models and participatory mechanisms are
largely project-dependent, supported by donor funding and NGO facilitation.
When external support withdraws, participation often declines and community
institutions lose effectiveness. The sustainability of participatory governance
beyond project cycles remains uncertain, reflecting weak institutionalization at
provincial and national levels.
Weak Consultation on Major Decisions
Statutory mechanisms for participatory consultation in fisheries licensing
decisions, aquaculture zoning approvals, marine protected area designation,
and major development projects remain limited. While consultation occurs in
some cases (particularly where NGOs facilitate), it is not uniformly required by
law and often occurs late in decision processes, limiting communities' ability to
influence outcomes.
Transparency and Accountability Constraints
Public access to information on fisheries policy decisions, environmental impact
assessments, and resource allocations is limited. Grievance mechanisms for
resource conflicts are weak; informal processes depend on traditional leaders
or government officials rather than institutionalized procedures. This reduces

224
accountability and may deter communities from voicing concerns about
governance fairness.
6.6.5 Synthesis: Vietnam's Governance Architecture Risk Profile
Table 7. The TWAP assessment synthesizes across all three dimensions to
characterize overall governance effectiveness and risk level

Dimension Score Characterization Key Implications

Completenes 50–60% Comprehensive Foundation is present;

s (Medium- laws and significant effort required
Low) institutions exist to strengthen
but enforcement implementation and close
gaps, incomplete policy cycles
policy cycles,
variable
provincial
implementation,
and pending
instruments
(MSP, Climate
Act) limit
effectiveness

Integration 0.25–0.35 Weak cross- Persistent risk that

(Weak) sectoral sectoral interests and
coordination; development pressures
provincial override
fragmentation; conservation/sustainabilit
limited y goals; transboundary
transboundary issues inadequately
cooperation; addressed
incomplete land-
sea linkages;
economic-
environmental
misalignment

Engagement 55–65% Growing Participatory foundation

(Medium) community-based exists but fragile; scaling
management (7 and institutionalization
provinces); needed for sustained
established NGO equity and compliance
presence; but
limited national-
scale
institutionalization

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 ; small-scale
fishers, women,
youth under-
represented;
project-
dependent
participation

Overall Risk MODERAT Foundational Requires sustained

Assessment E TO HIGH structures capacity-building, inter-
present but sectoral coordination,
significant transboundary
implementation cooperation, and
gaps; institutional strengthening
transboundary to move from policy
risks frameworks to effective,
inadequately equitable governance
managed;
persistent
capacity
heterogeneity
across provinces;
climate
adaptation
integration weak

6.6.6 Comparative Context: Vietnam in the South China Sea and Gulf of
Thailand LMEs
Regional Governance Landscape
Vietnam's governance challenges are shared across the South China Sea (LME
#36) and Gulf of Thailand (LME #35) regions. Comparative assessments of
Thailand (2025) and Cambodia (2025) show similar patterns:
• Thailand: Completeness 50%, Integration 0.1-0.2 (very weak),
Engagement 70% (high). Thailand's strength in participation mechanisms
contrasts with very weak cross-sectoral integration and economic
disparities limiting provincial coordination.
• Cambodia: Completeness 55-60%, Integration 0.35-0.45 (high-medium
risk), Engagement 45-55% (medium). Cambodia's weaker engagement
reflects project dependence, while integration challenges include
fragmented mandates pending NCCMD marine sub-decree.
• Vietnam: Completeness 50-60%, Integration 0.25-0.35 (weak),
Engagement 55-65% (medium). Vietnam's weakest dimension is
integration, reflecting sectoral fragmentation, provincial variation, and
limited transboundary coordination.

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Transboundary Governance Implications
The South China Sea LME and Gulf of Thailand are managed through
overlapping regional frameworks (ASEAN, COBSEA, PEMSEA, bilateral
agreements) and national systems. Integrating governance across countries
remains incomplete. Shared fish stocks lack coordinated management at the
LME scale. Transboundary pollution (Mekong River nutrient loading, shipping
emissions), climate risks, and sea turtle migration require closer coordination
than currently exists. Vietnam's weak integration dimension contributes to and
is compounded by limited regional coordination, increasing risk of unmanaged
cumulative impacts.
6.6.7 Residual Governance Risks and Priorities
Key Residual Risks
1. Fisheries sustainability: Incomplete integration of stock assessments
across provincial and transboundary scales; weak enforcement of
conservation measures; economic incentives for overfishing exceed
conservation incentives.
2. Coastal habitat loss: Marine protected area expansion slow (0.24% →
6% target by 2030); effectiveness limited by incomplete enforcement and
insufficient financing; integration of conservation with development
planning weak.
3. Pollution and water quality: Land-based pollution (industrial discharge,
agricultural runoff, urban wastewater) inadequately controlled; integration
of upstream (Mekong) and coastal/marine governance incomplete;
climate-driven saline intrusion exacerbating coastal water quality.
4. Transboundary risks: Shared fish stocks, migratory species (sea turtles,
seabirds), and transboundary pollution inadequately managed through
regional coordination; weak integration of Vietnam's national governance
with LME-scale arrangements.
5. Climate adaptation: Integration of climate governance (NDCs) with
coastal/marine management incomplete; provincial capacity for climate-
resilient planning uneven; critical adaptation investments (mangrove
restoration, seagrass bed recovery, coastal protection) under-financed.
Priority Governance Enhancements
To improve governance effectiveness and reduce residual risks, Vietnam
should prioritize:
1. Strengthen cross-sectoral integration: Establish binding inter-ministerial
coordination procedures; empower provincial ICZM committees with
authority and dedicated budgets; integrate development planning (ports,
aquaculture, tourism) with conservation objectives through mandatory
environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental
assessment with genuine stakeholder consultation.

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 2. Enhance vertical integration: Increase technical and financial support to
low-capacity provinces; standardize monitoring and reporting systems;
link provincial compliance with national targets to incentive mechanisms
(fiscal transfers, capacity support, recognition).
3. Deepen transboundary cooperation: Formalize shared stock
management arrangements with neighboring countries; establish joint
monitoring systems; coordinate pollution and climate adaptation
responses across Mekong Basin.
4. Institutionalize participation mechanisms: Move from project-dependent
to government-anchored community-based management; guarantee
participation rights in licensing, zoning, and protected area designation
decisions; establish independent grievance mechanisms; ensure
equitable gender and intergenerational participation.
5. Complete core policy instruments: Enact and operationalize Marine
Spatial Planning framework; finalize Climate Change Act; establish
comprehensive monitoring-to-adaptation feedback loops; develop
sustainable financing mechanisms (blue bonds, environmental trust
funds) for long-term conservation and enforcement.
6.7 Qualitative Synthesis
6.7.1 Architecture, Process, and Engagement
Viet Nam’s coastal and marine governance framework exhibits a duality: it
possesses robust "Good Governance" characteristics in its legal design yet
retains structural risks that reduce coherence and predictability during
implementation.
[Link] Architecture: Laws, Mandates, and Institutional Set-up
Strengths in Governance Design The architectural foundation has been
significantly strengthened through recent legal and institutional reforms:
1. Unified Legal Foundation: A consolidated legal basis now exists for
integrated management. The Law on Marine and Island Resources and
Environment (2015) provides the framework for integrated coastal
management (ICM), while the Law on Environmental Protection (2020)
modernizes pollution control through permitting and economic
instruments.
2. Dedicated Fisheries Governance: The Law on Fisheries (2017) provides
a specialized legal basis for sustainability, establishing mandates for
compliance (IUU control) and traceability that align with international
standards.
3. Spatial Framework: The adoption of the National Marine Spatial Planning
(MSP) (Resolution No. 139/2024/QH15) creates an overarching spatial
constitution. By design, this instrument guides all lower-level sector
plans, theoretically resolving conflicts between development and
conservation.

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 4. Institutional Consolidation: The establishment of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Environment (MAE) in 2025 represents a major
architectural improvement. By merging agriculture/fisheries (formerly
MARD) with environment/sea management (formerly MONRE), the
design reduces the historical fragmentation between "resource
exploitation" and "resource protection," placing climate change, disaster
preparedness, and marine economy under a single roof.
Structural Risks in Governance Design Despite these improvements, two
critical architectural flaws persist:
1. Persistent External Fragmentation: "Multi-actor governance" remains an
unavoidable reality. Critical drivers of marine pressure—including
maritime transport (Ministry of Transport), offshore energy (Ministry of
Industry and Trade), and maritime security (Ministry of National
Defence)—remain outside the MAE’s direct mandate. Consequently,
cross-sector coordination remains a core design requirement, not a
solved problem.
2. The Inspection Gap: While the mandate for management is unified, the
enforcement capacity is structurally limited. Public reporting on the
national marine environment (2016–2020) explicitly identifies the
absence of a dedicated specialized inspectorate for integrated marine
resource management as a binding constraint (MONRE, 2021). Without
a specialized force empowered to inspect across sectors (capable of
checking both fisheries gear and pollution discharge), enforcement risks
being inconsistent and lacking in deterrence.
[Link]. Process: Planning Cycles, Information Systems, and
Implementation Routines
Strengths in Governance Processes Viet Nam has established robust
procedural mechanisms for monitoring and assessment, increasingly aligning
with international standards.
• Institutionalized Analytical Reporting: The governance system now
supports periodic, evidence-based assessments. The National State of
Sea and Islands Environment Report (2016–2020) utilizes the DPSIR
(Drivers–Pressures–State–Impact–Response) framework. This indicates
maturity in governance process, moving beyond simple data collection to
an analytical approach that links monitoring results directly to risk framing
and policy responses (MONRE, 2021).
• Digitization of Compliance: Fisheries governance shows increasing
formalization through digital process tools. National authorities operate a
24/7 Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) to track disconnections and are
actively integrating e-traceability into port and landing routines. This
creates a continuous data stream for compliance, replacing sporadic
paper-based checks (Directorate of Fisheries, 2024).

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 • Targeted Investment Cycles: Implementation processes are supported
by dedicated capital investment cycles. Projects funded by development
partners ( World Bank) in coastal cities provide a structured operational
pathway for upgrading sanitation and wastewater infrastructure, ensuring
that pollution control planning translates into physical assets (World
Bank, 2024).
Process Vulnerabilities and Operational Fragility Despite clear high-level
designs, the practical execution of governance processes exhibits significant
fragility.
• Implementation Heterogeneity: Process efficiency varies drastically
across provinces, even within the same national project. For instance, in
the Coastal Cities Sustainable Environment Project, while three cities met
targets, Nha Trang faced major delays. These bottlenecks were linked to
site unavailability, land acquisition challenges, and safeguard compliance
issues (World Bank, 2024). This illustrates a systemic risk: the "process"
of clearing land often lags behind the "process" of mobilizing finance,
delaying environmental benefits.
• Regulatory Tooling Lags: There is a documented disconnect between the
issuance of mandates and the availability of enforcement tools. Public
reporting on the marine environment indicates that specific sanctioning
regulations and technical guidelines were still under development during
the reporting period. This "tooling lag" limits the ability of inspectors to
process violations efficiently, effectively stalling the enforcement cycle
(MONRE, 2021).
[Link]. Engagement: Participation, Stakeholder Roles, and Accountability
Strengths in Engagement Design The governance architecture provides a
strong statutory basis for stakeholder inclusion, moving beyond ad-hoc
consultation.
• Statutory Embedding: Participation is codified as a core legal principle.
The Law on Marine and Island Resources and Environment (2015)
explicitly frames community participation as a requisite component of
integrated management. Similarly, the Law on Environmental Protection
(2020) institutionalizes oversight roles for mass organizations,
embedding accountability directly into state policy.
• Structured Dialogue Platforms: Engagement is increasingly
operationalized through structured national–partner platforms. UNDP
reporting highlights the success of national dialogues involving fishers,
associations, and managers. These forums serve a critical function in
sharing knowledge on co-management replication and addressing
complex technical issues like fishing port management (UNDP, 2023).
Engagement Limitations and Governance Quality Despite robust legal design,
the quality and uniformity of engagement face systemic constraints.

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 • Institutional Unevenness: Engagement is not uniformly institutionalized.
As noted in the stakeholder analysis, participatory mechanisms are often
"project-dependent” promoted and sustained in pilot provinces with donor
support, but lacking the local capacity and financing for autonomous
replication elsewhere (UNDP, 2023).
• The "Transactional" Trap: In many sectors, engagement is constrained
by compliance-driven priorities. For example, in fisheries, interactions
between the state and stakeholders frequently focus on enforcement
(IUU controls, traceability checks) rather than co-production of
management measures. While necessary for legality, this transactional
approach can undermine perceived legitimacy if stakeholders feel they
are only "targets" of regulation rather than partners in governance.
6.7.2 Effective Governance Diagnosis
In the context of the National TDA, "Effective Governance" is assessed not by
the existence of laws, but by tangible results. Effectiveness is evaluated through
a three-tiered hierarchy: (i) Behavioral Change (compliance and enforcement);
(ii) Pressure Reduction (reduced loads/effort); and (iii) Environmental State
Improvement.
For Viet Nam, publicly available evidence is significantly stronger for
compliance processes than for ecosystem-state improvements. This reflects a
common governance reality where administrative outputs (inspections, VMS
tracking) are generated daily, while ecosystem variables (biomass, coral cover)
require long-term, spatially dense monitoring to attribute change.
[Link]. Pollution Control and Marine Environmental Quality
Evidence of Effectiveness: "Maintained Fairly Well" Official reporting suggests
that the governance system has succeeded in preventing broad-scale
degradation of nearshore waters.
• State Indicator: The Government’s public summary of the National
Marine Environment Report (2016–2020) concludes that overall
nearshore seawater quality was "maintained fairly well." Results from
multi-source monitoring points (nearshore and offshore) were broadly
within national quality standards.
• Governance Implication: This indicates that the outcome assessment is
anchored in actual monitoring evidence, providing a baseline of
effectiveness for general water quality management.
Evidence of Continuing Pressure: The "Hotspot" Reality Despite acceptable
averages, effectiveness is compromised by persistent localized failures.
• Localized Pollution: The same summary acknowledges pollution
episodes in specific high-pressure zones: aquaculture areas, river
mouths, and port clusters.

231
 • Source Attribution: It explicitly identifies aquaculture and coastal tourism
as high-impact marine sources, alongside land-based waste discharged
through river mouths—particularly near coastal cities.
• Emerging Risks: The report highlights rising risks from industrial
discharge incidents and oil spills, exacerbated by climate change. This
suggests that while "average" quality is maintained, the system struggles
to manage peak pressures in high-growth zones.
Spatial Pattern of Effectiveness The effectiveness gaps map directly to the
economic drivers identified:
• Gulf of Tonkin & Southeast Coast: Pollution hotspots correlate with river
mouths and large port/industrial clusters.
• South-Central Coast: Localized degradation is linked to bays and lagoons
with high tourism and aquaculture intensity.
[Link] Fisheries Sustainability and Compliance (IUU)
Evidence of Improving Systems: Behavioral Change Fisheries governance
shows the strongest evidence of behavioral transformation, driven by
digitization.
• Digital Compliance: National authorities report on the operation of a
continuous monitoring system for VMS disconnections, alongside
expanded training on electronic traceability. This represents a shift from
"paper-based" to "real-time" governance (Directorate of Fisheries, 2024).
• Positive Trends: Official communications report a decrease in IUU-
related violations compared to the previous period (2024), specifically
noting reductions in foreign water encroachments and VMS non-
compliance. While qualitative, this indicates a positive directional trend in
fleet behavior (Directorate of Fisheries, 2025).
The External Accountability Benchmark: The "Yellow Card" Despite these
improvements, effectiveness remains incomplete when judged against
international standards.
• Persistent Warning: Viet Nam has remained under the European
Commission’s "Yellow Card" since 2017. As of late 2025, official
communications frame this as a continuing challenge requiring high-level
political direction.
• Governance Implication: The persistence of the Yellow Card suggests
that while domestic inputs (laws, VMS) have improved, the
transboundary outcome (full assurance of legality) has not yet reached
the threshold required to lift the warning. However, the reported reduction
in foreign incursions strengthens the inference that compliance
improvements are beginning to reduce international conflict risks.

232
[Link] Climate Resilience and Adaptation Finance
Evidence of Institutional Prioritization The 2025 institutional consolidation
creates a robust design for resilience. By placing disaster preparedness,
climate change, and marine management under the Ministry of Agriculture and
Environment (MAE), the system theoretically aligns coastal risk management
with environmental protection.
The Finance-Policy Divergence However, a disconnect exists between policy
intent and financial reality. Public finance tracking indicates that the share of
government spending dedicated to climate change adaptation declined
between 2018 and 2020 (UNICEF, 2021).
• Effectiveness Risk: This serves as an early warning indicator. Long-term
coastal resilience cannot be achieved through institutional mergers
alone; it requires sustained, increasing investment in local adaptation
infrastructure. The decline in adaptation finance suggests a "Resource
Gap" that may undermine the effectiveness of the new institutional
arrangement.
[Link] Social Justice and Human Well-being Links
Outcome-Oriented Engagement Mechanisms Governance effectiveness for
human well-being is best evidenced where the state actively supports co-
management. UNDP (2023) reports structured dialogues focused on replicating
co-management models and improving the governance of ports and landing
sites.
• Governance Implication: These dialogues are not merely technical; they
are directly relevant to governance legitimacy. By involving small-scale
fishers in decisions about their immediate infrastructure, the system
builds social capital and secures livelihoods against displacement.
The Distributional Impacts of Compliance The push for modernization creates
distinct social risks.
• Market Access vs. Compliance Costs: Reforms such as VMS installation
and electronic traceability are essential for maintaining market access
(reducing conflict risks and securing export revenues). Indirectly, this
supports the macro-stability of the sector.
• Equity Concern: However, the distribution of these compliance costs can
be uneven. While large offshore vessels may absorb these costs, smaller
operators may face disproportionate burdens. Notably, Viet Nam-specific
quantitative evidence on the distributional impact of these reforms
(impact on net income of smallholders) is not publicly synthesized in the
reviewed sources. This represents a significant data gap for assessing
the social justice dimension of the "Blue Economy" transition (Directorate
of Fisheries, 2024; 2025).
Table 8. Governance Design vs. Effectiveness in Key Domains

233
Domain Governance Effectiveness Main Transboundary
Design Evidence Limitations Significance
Signals for Attribution

Marine Strong Legal Partial Data High. Litter and

Pollution Basis. Law on Success. Granularity. oil spill impacts
Control Environmental Overall Public move across
Protection seawater summaries borders via
(2020) + quality is provide limited ocean currents
National "maintained time-series and
Reporting fairly well," but data and lack international
Cycles + persistent sub-regional shipping routes.
Standards- hotspots exist disaggregation,
based in aquaculture making causal
assessment. zones, river attribution
mouths, and difficult.
ports

Fisheries Modernized Behavioral Ecological Critical. Directly

Governance Framework. Improvement. Data Gap. Lack affects shared
Fisheries Law Reported of published stocks,
(2017) + 24/7 reduction in national incursions into
VMS IUU-type indicators on foreign waters,
Monitoring + violations stock recovery and regional
Electronic (foreign (biomass) or compliance
Traceability incursions) catch-per-unit- expectations
Systems. compared to effort (CPUE) (EC Yellow
2024; improved in reviewed Card).
monitoring sources.
routines.

Coastal Investment Implementation Scale Medium/High.

Sanitation Pathways. of Fragility. Mismatch. City- Reduced
Clear project Progress is level project nutrient
pipelines exist spatially outcomes do discharges
for urban uneven. Delays not support water
pollution in cities like automatically quality in semi-
reduction Nha Trang equate to enclosed bays
illustrate national trend and the Gulf of
persistent improvements; Tonkin.
bottlenecks in benefits
land acquisition depend on
and long-term
safeguards. O&M.

234
 Climate Institutional Financial Outcome Gap. High. Coastal
Adaptation Alignment. Divergence. Expenditure hazards affect
2025 Merger Public shares track shared disaster
(MAE) spending "effort," not response
consolidates analysis "resilience." capacity and
climate, suggests the Local project- regional
disaster, and share of level evidence economic
marine funding for is required to stability.
management adaptation prove safety
under one actually improvements.
roof. declined
(2018–2020)
(UNICEF,
2021).

6.7.3 Cross-Cutting Constraints and Enabling Conditions

This subsection synthesizes the recurring factors that explain the divergence
between Governance Design (often strong) and Governance Effectiveness
(often uneven). It identifies the structural impediments that limit performance
and the enabling conditions that offer pathways for improvement.
[Link] Cross-Cutting Constraints
1. Structural Integration and Enforcement Limits Despite the 2025 institutional
consolidation, cross-sector integration remains structurally demanding. Marine
outcomes depend heavily on sectors—Transport, Industry, Defense—that
remain outside the mandate of the Ministry of Agriculture and Environment
(MAE). Furthermore, the official communication on marine environment
governance identifies a critical enforcement gap: the absence of a dedicated
specialized inspection force for integrated marine management. This limits the
state's ability to conduct comprehensive oversight across the full spectrum of
marine resources (MONRE, 2021).
2. Asymmetric Implementation Capacity Implementation performance is highly
variable across localities, even within standardized national investment
programs. The Coastal Cities Sustainable Environment Project serves as a key
indicator: while some cities progressed effectively, Nha Trang faced major
delays due to land acquisition and safeguard compliance challenges (World
Bank, 2024). This suggests that high-pressure growth zones (tourism hubs in
the South-Central Coast) face complex trade-offs that often overwhelm local
implementation capacity.
3. Evidence Deficits and Data Aggregation Risks While national reporting has
improved, public summaries provide limited disaggregated time-series
evidence at the sub-regional level. The reliance on provincial data submissions
for national reporting creates a "weakest link" risk: the quality of the national
assessment is constrained by the reporting completeness of the 28 coastal
provinces (CEM, 2025).

235
4. Fiscal Composition and the "Opex" Trap Public finance tracking reveals a
structural bias. While environmental spending exists, it is dominated by waste
management infrastructure (Capex). Conversely, spending on climate change
adaptation—which often requires recurrent operational expenditure (Opex) for
resilience—declined as a share of the total between 2018 and 2020 (UNICEF,
2021). This constrains the system's ability to fund the continuous "soft"
operations (monitoring, maintenance) required for effective governance.
5. The "Compliance Crowding-Out" Effect In fisheries, the urgent need to meet
strict external market requirements (the EC Yellow Card) creates a trade-off.
Resources are prioritized for enforcement and traceability to secure market
access, potentially "crowding out" broader Ecosystem-Based Management
(EBM) initiatives. The sustained focus on the Yellow Card indicates that this
compliance agenda will continue to dominate administrative bandwidth
(Directorate of Fisheries, 2025).
[Link] Enabling Conditions
1. The Spatial Governance Framework The adoption of the National Marine
Spatial Planning (MSP) (Resolution No. 139/2024/QH15) provides, for the first
time, a comprehensive framework to align lower-level sector plans. If
implemented with strong coordination, this is the primary mechanism to reduce
spatial conflict and increase investment predictability.
2. Institutional Consolidation (The MAE Merger) The 2025 merger places
integrated marine management, environment, fisheries, and climate/disaster
functions under a single ministry. Over time, this design should reduce the
transaction costs of coordination, allowing for more coherent policymaking
across the land-sea interface.
3. The Institutionalized Reporting Cycle Viet Nam has successfully delivered its
first National Marine Environment Report (2016–2020) and initiated the 2021–
2025 cycle. This regularity is a critical enabler, progressively improving data
consistency and establishing a baseline against which policy effectiveness can
be measured (CEM, 2025).
4. Digitization of Compliance The operationalization of VMS monitoring routines
and e-traceability systems represents a technological leap. These digital tools
reduce the cost of monitoring and are essential enabling conditions for reducing
IUU fishing behaviors in the vast maritime zones of the South China Sea
(Directorate of Fisheries, 2024).
5. External Leverage and Finance Targeted international finance (World Bank
sanitation investments) continues to provide a pathway for measurable pollution
reduction. Furthermore, stakeholder dialogue processes supported by
international partners (UNDP) provide essential channels for strengthening
legitimacy, particularly in small-scale fisheries management.
6.8 Recommended Priority Actions
The priority actions below address the principal governance risks identified
earlier: (i) limited transboundary integration at Large Marine Ecosystem (LME)

236
scale (as indicated by TWAP), (ii) uneven provincial implementation capacity,
(iii) incomplete outcome evidence for pollution and ecosystem states, and (iv)
persistent compliance pressures in fisheries, including IUU-related risks
(Fanning et al., 2015; Directorate of Fisheries, 2024; European Commission,
2017). The actions are framed as measures within Viet Nam’s national
mandate, while also supporting stronger regional cooperation in the South
China Sea and Gulf of Thailand contexts.
6.8.1 Strengthen cross-sectoral and multi-level integration
Priority 1. Translate national marine spatial planning into operational cross-
sector rules and routines.
The adoption of national marine spatial planning (MSP) provides an integrating
framework at national level (National Assembly of Viet Nam, 2024).
Implementation priorities could include:
• An inter-ministerial implementation protocol that links national MSP to
sector decisions affecting marine space (ports and shipping, fisheries,
tourism, coastal infrastructure, conservation). This would operationalize
MSP as a conflict-reduction instrument rather than a standalone planning
document.
• Provincial alignment guidance specifying how coastal provinces
incorporate national MSP into provincial planning, licensing conditions,
and inspection priorities, with explicit attention to subregional hotspots
(port clusters in the Gulf of Tonkin and Southeast Coast; tourism bays
and lagoons in the Central and South-Central Coast; mixed fisheries–
aquaculture systems on the Southwest Coast).
Priority 2. Strengthen land–sea integration for pollution control through shared
planning and shared data.
The Law on Environmental Protection establishes a multi-level environmental
monitoring system and assigns monitoring and reporting responsibilities to
central and provincial authorities. The Law on Marine and Island Resources and
Environment also assigns responsibilities for marine data systems and
reporting across ministries and coastal provinces. Building on these mandates,
priority actions could include:
• A common coastal water-quality and pollution-load reporting template is
used across coastal provinces to improve comparability and trend
tracking, aligned with the national marine environment reporting cycle.
• A joint land–sea pollution “pressure map” (river mouths, ports,
aquaculture zones, tourism hotspots) that links monitoring outputs to
provincial inspection planning and targeted investment decisions.
Priority 3. Clarify coordination arrangements between MAE and other ministries
that remain central to marine outcomes.
The creation of the Ministry of Agriculture and Environment consolidates
several key lands–sea drivers (environment, sea–island administration,

237
fisheries). However, effective implementation continues to depend on
structured coordination with transport/port authorities and maritime
enforcement forces. Priority actions include:
• Standard operating procedures (SOPs) for information exchange and
case coordination among MAE agencies, provincial authorities, and
maritime enforcement forces for: (i) environmental violations in maritime
zones, (ii) pollution incidents, and (iii) fisheries violations where multiple
agencies may have sanctioning jurisdictions.
• A shared enforcement reporting dashboard (administrative cases,
inspections, sanctions) to reduce duplication, support consistent
deterrence, and enable cross-province comparability at subregional
scale.
6.8.2 Improve legal and policy coherence
Priority 1. Strengthen regulatory coherence at the land–sea interface for
pollution control. Official reporting from the 2016–2020 national marine
environment assessment highlights persistent constraints in oversight and
enforcement for integrated marine environmental protection. Priority actions
include:
• Review implementing regulations and standards applicable to coastal
discharges and nearshore water quality. The objective is to ensure that
sector rules for key sources (industry, aquaculture, tourism facilities,
ports) align with national environmental requirements and are
enforceable at provincial level.
• Clarify enforcement pathways and evidentiary guidance for marine-
related environmental violations in maritime zones. This should align
administrative sanctions under the environmental penalty decree with the
operational responsibilities of relevant authorities and forces.
Priority 2. Reduce fragmentation and improve consistency in fisheries
compliance policy tools. Fisheries enforcement in Viet Nam involves multiple
sanctioning authorities, while compliance systems rely on vessel monitoring
systems (VMS) and traceability processes. Priority actions include:
• Issue unified operational guidance to harmonize case handling and
penalty application across sanctioning authorities for core IUU-related
violations (VMS disconnection, fishing in restricted areas, port
documentation). This would improve predictability and deterrence.
• Align domestic fisheries policy tools with accepted international
disciplines (UNFSA obligations and port-based controls). The focus
should be on practical instruments for shared and migratory stocks and
for transboundary supply chains.
Priority 3. Align marine litter instruments across upstream and downstream
control measures. Viet Nam has adopted a national action plan on marine
plastic debris and has introduced extended producer responsibility (EPR)

238
through environmental law and its implementing decree. Priority actions
include:
• Develop operational guidance linking EPR to coastal leakage reduction,
including transparent reporting on collection and recycling outcomes in
coastal provinces with high tourism and port activity.
• Conduct consistency checks between marine litter actions and provincial
solid waste/wastewater planning to avoid parallel plans that do not
reinforce each other and to strengthen implementation.
6.8.3 Strengthening provincial implementation capacity
Priority 1. Establish a simple national benchmarking approach for
implementation capacity across coastal provinces.
A recurring constraint is the absence of consolidated, comparable indicators on
enforcement effort, monitoring frequency, and staffing across coastal provinces
(MONRE, 2021). A practical priority action is to establish a limited national
indicator set, reported annually by coastal provinces, for example:
• frequency and parameters of coastal water monitoring.
• number of inspections in priority coastal sectors.
• number of administrative cases related to marine pollution and fisheries
violations.
• patrol days/hours (by responsible force, where reportable);
• operational status of wastewater and solid waste infrastructure relevant
to coastal discharges.
This benchmarking can be anchored in existing reporting mandates under
environmental and marine laws.
Priority 2. Target technical assistance and training based on subregional
pressure profiles. Because pressure profiles differ across subregions, capacity-
building measures should be tailored accordingly:
• Gulf of Tonkin and Southeast Coast (South China Sea): strengthen port
and industrial compliance monitoring, spill-readiness interfaces, and
waste control systems linked to urban–industrial growth corridors.
• Central Coast and South-Central Coast (South China Sea): strengthen
monitoring and permitting compliance in bays and lagoons where tourism
and aquaculture pressures are documented as localized pollution drivers
(MONRE, 2021).
• Southwest Coast (Gulf of Thailand): strengthen fisheries compliance
coordination (including port and border-enforcement interfaces) and
integrate aquaculture effluent controls with livelihood considerations.
Priority 3. Strengthening provincial project execution capacity for pollution-
reduction infrastructure.
Investment effectiveness depends on local delivery capacity. Experience from

239
the World Bank coastal sanitation project indicates that implementation delays
can occur due to land acquisition/site clearance and safeguards compliance
challenges, even where financing is available (World Bank, 2024). Priority
actions include:
• Strengthen provincial project preparation and safeguards capacity for
wastewater and sanitation investments in coastal cities, including
standardized mitigation and consultation procedures under
environmental law.
• Strengthen operations and maintenance (O&M) planning and financing
for completed systems to ensure that investments translate into
sustained reductions in coastal pollutant loads.
Priority 4. Consolidate fisheries MCS technical capacity and data systems at
provincial level.
Official fisheries reporting describes a 24/7 monitoring approach for VMS
disconnections and ongoing e-traceability capacity building. Priority actions
include:
• Provincial VMS follow-up protocols with defined response times and clear
handover rules among fisheries authorities, border forces, and port
management boards.
• Digital traceability training and support for fishers, ports, and processors
in high-risk provinces to reduce compliance gaps and transaction.
6.8.4. Enhance inclusive participation and equity
Priority 1. Institutionalize community-based fisheries co-management where
conditions allow, using Fisheries Law provisions.
Viet Nam’s Fisheries Law provides a formal basis for co-management
organizations to be recognized, granted management rights in a defined area,
and engaged in local monitoring and protection. Priority actions include:
• Replication through provincial co-management plans where evidence
indicates feasibility and stakeholder demand, using documented
approaches supported by structured dialogue and technical assistance.
• Clear guidance on roles and operating arrangements, including
patrol/monitoring responsibilities and coordination protocols between co-
management groups and competent authorities. This helps avoid
informal arrangements that lack legal standing.
Priority 2. Strengthen transparency and feedback channels already provided
under environmental law.
The Law on Environmental Protection includes provisions on consultation
(including within EIA processes) and responsibilities to receive and respond to
community reports and recommendations through online systems. Priority
actions include:

240
 • Standardized disclosure and consultation practice for coastal projects
with marine impacts (ports, coastal tourism infrastructure, aquaculture
clusters, coastal industrial zones), including clear documentation of how
public comments are addressed.
• A functional coastal grievance and response channel linked to provincial
environmental authorities, with routine reporting on response times and
resolution outcomes.
Priority 3. Address distributional considerations explicitly within compliance
programmes, where feasible.
Fisheries compliance reforms (VMS and traceability) may impose uneven costs
across fleet segments. Viet Nam-specific public evidence on distributional
impacts is limited in the sources used for this NTDA. A practical priority action
is:
• Routine collection and reporting of participation and compliance costs by
fleet segment and community, including (where feasible) sex-
disaggregated participation in consultations and co-management bodies.
This is framed as a data improvement measure to identify vulnerable
groups and reduce unintended inequities, rather than as an assessment
of current outcomes.
6.8.5 Sustainable financing and PPP approaches
Priority 1. Improve the visibility of coastal/marine-relevant public spending
through budget tagging and tracking.
Public spending evidence indicates a strong emphasis on solid waste and
wastewater management within environment and climate spending, while
adaptation spending represented a smaller share and declined over 2018–2020
(UNICEF, 2021). Priority actions include:
• Introduce a marine-relevant expenditure tag within existing budget
classifications (environmental monitoring, enforcement, wastewater,
solid waste, coastal resilience). This would improve transparency and
performance tracking and help identify funding gaps, particularly for
monitoring and enforcement.
• Track operations and maintenance (O&M) budgets separately for
wastewater and solid-waste systems serving coastal cities and tourism
hubs, given that O&M is a common determinant of sustained outcomes.
Priority 2. Strengthen economic instruments and producer responsibility for
marine litter reduction. Viet Nam has a national action plan on marine plastic
debris and EPR-related measures under environmental law and its
implementing regulations. Priority actions include:
• Link EPR performance reporting to leakage-risk areas (tourism centres,
ports, river mouths) to better connect upstream financing with
downstream marine litter outcomes.

241
 • Review revenue instruments and incentives (including environmental
taxes), with attention to whether revenues support waste systems and
enforcement that are material to marine outcomes.
Priority 3. Use PPP and blended finance selectively for bankable coastal
services.
The Law on Public–Private Partnership Investment provides a legal pathway for
PPPs. Evidence from fisheries dialogue processes suggest PPP mechanisms
are not yet well established for recurring fishing port and landing-site
management challenges (UNDP, 2023). Priority actions include:
• Pilot PPP models for port reception and waste services where revenue
and service-payment structures are feasible, supported by clear
performance standards and monitoring arrangements.
• Deploy blended finance and green capital market instruments for
wastewater, sanitation, and climate-resilient coastal infrastructure,
building on emerging green and sustainability bond frameworks
described in World Bank technical assistance documentation.
6.8.6 Regional and transboundary cooperation priorities
TWAP indicates very low integration for both the South China Sea and Gulf of
Thailand LMEs, even where engagement levels are relatively high (Fanning et
al., 2015). Regional priority actions therefore focus on strengthening operational
cooperation by connecting existing arrangements into more coherent routines.
Priority 1. Harmonise monitoring and reporting for marine pollution and marine
litter through existing regional platforms.
Viet Nam participates in regional seas cooperation under COBSEA and has
long-standing engagement with PEMSEA processes relevant to integrated
coastal management. Priority actions include:
• Agree a shared core set of indicators for coastal water quality and marine
litter that enables cross-country reporting and comparability, aligned with
national monitoring and reporting cycles.
• Conduct joint technical exchanges on source-to-sea approaches for
priority hotspots (river mouths, ports, tourism bays), supporting
comparable datasets and more coordinated prevention measures.
Priority 2. Strengthen transboundary fisheries cooperation through treaty-based
and regional mechanisms.
Viet Nam’s accession to UNFSA strengthens the international legal basis for
cooperation on highly migratory and straddling stocks. Port-based controls are
supported by PSMA principles and mechanisms. Priority actions include:
• Establish information-exchange protocols on port and vessel compliance
(alerts on VMS issues, port inspection results, traceability concerns)
through bilateral and regional channels where feasible.

242
 • Focus cooperation in boundary and high-risk areas, including the Gulf of
Tonkin where a bilateral fisheries cooperation agreement exists.
• Promote technical alignment and capacity sharing via SEAFDEC on
monitoring approaches and data compatibility.
Priority 3. Improve transboundary incident preparedness for shipping-related
risks.
Shipping corridors in both LMEs create shared risks, including oil spills, ship
waste, and invasive species. Viet Nam has adopted an implementation plan for
ballast water management through a Prime Minister decision, providing an
operational policy tool in this area. Priority actions include:
• Regional exchange on ballast water compliance and inspection capacity
in major ports to reduce invasive species risks.
• Coordinate marine pollution incident response exercises (where
cooperative frameworks exist), including protocols for notification and
mutual assistance that are consistent with national mandates.
Priority 4. Align ASEAN and wider regional cooperation with national priorities
on marine litter and coastal resilience.
ASEAN platforms provide a channel for shared agenda-setting on coastal and
marine environment issues. Priority actions include:
• Connect Viet Nam’s marine plastic action plan to regional initiatives
through comparable indicators and shared learning on implementation
tools.
• Link coastal resilience priorities with shared disaster risk considerations,
particularly where extreme events can trigger pollution releases and
disrupt fisheries and port operations.

243
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